i cng v nm mc

Module by: Nguyn Vn B. E-mail the author

User rating (How does the rating system work?)
Ratings
Ratings allow you to judge the quality of modules. If other users have
ranked the module then its average
rating is displayed below. Ratings are calculated on a scale from one star
(Poor) to five stars (Excellent).
How to rate a module
Hover over the star that corresponds to the rating you wish to assign. Click
on the star to add your rating.
Your rating should be based on the quality of the content. You must have
an account and be logged in to rate
content.
:
PoorFairOKGoodExcellent
(0 ratings)(Login required)

Summary:
Nm mc (fungus, mushroom) l vi sinh vt chn hch, th tn (thalophyte), t bo
khng c dip lc t, sng d dng (hoi sinh, k sinh, cng sinh), vch t bo cu to
ch yu l chitin, c hay khng c celuloz v mt s thnh phn khc c hm lng thp.
Nm hc (Mycology) c khai sinh bi nh thc vt hc ngi tn l Pier Antonio
Micheli (1729) qua ti liu cng b ging cy l (Nova Plantarum Genera) nhng theo
Gio s Ekriksson Gunnan (1978) th ngi c cng nghin cu su v nm mc li l
Elias Fries (1794 - 1874).
Theo Elizabeth Tootyll (1984) nm mc c khong 5.100 ging v 50.000 loi c m
t, tuy nhin, c tnh c trn 100.000 n 250.000 loi nm hin din trn tri t.
Nhiu loi nm mc c kh nng k sinh trn nhiu k ch nh ng vt, thc vt, c
bit trn con ngi, cy trng, vt nui, sn phm sau thu hoch cha hoc qua ch
bin, bo qun. Mt s l tc nhn gy bnh, lm h cc thit b thy tinh bo qun
khng tt nhng cng c nhiu loi c ch nh tng hp ra acit hu c, thuc khng sinh,

vitamin, kch thch t tng trng thc vt c a vo sn xut cng nghip v c

mt s nm c dng lm i tng nghin cu v di truyn hc.

Hnh dng, kch thc, cu to ca nm mc

Hnh dng v kch thc
Mt s t nm th n bo c hnh trng (yeast=nm men), a s c hnh si
(filamentous fungi=nm si), si c ngn vch (a bo) hay khng c ngn vch (n
bo). Si nm thng l mt ng hnh tr di c kch thc ln nh khc nhau ty loi.
ng knh ca si nm thng t 3-5m, c khi n 10m, thm ch n 1mm. Chiu
di ca si nm c th ti vi chc centimet. Cc si nm pht trin chiu di theo kiu
tng trng ngn (Hnh 1.1). Cc si nm c th phn nhnh v cc nhnh c th li
phn nhnh lin tip to thnh h si nm (mycelium) kh sinh x x nh bng. Trn mi
trng c v trn mt s c cht trong t nhin, bo t nm, t bo nm hoc mt on
si nm c th pht trin thnh mt h si nm c hnh dng nht nh gi l khun lc
nm (Hnh 1.2)

Hnh 1Hnh 1 (graphics1.jpg)

Hnh 1.1 Si nm v cu to
vch t bo si nm
(theo Samson v ctv., 1995)

Hnh 2Hnh 2 (graphics2.jpg)

Hnh 1.2. Mt s dng khun lc nm (theo Samson v ctv., 1995)

Cu to
T bo nm c cu trc tng t nh nhng t bo vi sinh vt chn hch khc c m t
v trnh by nh Hnh 1.3

Hnh 3Hnh 3 (graphics3.jpg)

Hnh 1.3 Cu to t bo nh si nm Fusarium (theo Howard R J & Heist J R., 1979)

(Ch thch: MT: vi ng, M: ty th, SC: b Golgi, V: bng(ti) nh, P: mng sinh cht 4
lp)
Vch t bo nm cu to bi vi si chitin v c hoc khng c celluloz. Chitin l thnh
phn chnh ca vch t bo hu ht cc loi nm tr nhm Oomycetina. Nhng vi si
chitin c hnh thnh nh vo enzim chitin syntaz (Hnh 1.4).
***SORRY, THIS MEDIA TYPE IS NOT SUPPORTED.***
Hnh 1.4. Con ng tng hp chitin
T bo cht ca t bo nm cha mng ni mc (endoplasmic reticulum), khng bo
(vacuoles), ty th (mitochondria) v ht d tr (glycogen v lipid), c bit cu trc ty th
t bo nm tng t nh cu trc ty th t bo thc vt. Ngoi ra, t bo nm cn c
rib th (ribosomes) v nhng th khc cha r chc nng.
T bo nm khng c dip lc t, mt vi loi nm c ri rc trong t bo mt loi sc t
c trng m Matsueda v ctv. (1978) u tin ly trch c v gi l neocercosporin
(C29H26O10) c mu tm nm Cercosporina kikuchi.
T bo nm khng nht thit c mt nhn m thng c nhiu nhn. Nhn ca t bo
nm c hnh cu hay bu dc vi mng i phospholipid v protein dy 0,02 m, bn
trong mng nhn cha ARN v ADN.
Dinh dng v tng trng ca nm mc
Hu ht cc loi nm mc khng cn nh sng trong qu trnh sinh trng. Tuy nhin, c
mt s loi li cn nh sng trong qu trnh to bo t (Buller, 1950). Nhit ti thiu
cn cho s pht trin l t 2oC n 5oC, ti ho t 22oC n 27oC v nhit ti a m
chng c th chu ng c l 35oC n 40oC, c bit c mt s t loi c th sng st

OoC v 60oC. Ni chung, nm mc c th pht trin tt mi trng acit (pH=6)

nhng pH ti ho l 5 - 6,5, mt s loi pht trin tt pH < 3 v mt s t pht trin
pH > 9 (Ingold, 1967).
Oxi cng cn cho s pht trin ca nm mc v chng l nhm hiu kh bt buc v s
pht trin s ngng khi khng c oxi v d nhin nc l yu t cn thit cho s pht
trin.
Theo Alexopoulos v Minns (1979) cho bit nm mc c th pht trin lin tc trong 400
nm hay hn nu cc iu kin mi trng u thch hp cho s pht trin ca chng.
Nm mc khng c dip lc t nn chng cn c cung cp dinh dng t bn ngoi
(nhm d dng), mt s sng st v pht trin nh kh nng k sinh (sng k sinh trong
c th ng vt hay thc vt) hay hoi sinh (saprophytes) trn xc b hu c, cng c
nhm nm r hay a y sng cng sinh vi nhm thc vt nht nh.
Theo Alexopoulos v Mims (1979) cho bit ngun dng cht cn thit cho nm c
xp theo th t sau: C, O, H, N P, K, Mg, S, B, Mn, Cu, Zn, Fe, Mo v Ca. Cc nguyn
t ny hin din trong cc ngun thc n v c n gin nh glucoz, mui ammonium...
s c nm hp thu d dng, nu t ngun thc n hu c phc tp nm s sn sinh v
tit ra bn ngoi cc loi enzim thch hp ct cc i phn t ny thnh nhng phn t
nh d hp thu vo trong t bo.
Sinh sn ca nm mc
Ni chung, nm mc sinh sn di 2 hnh thc: v tnh v hu tnh. Trong sinh sn v
tnh, nm hnh thnh bo t m khng qua vic gim phn, tri li trong sinh sn hu tnh
nm hnh thnh 2 loi giao t c v ci.
Sinh sn v tnh
The Alexopoulos v Mims (1979), nm mc sinh sn v tnh th hin qua 2 dng: sinh
sn dinh dng bng on si nm pht trin di ra hoc phn nhnh v sinh sn bng
cc loi bo t.
Mt s loi nm c nhng bo t c trng nh sau:
a. Bo t ti (bo t bc)(sporangiospores): cc bo t ng (zoospores) (Hnh 1.5 a, b,
c) c nm Saprolegnia v bo t ti (sporangiopores) nm Mucor, Rhizopus (Hnh
1.6) cha trong ti bo t ng (zoosporangium) v ti bo t (sporangium) c mang
bi cung ti bo t (sporangiophores).

Hnh 4Hnh 4 (graphics4.jpg)

Hnh 1.5 Bo t ng (theo Samson v ctv., 1995)

***SORRY, THIS MEDIA TYPE IS NOT SUPPORTED.***
Hnh 1.6. Bo t ti (b) Mucor circinelloides, a. cung bo t ti
(theo Samson v ctv., 1995)
b. Bo t nh (conidium): cc bo t nh khng c ti bao bc ging nm
Aspergillus, Penicillium, ... Hnh dng, kch thc, mu sc, trang tr v cch sp xp ca
bo t nh thay i t ging ny sang ging khc v c dng lm tiu chun phn
loi nm.
Cung bo t nh dng bnh c th khng phn nhnh nh Aspergillus (Hnh 1.7) hay
dng th phn nhnh nh Penicillium (Hnh 1.8). Bo t nh hnh thnh t nhng cm
(cluster) trn nhng cung bo t nh Trichoderma (Hnh 1.9).
Hnh 5Hnh 5 (graphics5.png)
Hnh 3.3. Cc kiu cung bo t nh ca Aspergillus. a. 1 lp, b. 2 lp, c. phin, d. tia, e.
t (theo Samson v ctv., 1995)
Hnh 6Hnh 6 (graphics6.png)
Hnh 1.8. Bo t nh v cung bo t nh Penicillium chrysogenum (theo Samson v
ctv. 1995)
***SORRY, THIS MEDIA TYPE IS NOT SUPPORTED.***
Hnh 1.9. Cung bo t phn nhnh Trichoderma. a. T. viride, b. T. koningii,
c. T. polysporum, d. T. citrinoviride (theo Samson v ctv. 1995)
ging Microsporum v Fusarium, c hai loi bo t nh: loi nh, ng nht gi l
tiu bo t nh (microconidia) (Hnh 1.10 a) , loi ln, a dng gi l i bo t nh
(macroconidia) (Hnh 1.11 b)
Hnh 7Hnh 7 (graphics7.png)
c. Bo t tn (Thallospores): trong nhiu loi nm men v nm mc c hnh thc sinh sn
c bit gi l bo t tn. Bo t tn c th c nhng loi sau:

1. Chi hnh thnh t t bo nm men: Cryptococcus v Candida l nhng loi bo t

tn n gin nht, gi l bo t chi (blastospores)
2. Ging Ustilago c nhng si nm c xut hin t bo c vch dy gi l bo t vch
dy cn gi l bo t o (chlamydospores) (Hnh 1. 11 c). V tr ca bo t vch dy si
nm c th khc nhau ty loi.
3. Ging Geotrichum v Oospora c si nm ko thng, vung hay ch nht v t bo
vch dy gi l bo t t (arthrospores) (Hnh 1.12)

Hnh 8Hnh 8 (graphics8.jpg)

Hnh 1.12 Bo t t (theo Samson v ctv.

1995)
Sinh sn hu tnh
Sinh sn hu tnh xy ra khi c s kt hp gia hai giao t c v ci (gametes) c tri
qua giai on gim phn. Qu trnh sinh sn hu tnh tri qua 3 giai on:
* Tip hp t bo cht (plasmogamy) vi s ha hp 2 t bo trn (protoplast) ca 2
giao t
* Tip hp nhn (karyogamy) vi s ha hp 2 nhn ca 2 t bo giao t to mt
nhn nh bi (diploid)
* Gim phn (meiosis) giai on ny hnh thnh 4 bo t n bi (haploid) qua s
gim phn t 2n NST (nh bi) thnh n NST (n bi).
Theo Machlis (1966) tt c cc giai on trn k c giai on to c quan sinh dc c
iu khin bi mt s kch thch t sinh dc (sexual hormones).
C quan sinh dc ca nm mc c tn l ti giao t (gametangia) c 2 loi: c quan sinh
dc c gi l ti c (antheridium) cha cc giao t c (antherozoids), cn c quan
sinh dc ci gi ti non (oogonium) cha giao t ci hay non, khi c s kt hp gia
giao t c v non s to thnh bo t, bo t di ng c gi l bo t ng
(zoospores).
Kiu hai si nm c gii tnh c v ci tip hp nhau sinh ra bo t c tn l tip hp t
(myxospores), tip hp t l c trng ca nhm nm Myxomycetes (Hnh 1.13).
Bo t sinh dc khi hnh thnh c dng ti gi l nang (ascus) v ti ny cha nhng bo
t gi l bo t nang (ascospores). Nang v bo t nang l c trng ca nhm
Ascomycetes (Hnh 1.14) .

Trong nhm Basidiomycetes, 4 bo t pht trin phn tn cng ca cu trc th qu gi

l m (basidium) v bo t c gi l bo t m (basidiospores) (Hnh 1.15)
Nhm Nm bt ton (Deuteromycetes=Deuteromycotina)) gm nhng nm cho n nay
cha bit r kiu sinh sn hu tnh ca chng.
***SORRY, THIS MEDIA TYPE IS NOT SUPPORTED.***
Hnh 3.2.1 Cc kiu hnh thnh tip hp t Mucoraceae. a-f. Rhizopus.
g-h. Zygorhynchus, i. Absidia, j. Phycomyces (theo Talbot, 1995)
Hnh 9Hnh 9 (graphics9.jpg)
Hnh 1.13. Bo t nang Saccharomyces cerevisiae (theo Samson v
ctv. 1995)

Hnh 10Hnh 10 (graphics10.jpg)

Hnh 1.14. Cc kiu bo t m. a. Astrea, b. Bovista, c. Agaricales,

d. Clavulina, e. Dacrymyces, f. Sistotrema, g. Repetobasidium, h. Xenasma,
i-n. bo t m c vch, n. Puccinia. (theo Kreisel, 1995)
V tr v vai tr ca nm mc
Nm mc c nh hng xu n cuc sng con ngi mt cch trc tip bng cch lm
h hng, gim phm cht lng thc, thc phm trc v sau thu hoch, trongch bin,
bo qun. Nm mc cn gy h hi vt dng, qun o... hay gy bnh cho ngi, ng
vt khc v cy trng. Tuy nhin, cc qui trnh ch bin thc phm c lin quan n ln
men u cn n s c mt ca vi sinh vt trong c nm mc. Nm mc cng gip
tng hp nhng loi khng sinh (penicillin, griseofulvin), acit hu c (acit oxalic, citric,
gluconic...), vitamin (nhm B, riboflavin), kch thch t (gibberellin, auxin, cytokinin),
mt s enzim v cc hot cht khc dng trong cng nghip thc phm v y, dc ...
c s dng rng ri trn th gii. Ngoi ra, nm cn gi vai tr quan trng trong vic
phn gii cht hu c tr li mu m cho t trng.

Mt s loi thuc ging Rhizopus, Mucor, Candida gy bnh trn ngi, Microsporum
gy bnh trn ch, Aspergillus fumigatus gy bnh trn chim; Saprolegnia v Achlya gy
bnh nm k sinh trn c. Nhng loi nm gy bnh trn cy trng nh Phytophthora,
Fusarium, Cercospora.... c bit nm Aspergilus flavus v Aspergillus fumigatus pht
trin trn ng cc trong iu kin thun li sinh ra c t aflatoxin.
Bn cnh tc ng gy hi, mt s loi nm mc rt hu ch trong sn xut v i sng
nh nm n, nm dc phm (nm linh chi, Penicillium notatum tng hp nn penicillin,
Penicillium griseofulvum tng hp nn griseofulvin...), nm Aspergillus niger tng hp
cc acit hu c nh acit citric, acit gluconic, nm Gibberella fujikuroi tng hp kch thch
t gibberellin v mt s loi nm thuc nhm Phycomycetina hay Deuteromycetina c
th k sinh trn cn trng gy hi qua c th dng lm thin ch dit cn trng. Ngoi
ra, nhng loi nm sng cng sinh vi thc vt nh Nm r (Mycorrhizae), gip cho r
cy ht c nhiu hn lng phn v c kh tan v cung cp cho nhu cu pht trin ca
cy trng.
Nm cn l i tng nghin cu v di truyn hc nh nm Neurospora crassa, nm
Physarum polycephalum dng tng hp ADN v nhng nghin cu khc.
Phn loi nm mc
u tin, nm c sp xp theo tin ha nh m hnh di y: (Hnh 1.15)
Dayal (1975) lit k 7 c tnh phn loi nm mc nh sau:
1. c im hnh thi
2. k ch c th
3. c im sinh l
4. c im t bo hc v di truyn hc
5. c im khng huyt thanh
6. c tnh sinh ha chung
7. phn loi s hc

Hnh 11Hnh 11 (graphics11.jpg)

Hnh 1.15 Cy di truyn pht sinh ngnh cho thy nm mc c mi lin h gn vi

thc vt (PLANTAE) v ng vt (ANIMALIA) (theo Hawkswort v
ctv., 1995)

Theo Gwynne-Vaughan v Barnes (1937) chia nm thnh 3 lp chnh: Phycomycetes,

Ascomycetes v Basidiomycetes da trn khun ty c vch ngn ngang hay khng v c
im ca bo t. Theo Stevenson (1970) phn loi nm trong ngnh Mycota gm 6
lp: Chytridiomycetes, Oomycetes, Zygomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes, v
Deuteromycetes. Gn y, Kurashi (1985) nhn mnh n tm quan trng ca h thng
ubiquinon trong phn loi nm mc cng nh ng dng k thut sinh hc phn t
kho st a dng di truyn v qua mi lin h di truyn phn loi li cho chnh xc hn.

Spore
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the 2008 game, see Spore (2008 video game). For other uses, see Spore
(disambiguation).
This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (July 2007)

Spores produced in a sporic life cycle.

In biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving
for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles
of many bacteria, plants, algae, fungi and some protozoans.[1] A chief difference between
spores and seeds as dispersal units is that spores have very little stored food resources
compared with seeds.
Spores are usually haploid and unicellular and are produced by meiosis in the sporangium
by the sporophyte. Once conditions are favorable, the spore can develop into a new
organism using mitotic division, producing a multicellular gametophyte, which
eventually goes on to produce gametes.
Two gametes fuse to create a new sporophyte. This cycle is known as alternation of
generations, but a better term is "biological life cycle", as there may be more than one

phase and so it cannot be a direct alternation. Haploid spores produced by mitosis (known
as mitospores) are used by many fungi for asexual reproduction.
Many ferns, especially those adapted to dry conditions, produce diploid spores. This form
of asexual reproduction is called apogamy. It is a form of apomixis.
Spores are the units of asexual reproduction, because a single spore develops into a new
organism. By contrast, gametes are the units of sexual reproduction, as two gametes need
to fuse to create a new organism.

Contents
[hide]

1 Definition
2 Classification
o 2.1 By spore-producing structure
o 2.2 By function
o 2.3 By origin during life cycle
o 2.4 By motility
3 Anatomy
o 3.1 Trilete spores
4 Dispersal
5 See also
6 References

7 Gallery

[edit] Definition
The term spore derives from the ancient Greek word spora, meaning "seed,
sowing," related to sporos, "sowing," and speirein, "to sow."
In common parlance, the difference between a "spore" and a "gamete" (both together
called gonites) is that a spore will germinate and develop into a sporeling, while a gamete
needs to combine with another gamete before developing further. However, the terms are
somewhat interchangeable when referring to gametes.
A chief difference between spores and seeds as dispersal units is that spores have little
food storage compared with seeds, and thus require more favorable conditions in order to
successfully germinate. (This is not without its exceptions, however: many orchid seeds,
although multicellular, are microscopic and lack endosperm, and spores of some fungi in
the Glomeromycota commonly exceed 300 m in diameter.)[2] Seeds, therefore, are more
resistant to harsh conditions and require less energy to start mitosis. Spores are produced
in large numbers to increase the chance of a spore surviving in a number of notable
examples.

[edit] Classification
Spores can be classified in several ways:

[edit] By spore-producing structure

Fresh snow partially covers Rough-stalked Feather-moss (Brachythecium rutabulum),

growing on a thinned hybrid black poplar (Populus x canadensis). The last stage of the
moss lifecycle is shown, where the sporophytes are visible before dispersion of their
spores: the calyptra (1) is still attached to the capsule (2). The tops of the gametophytes
(3) can be discerned as well. Inset shows the surrounding, black poplars growing on
sandy loam on the bank of a kolk, with the detail area marked.

Asci of Morchella elata, containing ascospores

In plants, microspores, and in some cases megaspores, are formed from all four products
of meiosis.

In contrast, in many seed plants and heterosporous ferns, only a single product of meiosis
will become a megaspore (macrospore), with the rest degenerating.
In fungi and fungus-like organisms, spores are often classified by the structure in which
meiosis and spore production occurs. Since fungi are often classified according to their
spore-producing structures, these spores are often characteristic of a particular taxon of
the fungi.

Sporangiospores: spores produced by a sporangium in many fungi such as

zygomycetes.
Zygospores: spores produced by a zygosporangium, characteristic of
zygomycetes.
Ascospores: spores produced by an ascus, characteristic of ascomycetes.
Basidiospores: spores produced by a basidium, characteristic of basidiomycetes.
Aeciospores: spores produced by a aecium in some fungi such as rusts or smuts.
Urediospores: spores produced by a uredinium in some fungi such as rusts or
smuts.
Teliospores: spores produced by a telium in some fungi such as rusts or smuts.
Oospores: spores produced by a oogonium, characteristic of oomycetes.
Carpospores: spores produced by a carposporophyte, characteristic of red algae.
Tetraspores: spores produced by a tetrasporophyte, characteristic of red algae.

[edit] By function

Chlamydospores: thick-walled resting spores of fungi produced to survive

unfavorable conditions.
Parasitic fungal spores may be classified into internal spores, which germinate
within the host, and external spores, also called environmental spores, released by
the host to infest other hosts.[3]

[edit] By origin during life cycle

Meiospores: spores produced by meiosis; they are thus haploid, and give rise to a
haploid daughter cell(s) or a haploid individual. Examples are the precursor cells
of gametophytes of seed plants found in flowers (angiosperms) or cones
(gymnosperms).
o Microspores: meiospores that give rise to a male gametophyte, (pollen in
seed plants).
o Megaspores (or macrospores): meiospores that give rise to a female
gametophyte, (an ovule in seed plants).
Mitospores (or conidia, conidiospores): spores produced by mitosis; they are
characteristic of Ascomycetes. Fungi in which only mitospores are found are
called mitosporic fungi or anamorphic fungi, and are previously classified
under the taxon Deuteromycota (See Teleomorph, anamorph and holomorph).

[edit] By motility
Spores can be differentiated by whether they can move or not.

Zoospores: mobile spores that move by means of one or more flagella, and can be
found in some algae and fungi.
Aplanospores: immobile spores that may nevertheless potentially grow flagella.
Autospores: immobile spores that cannot develop flagella.
Ballistospores: spores that are actively discharged from the body of the fungal
fruiting body. Most basidiospores are also ballistospores, and another notable
example is spores of Pilobolus.
Statismospores: spores that are not actively discharged from the fungal fruiting
body. Examples are puffballs.

[edit] Anatomy
Under high magnification, spores can be categorized as either monolete spores or trilete
spores. In monolete spores, there is a single line on the spore indicating the axis on which
the mother spore was split into four along a vertical axis. In trilete spores, all four spores
share a common origin and are in contact with each other, so when they separate, each
spore shows three lines radiating from a center pole.
Vascular plant spores are always haploid. Vascular plants are either homosporous (or
isosporous) or heterosporous. Plants that are homosporous produce spores of the same
size and type. Heterosporous plants, such as spikemosses, quillworts, and some aquatic
ferns produce spores of two different sizes: the larger spore in effect functioning as a
"female" spore and the smaller functioning as a "male".

[edit] Trilete spores

Main article: Evolutionary history of plants

This section requires expansion.
Trilete spores, formed by the dissociation of a spore tetrad, are taken as the earliest
evidence of life on land,[4] dating to the mid-Ordovician (early Llanvirn, ~470 million
years ago).[5]

[edit] Dispersal
More
Spores being ejected by fungi.
In fungi, both asexual and sexual spores or sporangiospores of many fungal species are
actively dispersed by forcible ejection from their reproductive structures. This ejection
ensures exit of the spores from the reproductive structures as well as travelling through
the air over long distances. Many fungi thereby possess specialized mechanical and
physiological mechanisms as well as spore-surface structures, such as hydrophobins, for
spore ejection. These mechanisms include, for example, forcible discharge of ascospores
enabled by the structure of the ascus and accumulation of osmolytes in the fluids of the
ascus that lead to explosive discharge of the ascospores into the air.[6] The forcible
discharge of single spores termed ballistospores involves formation of a small drop of
water (Buller's drop), which upon contact with the spore leads to its projectile release
with an initial acceleration of more than 10,000 g.[7] Other fungi rely on alternative
mechanisms for spore release, such as external mechanical forces, exemplified by
puffballs. Attracting insects, such as flies, to fruiting structures, by virtue of their having
lively colours and a putrid odour, for dispersal of fungal spores is yet another strategy,
most prominently used by the stinkhorns.
In the case of spore-shedding vascular plants such as ferns, wind distribution of very light
spores provides great capacity for dispersal. Also, spores are less subject to animal
predation than seeds because they contain almost no food reserve; however they are more
subject to fungal and bacterial predation. Their chief advantage is that, of all forms of
progeny, spores require the least energy and materials to produce.
In the spikemoss Selaginella lepidophylla, dispersal is achieved in part by an unusual
type of diaspore, a tumbleweed.[8]

[edit] See also

Fungi portal

Alternation of generations
Bioaerosol
Sporophyte
Endospore

Fern
Auxiliary cell
Cryptospores

[edit] References
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.

6.
7.
8.

^ Spore FAQ - Aerobiology Research Laboratory

^ INVAM
^ [1].
^ Gray, J.; Chaloner, W. G.; Westoll, T. S. (1985). "The Microfossil Record of
Early Land Plants: Advances in Understanding of Early Terrestrialization, 19701984". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B,
Biological Sciences (1934-1990) 309 (1138): 167195.
doi:10.1098/rstb.1985.0077. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=00804622(19850402)309%3A1138%3C167%3ATMROEL%3E2.0.CO%3B2-E.
Retrieved 2008-04-26.
^ Wellman, C.H., Gray, J. (2000). "The microfossil record of early land plants".
Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences 355 (1398): 717732.
doi:10.1098/rstb.2000.0612. PMID 10905606. PMC 1692785.
http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/index/2NWB35JF2C34PJHG.pdf. Retrieved
2008-02-13.
^ Trail F. (2007). "Fungal cannons: explosive spore discharge in the
Ascomycota". FEMS Microbiology Letterrs 276 (1): 128. doi:10.1111/j.15746968.2007.00900.x. PMID 17784861.
^ Pringle A, Patek SN, Fischer M, Stolze J, Money NP. (2005). "The captured
launch of a ballistospore". Mycologia 97 (4): 86671.
doi:10.3852/mycologia.97.4.866. PMID 16457355.
^ "False Rose of Jericho - Selaginella lepidophyllaFalse Rose of Jericho Selaginella lepidophylla". [www.plant-and-flower-guide.com Plant- and
Flowerguide. February 2009. http://www.plant-and-flower-guide.com/rose-ofjericho.html. Retrieved 1 February 2010.

[edit] Gallery
PH GIA THC PHM (P2)
12 Thng Ba , 2010

PH GIA DINH DNG:

1. CC VITAMIN:
a. Vitamin A:
Hin nay, ngi ta bit hai dng vitamin quan trng ca nhm vitamin A l vitamin A1
v vitamin A2. Vitamin A1 v vitamin A2 tn ti di mt s dng ng phn hnh hc
nhng ch mt s dng l c hot tnh sinh l
n v v nhu cu:
Nm 1960, t chc y t th gii (WHO) quy nh v n v quc t (IU: international
unit) ca vitamin A v tin vitamin A nh sau:
1IU = 0. 000344 mg All trans vitamin A acetate.
= 0. 0003 mg All trans vitamin A.
= 0. 0006 mg All trans beta carotene.
Vitamin A l mt yu t rt cn thit cho s pht trin ca c th. Thiu vitamin A s
gy nn tnh trng suy dinh dng protein tr em, qung g tin ti vim kt mc ri
dn n kh mt, lot gic mc. da v nim mc c du hiu rt khc nhau nh kh v
sng ha da. Yu cu hng ngy cho php l 5000 IU.
Ngun cung cp:
Vitamin A c trong thc phm c ngun gc t ng vt nh: gan c bin, gan gu
trng, gan b, lng trng, cng nh mt s thc phm c ngun gc t thc vt
di dng cc carotenoid nh carotene.
Tnh cht:
Vitamin A l cht kt tinh lng tr, mu vng, nng chy nhit 62 64oC. Ph hp
th trong tia t ngoi l max = 324 325nm. Vitamin A c th b nh hng xu bi oxy
hay khng kh, nh sng v nhit . S m t v m khng kh cao s lm tng cc

hiu ng. V vy, s h hng c th c gim ng k khi tch n khi ngun oxy hay
hi m v s hin din ca cht chng oxy ha cng vi vic bo qun nhit thp.
Cc dng thng mi:
Ngy nay, vitamin A l mt ph gia dinh dng c s dng hu ht dng tng hp
nh reinol acetate hay retinol palmitate. Hai dng ny cng tt nh retinol c php s
dng trong thc phm.
Vitamin c th thu c dng tinh th. Vitamin c tnh n nh v tnh c th trn ln
vi cc loi thc phm m n c b sung.
c tnh:
Theo underwood (1984), vi liu lng 300. 000 IU i vi tr em hoc 100.000 IU i
vi tr em di 7 tui c th gy ng c cp tnh. Chng nhc u, bun nn, nn ma,
bin n, chng mt, hoa mt v vi triu chng lin hp do tha vitamin A. Khi ta gim
bt tm thi lng vitamin trong khu phn hng ngy s trnh c cc triu chng ny.
Liener (1975) bo co rng nu s dng liu lng 1. 500. 000 g retionol hoc 5.
000. 000 IU trong vi thng c th dn n t vong.
b. Vitamin E:
Ngy nay, ngi ta nhn c 8 tocopherol c ngun gc t nhin v c hot tnh
vitamin E, trong c 6 hp cht thuc dn xut toco v 2 hp cht thuc dn xut
tocotrienol. Tt c cc cht ny u cha nhn chroman (benzopyran).
n v v nhu cu: nhu u bnh thng ca con ngi v vitamin E l 5 15 IU/ngy.
Khi thiu vitamin E v mt l do no c th dn n thay i trn h thn kinh, h
hng sinh sn , h tim mch.
Ngun cung cp: vitamin E c nhiu trong sn phm thc vt nh cc ht ng cc, mt
s loi u c bit l ht ny mm, du thc vt.
c tnh: cc tocopherol khng c c tnh. Lng ly vo trn 1000IU trong mt ngy
ch nh hung t n sc khe nh cc triu chng v d dy, rut, cc chng vim da v
mt mi. Khng c tai hi bt ng xy ra c b co khi dng qu liu vitamin E.
c. Vitamin C:
n v v nhu cu: U. S RDA cho l 60mg. Thiu vitamin C s mc bnh hoi huyt.
Ngun cung cp: c tm thy nhiu tri cy v rau qu, c bit l qu ca cy tm
xun, bng ci, khoai ty, ci bp (l xon) v cc sn phm ca h citrus.

Tnh cht: l nhng tinh th khng mu hay bt kt tinh trng hoc hi vng, khng
mi, v chua, d tan trong nc, trong ethanol 95o, thc t khng tan trong eter,
chloroform, benzene, di tc dng ca nh sng th bin mu dn. Vitamin C c th lm
gim c ca nhiu cht c, tng sc khng ca c th.
c tnh: vitamin C khng lin quan n c t. Vi hiu ng c hi c th xy ra khi
dng lp li liu qu cao khong t 500mg n 10g. vi triu chng ca n l s bun
nn, bnh tiu chy, ri lon dng rut, gim kh nng h6p1 thu ng khng c tai
nn no xy ra do dng qu liu vitamin C c cng b.
2. CC CHT KHONG A LNG V VI LNG:
C ba cht khong a lng l Ca, Mg, P v su cht khong vi lng l Cu, I, Fe, Mn,
Zn c dng ph bin nht nh l cc ph gia dinh dng. Cc ph gia khong c
dng di dng mui, vi cht khc dng n cht.
a. Canxi:
Canxi cn thit cho s to xng, tham gia vo qu trnh co rt c, ng mu, truyn
xung thn kinh. Vitamin D v pH acid lm tng kh nng hp thu canxi. Khu phn n
nhiu protein lm gim hp thu canxi. Acid Phytic, acid bo no, acid oxalic cng lm
gim kh nng hp thu canxi.
US. RDA cho canxi l 1000mg. Lng canxi ly vo l t l canxi/photpho, i vi
ngi ln l 1: 1; tr em di 7 tui l 1: 0, 7. Cc dng canxi c php cho vo thc
phm nh l ph gia dinh dng nh: canxi cacbonat; canxi clorua; canxi citrate; canxi
glycerophotphat; canxi hydroxyt; canxi oxit; canxi mono , di , tri photphat; canxi
pyrophotphat; canxi sunfat.
b. Photpho:
Nguyn t ny hin din ph bin trong c th ngi. Cng vi canxi, photpho ng vai
tr quan trng i vi xng. Photpho cng hin din trong thc n nn n khng c
s dng l ph gia dinh dng ngoi tr thc n cho tr em di 7 tui; U. S RDA cho
cht khong ny l 1g.
c. Magie:
Ging nh photpho, magie l mt nguyn t c mt khp ni nn c cung cp nhiu
trong thc n. S thiu magie rt him ngoi tr hin tng bnh l; U. S RDA cho
magie l 400mg. S thiu magie c th dn n bnh v tim mch.
d. St:
St l mt thnh phn thit yu ca c th, c chc nng chnh l vn chuyn oxi. Thiu
st s dn n bnh thiu mu U. S RDA cho st l 18mg. Acid phytic, cht x,
photphat, polyphenol, vi protein v cc acid hu c c th lm gim s hp thu st.
Trong khi , vitamin C v vi acid amin li lm tng hp thu st.
e. Km:
Km l mt yu t cn thit cho i sng con ngi, ng vt, thc vt. Hot tnh sinh

hc ca km thc n c ngun gc t ng vt cao hn t thc vt. U. S RDA cho km

l 15mg.
II. Ph gia chng vi sinh vt:
1. ACID BENZOIC V CC MUI BENZOATE:
Trong t nhin, acid benzoic c tm thy cc loi cy nh: mn, qu v hu ht cc
qu mng. Acid bezoic v mui natri ca n t lu c s dng c ch s pht
trin ca vi sinh vt.
Tnh cht:
Mui natri benzoate dng ht trng, khng mi v kh b phn hy hay dng bt
tinh th c v ngt, tan c trong nc (66g/100ml 20oC) v trong ethanol (0,
81g/100ml 15oC).
Aid benzoic c dng tinh th khng mu, d tan trong ru v ether, t tan trong nc
hn mui natri benzoate ( nhit phng tan khng qu 0, 2%). Do tnh cht ny m
mui benzoate c s dng nhiu hn.
a.

Kh nng chng vi sinh vt:

Mc ch ca vic s dng acid benzoic v mui benzoate l chng nm men v nm

mc.
i vi acid bezoic: hu ht nm men v nm mc c th b kim sot nng acid
trong sn phm l 0, 05 0, 1%. Trong khi mt s vi khun gy ng c thc phm b c
ch nng 0, 01 0, 02% th s c ch cc vi khun gy h hng thc phm i hi
nng cao hn rt l nhiu. Acid ny c tc dng c ch mnh vi nm men v nm
mc nhng tc dng yu i vi vi khun. Tc dng bo qun ch xy ra mi trng
acid c pH = 2, 5 3, 5.
i vi cc mui benzoate: cc mui ny c tc dng bo qun tt nht
4 v km nht pH > 4, 5.

pH = 2, 5

n nay, c ch tc dng ca acid benzoic vn cha c lm sng t hon ton. Mt

vi nh nghin cu cho rng acid bezoic c tc dng c ch s hp th amino acid trong
nm mc v vi khun. Cc mui benzoate cng c ch cc enzyme trong t bo vi khun.
Nhc im dng acid benzoic hoc mui benzoate trong bo qun cc sn phm l c
th lm gim ch tiu cm quan ca sn phm.
b. Quy nh s dng:
Acid benzoic
INS: 210.
ADI: 0 5.

Liu lng:
Sa ln men (nguyn kem) c x l nhit su ln men ML = 50
Cc mui benzoate:
Calcium benzoate: INS: 213.
ADI: 0 5.
Liu lng: Sa ln men (nguyn kem) c x l nhit sau ln
men ML: 50.
Methyl p hydroxybenzoate: INS: 218
ADI: 0 10
Liu lng: pho mat: ML: 500
tnh theo p hydroxybenzoic.
Ehyl p hydroxyl benzoate
INS: 214
ADI: 0 10
Liu lng: cc sn phm tng t pho mt ML: 500
Thc n trng ming c sa ML: 120
Margarine v cc sn phm tng t
ML: 1000
c. c tnh:
Cc mui benzoate c c tnh thp i vi con ngi v ng vt. ngi liu lng
gy c qua da l 6mg/kg th trng. Tuy nhin, i vi liu lng 5 10g trong vi ngy
thng qua ng ming vn khng gy ra nh hng bt li no i vi c th. l do
con ngi v ng vt c c ch gii c rt tt i vi cc mui benzoate. Nhng hp
cht ny kt hp vi glycin trong gan to thnh acid hippuric v c thi ra ngoi
qua nc tiu. C ch ny loi b 65 95% acid benzoic t cc thc phm c a vo
c th. Cc mui benzoate cn li trong c th s c gii c bng con ng kt hp
vi acid glucoronic.
2. ACID SORBIC V MUI SORBATE:
Cng thc ha hc: CH3 CH = CH CH = CH COOH.
Acid sobic l bt tinh th trng, tan khng ng k trong nc lnh (0,16g/100ml
20oC) v tan d hn trong nc nng ( 100oC tan 3, 9%), c v chua nh.
a. Hot tnh chng vi sinh vt:
Hot tnh chng vi sinh vt ca acid sorbic th hin mnh nht khi hp cht trng thi
khng phn ly, pKa ca acid sorbic l 4, 75; v vy, hot tnh chng vi sinh vt th hin
mnh nht pH thp v v c bn khng tn ti pH > 6 6,5 Nng c ch ti thiu
ca acid sorbic dng phn ly v khng phn ly i vi vi ging vi khun v nm men
c xc nh vo nm 1983 (Eklund). C hai hnh thc ny u th hin s c ch

nhng acid dng khng phn ly c hiu qu hn dng cn li 10 60 ln. Tuy nhin,
pH > 6 acid dng phn ly li c hiu qu hn dng khng phn ly.
Mt s chng nm men c kh nng chng chu acid sorbic v cc mui sorbate. iu
ny c gii thch l do nng cao acid sorbic c kh nng km hm s pht trin v
qu trnh trao i cht ca nm men nhng acid ny nng thp li b nm men
chuyn ha. Ngi ta cho rng s gim hot tnh ca cc mui sorbate l do phn ng
decacboxyl din ra bn trong si nm v i km vi s hnh thnh 1, 3 pentadien, cht
ny c mi ging mi du la hay cc hydrocacbon. Bn cnh , cng c mt s ging
nm mc c kh nng chng chu acid sorbic. Thc nghim chng t mt nm mc
ban u ln cng c kh nng lm gim hot tnh ca acid sorbic trong ph mt. Qua ,
ta thy rng acid sorbic v cc mui sorbate c tc dng mnh i vi nm mc v nm
men, t c tc dng n vi khun. V vy, c th s dng bo qun rt tt cc sn phm
lm nguyn liu cho ch bin nh: bo qun rau qu mui chua. Cc nguyn liu ny
c bo qun bng acid sorbic vn m bo vi khun lactic pht trin v ln men c.
b. C ch km hm s pht trin ca vi sinh vt:
C ch ny c gii thch mt phn l do tc dng ca acid sorbic ln h enzyme trong
t bo vi sinh vt. Ngi ta cho rng acid sorbic km hm s hot ng ca enzyme
dehydrogenase c lin quan trong qu trnh oxy ha acid bo. S b sung aicd sorbic dn
n s tch ly cc acid bo khng no m cc acid ny l sn phm trung gian ca qu
trnh oxy ha cc acid bo bi nm men v nm mc. iu ny hn ch chc nng ca
cc enzyme dehydrogenase v km hm s pht trin v qu trnh trao i cht ca t bo
vi sinh vt. Acid sorbic cng km hm cc enzyme sulfhydryl. Nhng enzyme ny ng
vai tr rt quan trng trong t bo vi sinh vt bao gm: fumarase, aspartase, succinic
dehydogenase v alcohol dehydrogenase ca nm men. C nhiu s gii thch cho c ch
ny:
- Cc mui sorbate phn ng vi enzyme sulfhydryl thng qua phn ng cng vi nhm
thiol ca cystein.
- Hot tnh ca cc mui sorbate l do s hnh thnh cc phc bn vi cc enzyme c
cha sulfhydryl. V vy, cc mui sorbate km hm cc enzyme bi s hnh thnh lin kt
ng ha tr gia sulfat ca nhm sulfhydryl chnh hoc Zn(OH)2 ca enzyme v carbon
ca ion sorbate.
Ngoi ra, cc acid a bo nh acid sorbic cn can thip vo s vn chuyn cc cht qua
mng t bo cht.
c. Quy nh s dng:
Hiu qu chng vi sinh vt ca mui sorbate ph thuc vo cc yu t nh: pH, cc ph
gia khc, s nhim bn, qu trnh ng gi, ch bin, bo qun, thi gian bo qun v
iu kin v sinh.
Acid sorbic: INS: 200
ADI: 0 25.
Liu lng: sa v sa b ML: 1000.

 ung c sa, hng liu hoc ln men ML: 300.

Sa ln men (nguyn kem) ML: 300.
Cc loi pho mt ML: 3000.
Cc mui sorbate:
Calcium sorbate: INS: 203.
ADI: 0 25.
Liu lng: ung c sa ML: 300.
Sa ln men (nguyn kem) ML: 300.
Cc loi pho mt ML: 3000.
Potassium sorbate:

INS: 337
ADI: 0 25.
Liu lng: Sa chua ung, sa c c ng ML: 300
Pho mat ML: 3000.

d. c tnh:
Acid sor bic c xem l cht bo qun chng vi sinh vt t c hi nht thm ch mc
vt qu liu lng s dng thng thng trong cc sn phm thc phm.
3. CC ACID HU C MCH NGN:
a. Acid acetic v mui acetate:
Acid acetic (pKa = 4, 75) v cc mui ca n c s dng rng ri vi vai tr cht to
v chua v cht chng vi sinh vt. Acid acetic chng nm men v vi khun c hiu qu
hn chng nm mc. Hot tnh ca acid acetic ph thuc vo cc yu t: sn phm thc
phm, mi trng v t bo vi sinh vt
b. Acid lactic:
C vai tr chnh l iu chnh pH v to v cho cc sn phm thc phm. Hot tnh
chng vi sinh vt hay thay i. i vi s c ch ca Bacillus coagulan, acid lactic th
hin hot tnh cao gp 4 ln so vi cc acid khc nh: malic, citric, propionic v acid
acetic. Da trn nng mol, pH v hot tnh ca cc acid dng khng phn ly, acid
lactic l mt trong nhng acid hu c c ch s pht trin ca Yersinia enterocolitica
hiu qu nht.
INS: 270
ADI: CX
Liu lng: Sa ln men (nguyn kem)
B v b c c GMP.
c. Acid citric:

GMP

Acid citric khng c s dng trc tip vi vai tr l cht chng vi sinh vt. N th
hin mt s hot tnh chng mt s nm mc v vi khun. Acid citric nng 0, 75%
th hin kh nng c ch nh s pht trin nhng c ch mnh s sinh tng hp cc toxin
ca loi Aspergillus parasiticus. Vi loi Aspegillus versicolor nng trn c th km
hm s pht trin nhng c ch s sinh tng hp cc toxin th ch cn nng 0, 25%.
Tri li, acid citric 0, 75% khng nh hng n s pht trin v s to ra toxin ca loi
Penicillium expansum.
Ngi ta nghin cu v thy rng acid citric c kh nng c ch Samonella mnh hn
acid lactic v acid hydrochloric.
d. Propionic acid:
INS: 280
ADI: CX
Liu lng: Pho mt ch bin

ML 3000

4. MT S CC CHT KHC:
Calcium formate:
INS: 238
ADI: CX
Liu lng: Cc loi pho mt

Ml: 3000

Hexamethylen tetramine;
INS: 239
ADI: 0 0, 15
Liu lng: Cc loi pho mt ML: 600
Potassium Nitrate
INS: 252
ADI: 0 3, 7
Chc nng: bo qun, n nh mu
Liu lng: Pho mt ML: 37
Vitamin E l tn gi chung ch hai lp cc phn t (bao gm cc tocopherol v
tocotrienol) c tnh hot ng vitamin E trong dinh dng. -tocopherol trong c th
ngi l mt cht chng xy ha.
Vitamin E t nhin tn ti di 8 dng khc nhau, trong c 4 tocopherol v 4
tocotrienol. Tt c u c vng chromanol, vi nhm hydroxyl c th cung cp nguyn t
hydo kh cc gc t do v nhm R (phn cn li ca phn t) khng i nc cho
php thm nhp vo cc mng sinh hc. Cc tocopherol v tocotrienol u c dng alpha,
beta, gamma v delta, c xc nh theo s lng v v tr ca cc nhm mteyl trn
vng chromanol. Mi dng c hot ng sinh hc khc nhau.

Trong thc phm, cc ngun ph bin nht cha vitamin E l cc loi du thc vt nh
c, hng dng, da, ng, u tng, oliu. Cc ngun cung cp vitamin E khc gm cc
ht ng cc, c, b lc, mng ty, ht d, c chua, c rt v cc loi rau l xanh. Mc d
ban u vitamin E c chit ra t du mm la m, nhng phn ln cc ngun b sung
vitamin E t nhin hin nay li tch ra t du thc vt, thng thng l du u tng.
Vitamin E hp thu qua nim mc rut. Ging nh cc loi vitamin tan trong du khc,
vitamin E cn c axit mt lm cht nh ha mi c th hp thu c
Trong c th, vitamin E chuyn ha mt t qua gan thnh cc glicuronid ca axit
tocopheronic v gamma lacton ca axit ny
Vitamin E thi tr mt phn qua nc tiu, hu ht thi tr chm vo mt. Vitamin E c
th vo sa nhng rt t qua nhau thai
Vitamin E c tc dng chng oxy ha, bo v mng t bo khi s tn cng ca cc gc
t do, bo v tnh ton vn ca mng t bo
Vitamin E c tc dng hip ng vi vitamin C, selen, vitamin A v cc caroten. Vitamin
E bo v vitamin A khi b oxy ha,lm bn vng vitamin A

Thiu vitamin E
Khi thiu vitamin E ko di s c cc triu chng thn kinh nh: tht iu, yu c, rung
git nhn cu, xc gic gim nhy cm, ri lon thn kinh, d tn thng da, d v hng
cu, d tn thng c v tim. Trn c quan sinh sn khi thiu vitamin E gy tn thng
c quan sinh dc, v sinh. Ngi ta thng phi hp vitamin E vi cc thuc iu tr v
sinh nam v n, sy thai, ri lon kinh nguyt, ri lon tim mch

Tha vitamin E
Dng vitamin liu cao (trn 3000 IU mi ngy) c th gy ri lon tiu ha (bun nn,
y hi, i lng, vim rut hoi t). Tim tnh mch liu cao c th gy t vong.
Liu dng vitamin E cho mt s trng hp c bit
-

e do sy thai: 500IU/ngy

i dm sau hoc ph n mn kinh: 200-400 IU/ngy.

Nam gii v sinh, thiu nng tinh trng: 200-400 IU/ngy.

Cn th tin trin: 100 IU/ngy.

Cc ch nh khc: teo c do thn kinh, ri lon kinh nguyt thi k mn kinh,

bnh cng b tr em, lon dng, hp thu km thc n, tc ng mt.

Tng tc thuc: Vitamin E i khng vi tc dng ca vitamin K, tng thi gian

ng mu
Liu dng khuyn co:

Ngi ln : 15mg/ngy (22.5IU)

Ph n cho con b: 19mg/ ngy (28.5IU)

0-6 thng : 4mg/ ngy (6IU)

7-12 thng: 5mg/ ngy (7.5IU)

1-3 tui: 6mg/ngy (7.5IU)

4-8 tui: 7mg/ngy (10.5IU)

9-14 tui: 11mg/ngy (16IU)

Ph gia thc phm v sc khe ngi

13 Thng Ba , 2010
Theo y ban Tiu chun ha thc phm quc t (Codex Alimentarius Commisson
CAC), ph gia thc phm l: Mt cht, c hay khng c gi tr dinh dng, m bn
thn n khng c tiu th thng thng nh mt thc phm v cng khng c s
dng nh mt thnh phn ca thc phm, vic ch b sung chng vo thc phm
gii quyt mc ch cng ngh trong sn xut, ch bin, bao gi, bo qun, vn chuyn
thc phm, nhm ci thin cu kt hoc c tnh k thut ca thc phm . Ph gia
thc phm khng bao gm cc cht nhim hoc cc cht c b sung vo thc phm
nhm duy tr hay ci thin thnh phn dinh dng ca thc phm.
Nh vy, ph gia thc phm khng phi l thc phm, m n c b sung mt cch ch
, trc tip hoc gin tip vo thc phm ci thin cu kt hoc c tnh k thut ca thc

phm . Ph gia thc phm tn ti trong thc phm nh mt thnh phn ca thc phm
vi mt gii hn ti a cho php c quy nh.
Nhm cht ph gia thc phm theo quy nh ca B Y T.
Trong 22 nhm cht, c 9 nhm cht sau y thng c s dng trong sn xut, ch
bin hin nay.
Nhm Nhm chc nng
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Mu thc phm
Cht to ngt
Cht bo qun
iu v
Men
Cht n
Cht to bt
Cht to xp
Hng liu

Q 3742/Q-BYT2001
35 cht
07 cht
29 cht
08 cht
06 cht
03 cht
01 cht
02 cht
63 cht

A. Mt s cht cho php s dng trong thc phm, nhng cn lu :

1. Cht iu v:
a) To v chua:
to cho sn phm c v chua du hoc dng bo qun ngi ta thng dng axit citric.
Ngoi ra cn dng axit tartric, acxit lactic. chua ca axit ph thuc vo cc phn t
khng phn ly v cc anion.
- Axit citric (C6H3O7. H2O) c dng ph bin nht v n c v chua du nh chanh t
nhin, ngon hn cc axit khc. Thng s dng sn xut ko, nc gii kht hoc
bo qun thc phm. Liu dng ty theo loi sn phm.
- Axit tartric (C6H3O6) c nhiu trong qu nho, mi ca n thch hp sn xut ru
mi.
- Axit lactic (-CH3CHOH-COOH-) Axit lactic c hnh thnh t cc sn phm sa ln
men trong sn xut yaourt
- Acid acetic: (CH3COOH): dm ty Axit dng vi liu lng thch hp s to c v
chua, tng cm gic ngon hn, dng c nhiu hn. Tuy nhin nu lm dng s nh
hng n d dy.

b) To v ngt:
* Bt ngt: theo mt s nghin cu nm 1971, trn sc vt mis inh, c thy tn thng
trn no, nhng thc t cho thy khng ai c hin tng nh th ny. Tuy nhin
phng, Hi ng OMS-FAO khuyn khng nn dng bt ngt cho tr em di 1 tui.
Ngy nay, ngi ta cn dng siu bt ngt v cht ny c B Y t cho php s dng.
* Cht ngt t nhin:
L cht ngt dinh dng khng c hi, liu lng s dng khng hn ch; tr nhng
ngi b tiu ng v bo ph.
Cht ngt c s dng trong sn xut thc phm thng l dng ng ct tinh luyn
saccaroza loi RE v RS. Ngoi ra, c mt s ni dng ng thng, ng nha
(Maltose), ng ma (Fructose), latose, mt ong, sorbitol, manitol sn xut bnh,
ko.
* Cht ngt nhn to:
Thng s dng cho ngi n king. Vic s dng cht ngt tng hp phi tun theo
nhng qui nh cht ch.
V d: mt s cht ngt nhn to c php s dng:
- Axeselfam K: ngt hn ng ct gp 150 ln
- Asparame: ngt hn ng ct gp 180 ln
- Saccharin: ngt hn ng ct gp 300 ln
- Sucralose: ngt hn ng ct gp 600 ln
Ring cyclamat, cm s dng, nhng ngi sn xut, ch bin vn dng v r v cht ny
c tnh bn trong mi trng axit.
* Nhng c tnh ca cht to ngt:
Sacarin: l cht to ngt cho php s dng nhng cng c gy c nhng rt t. Nhng
nu dng lu di saccarin c kh nng c ch men tiu ha (pepsin) v gy chng kh
tiu. Gn y mt s tc gi ngi Php nghin cu thy saccarin vo bng quang, vi s
c mt ca cholesterol, c th sinh ra ung th cho chut cng trng. Saccarin b phn hy
bi sc nng v axit gii phng phnol ra th t do, lm thc n c mi v kh chu. Nh
vy saccarin ch dng cho vo cc thc n lnh nh kem, nc gii kht v ch nn
dng phi hp vi ng knh trnh cm gic kh chu.

Cyclamat: l cht to ngt cm s dng v ch ngt gp 30 ln, c u im l khng

li d v kh chu nh saccarin, chu c nhit tt, cho nn c s dng rng ri hn
saccarin. ngt gp 30 ln so vi ng saccaroza. Nm 1969, cc nh Khoa hc M
chng minh cc th nghim trn chut gy ung th gan, phi, v gy nhng d dng
bo thai ca sc vt th nghim, v vy Cyclamat b cm s dng nm 1970.
II. Phm mu:
* Phm mu t nhin:
Cc cht mu c ngun gc t nhin, c c tnh thp hn (c an ton cao hn) cc
cht mu tng hp ha hc.
a) Mu sc t nhin ca thc phm rt a dng:
Mu xanh l ca chlorophyl c nhiu trong rau xanh, ht, r, c, tri cy, l da
Mu vng ca carotenoid c nhiu trong trng, c, tm, sa, rau qu: gc, ht
iu
Mu mu ca hemoglobin c nhiu trong tht, c
Mu tm ca l cm
Mu en ca l gai
b) Mt s nguyn nhn lm mt mu t nhin ca thc phm:
Phn hy do nh sng, nhit .
Tc dng ca CO2 nng cao dng bo qun rau, qu.
Bin i do enzym.
Do tc nhn ha hc (axit, kim, oxi ha).
* Phm mu tng hp:
Mt s im cn ch khi s dng cht mu:
Khng lm dng vic s dng phm mu.
m bo tinh khit (dng loi ha cht s dng cho thc phm).
S dng ng liu lng quy nh ca B Y t.

Khng c dng cht mu che y khuyt im ca thc phm, hoc ngi tiu
dng nhm ln v s c mt khng thc ca mt vi thnh phn cht lng.
V d: mu vng lm cho ngi ta tng rng m si c trng hoc bnh biscuit c b
Phi trn v chn ng cht mu:
Khng gy tn tht hoc bin i bt li
Cng mu cao v bn
Kiu mu thch hp.
* Nhng phn ng v c tnh ca phm mu:
C tc ng cp tnh ln h tiu ha lm bun nn, nn ma, ri lon tiu ha. Tc
dng ln h min dch gy d ng, ni mn, chm, nga, phu
Nu s dng lu di lm tn thng gan, thn, thn kinh, c th gy t bin, ung
th v c nh hng n bo thai.
III. Hng liu:
Hng liu c nhiu dng:
- Hng liu t nhin nh: hng cam, chanh, to, qu, hi l c trch t v, qu, r
cy bng cch ngm cn ri em chng ct.
- Hng liu tng hp l hng liu to thnh bng cc phng php tng hp ha hc.
Thng cha t 4-13% cht thm tng hp.
- Hng liu hn hp bao gm c 2 loi hng liu trn.
Kim tra tinh khit ca hng liu bng cch kim tra s c mt ca cc kim loi nng
nh Zn, Cu, As Th mc ha tan hon ton ca 1 ml hng liu/1 lt nc m
khng b vn c.
* Liu lng s dng thch hp (qua thc nghim)
Ch c im ca cc c quan nhn cm i vi tc nhn gy cm gic (v mu, mi,
v).
Hng liu l cht lm thm khng th thiu c trong cc sn phm. N khng ch lm
tng gi tr cm quan m cn cho bit c im ca tng sn phm. Ty loi sn phm
m ngi ta chn hng liu thch hp.

Hng liu l hn hp ru, nc c cha cht thm di dng tinh du, d bay hi, d
b oxy ha do tc dng ca khng kh nn thnh phn d b bin i nu bo qun v s
dng khng ng cch.
Trong tinh du chanh, cam thng c cha tecpen c mi kh chu, d lm cho sn phm
b h hng, c v kt ta.
IV. Mt s cht bo qun:
* Mui Nitrat (Na(K)NO3 v Nitrit (Na(K)NO2) hay cn gi l mui dim:
S dng lm cht st khun trong bo qun v gi cho mu tht, c v mt vi loi
phomt.
Tc dng c trc tip: Hemoglobine l hng cu khi kt hp vi nitrite to ra
Methemoglobine l cht c hi cho c th.
Tc dng c gin tip: Nitrite + Amin l cht m thy phn to ra cht
Nitrosamine l tc nhn gy ung th. Triu chng ng c cp tnh xut hin nhanh t
ngt: nhc u, bun nn, chng mt, tiu chy tip theo l tm ti, nu khng iu tr kp
bnh nhn.
* Mui sunfit, natri sunfit (Na2SO3), natri meta bisunfit (Na2S2O5):
c ng dng chng ha nu trong rau, qu, lm trng ng, iu chnh ln men
ru vang (khng dng qu 350mg/lt), ru to (< 500 mg/lt) Khng dng bo
qun tht, v ch yu l che du h hng ch khng phi hn ch s h hng.
Mui sunfit, natri sunfit, natri meta bisunfit u ph thuc vo nng , hm lng
v tc bay hi gii phng ra SO2. SO2 trong c th b oxy ha thnh sunfat: bisunfit
tc dng vi nhm aldehyt, xton ca ng, nhng phn ng theo 2 chiu. Sunfit cng
tc dng ln nhm disulfua ca protin v phn ng cng theo 2 chiu.
Tc dng c hi cp tnh: chy mu d dy, ch yu i vi ngi ung nhiu ru
c s dng SO2. SO2 ph hy Vitamin B1 trong thc phm, nht l ng cc.
* Acid benzoic (C7H6O2) hoc Natri benzoat (C6H5COONa)
Acid benzoic tinh th dng hnh kim hoc tm l nh, mu trng la ng nh trng.
Natri benzoat l dng bt trng, ha tan c trong nc, rt d tan trong nc nng.
S dng trong thc phm lm cht st khun c hiu lc vi nm men v vi khun
hn i vi nm mc.

 i vi con ngi, khi vo c th tc dng vi glucocol chuyn thnh axit purivic

khng t, thi ra ngoi. Tuy nhin nu n nhiu acid benzoic c th s b nh hng v
glucocol dng tng hp protein s b mt do tc dng vi acid benzoic gii c.
Nn s dng liu lng nh hn 1g/kg thc phm.
* Acid sorbic: (C6H8O2)
Dng hp cht kt tinh, bt trng, d tan trong nc, t tan trong ru etylic lnh, tan
tt khi un nng.
Acid sorbic khng c hiu qu i vi cc vi khun Clostridium, Bacillus,
Salmonella, Lactobacilus, Pseudomonas.
Tc dng c ch nm men, nm mc, c ngha trong mi trng pH t 3,2-6 v
nng 1g/1 kg thc phm.
c dng bo qun nc rau qu, Gi tt thi gian di vi liu lng 0,05-0,06%
* Cht bo qun du: BHT (butyl hydro anosol), BHA (butyl hydro toluen), Vit.E
(tocopherol).
L nhng cht tan tt trong du, rt bn, c tc dng chng s i kht ca du, b
trong sn xut mt s sn phm c dng nhit cao v tip xc nhiu vi khng kh.
* Cc cht lm n, xp bnh (Na2CO3, (NH4)2CO3):
to ra cc sn phm xp, n, mn ca mt s loi bnh, ngi ta thng s
dng mt s hn hp: monoglyxerit ca axit bo, cc ester ca polydlycerol, propylen
glycol Cc cht ny to ra phc vi amilo c trong tinh bt, c tc dng gi bt, n
hi tt. Tuy nhin nu s dng nhiu, sn phm gy v ng valm kh tiu do tnh kim
ca ha cht.
* Cc cht lm trng tinh bt thng bao gm nhng cht nh: kh clo, oxt nit, benoyl,
peroxit, clodioxt. Cc cht ny c tnh oxi ha nn lm trng, ng thi ph hy caroten
v Vitamine A, ph hy mt phn Vitamin B1.
* Cc cht lm tng kh nng thnh bnh ca bt gm: bromat, iodat, peborat, pesunfat,
triclo, nit Cc cht ny c ch hot ng ca men proteaza thy phn cht m, trnh
s thoi ha ca gluten, lm cho tng kh nng thnh bnh.
Nc vi, nc tro l cc cht km, nn s dng hn ch.. Bt m c pH t 7-7,5
mt i 30-40% Vitamin B1. V vi pH t 10-12 Vitamin B1 bnh lm ra ch cn li 1-5%
so vi go. Trng hp cn thit ch nn s dng Na2CO3 vi t l 0,7% so vi bt.

 Cc mui canxi nh canxi sunfat CaSO4 c dng trong ch bin u h, c chua

ng hp lm cng, dai sn phm va c canxi. Nng mui canxi trong sn
phm khng vt qu 0.026%. C th dng mui canxi clorua CaCl2 lm sch v c
chua.
Mt s cht cm s dng trong thc phm:
* Focmn c cng thc l CH2O
L cht ha hc cm s dng trong thc phm, c tnh st trng mnh. c dng
trong y hc bo qun bnh phm, p xc, trnh xc thi ra v Formol dit c ctt
c cc loi vi khun, nm mc, nm men. C tnh cht dai, cng, cay, nng, mi hc c
bit nh hng n cc gic quan nh: mt, mi, kh hng.
Focmn kt hp nhm amin thnh nhng dn xut bn vng i vi cc men phn
hy protin, do nh hng n vic tng hp protin cho c th. Formol n vo c th
gy kh tiu, bun nn, nn ma, vim lot d dy t trng, c kh nng gy ung th.
* Hn the: Acid boric (H3BO3) Mui Natri borat (Na2B4O7, 10.H2O)
ng dng:
- Trong cng nghip v i sng thng s dng axit boric bo qun g, vi si thm,
m, x phng, cc cht m phm, sn, mc in, giy nh, sn phm t in v.v Cn
dng dit dn v cn trng cnh cng.
- Trong y t dng lm thuc sn da v st trng, r ming li
- Trong thuc th y dng dit khun, nm mc dng bt v dung dch, ch yu dng
ngoi.
- C ch v tc hi
- Hn the hp thu v thi qua nc tiu 80%, tuyn m hi 3%, qua phn 1%.
- Cn li tch ly 15% lng s dng khng c o thi.
- i vi c th ngi acid boric tp trung vo c v gan nhiu nht ri n tim, phi, d
dy, thn, rut. Thng thng n l mt cht kch thch da, mt, ng h hp; ngoi ra
n c th lm thoi ha c quan sinh dc, lm suy yu kh nng sinh sn v gy thng
tn cho bo thai.
- Triu chng ng c mn tnh: n khng ngon. ri lon tiu ha, chm chp l ln,
vim da, thiu mu, co git v rng tc.
- Ngi ln liu 4-5g acid boric/ngy km n v kh chu.

- Tr em v s sinh nu ung nhm acid boric 1-2g/kgP cht sau 19 gi n 07 ngy.

* Mt s li khuyn cho ngi s dng ph gia:
Nhng iu cn lm khi s dng ph gia:
Khng lm dng vic s dng ph gia.
S dng ng ph gia cho php (theo quy nh ca B Y t)
Xem k nhn trc khi s dng.
Hng ngoi nhp phi c c quan nh nc kim tra, c kim nghim cht lng
km theo, c nhn ph nu khng cn nguyn ai, nguyn kin.
Cm quan trc khi cn, ong, o, m.
S dng ng liu lng, ng k thut
* Mt s li khuyn cho ngi tiu dng:
Cn thay i thi quen trong vic la chn thc phm. Dng sn phm c mu sc,
cu trc t nhin; khng nht thit phi dai, gin mi ngon.
Mua nhng ni c thng tin l an ton, xem k nhn trc khi s dng.
Chp nhn gi c hp l c sn phm ti tt, cht lng cao, an ton cho sc
khe.