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Short Circuit Forces in Power Lines and Substations
Short Circuit Forces in Power Lines and Substations
= +
= +
= + + +
(Amperes) 1
Where
I
rms
is the root-mean-square value of the short-circuit current (A).
e = 2tf is the network pulsation (rad/s) equal to 314 rad/s in Europe and 377 rad/s in the
United States.
t is the network time constant (= L/R) at the location of the fault (s).
| is an angle depending on the time of fault occurrence in the voltage oscillation (rad).
Asymmetry is very dependent on |. In the case of a two-phase fault, it is possible to have no
asymmetry if | = 0 rad.
According to the basic physics of electromagnetism for a three- or a two-phase arrangement,
there is always a repulsion force between phases from each other. For a single-phase fault,
only one current is involved. In the case of bundle conductors, it is generally considered that
the short-circuit current is equally divided among all subconductors. The force acting between
subconductors of the same phase is an attractive force, as discussed in Section 3.
In the general case of parallel conductors, the force, F
n
(t) in N/m, applied on each of the
phases can be expressed by:
0 1 3 1 2
1
0 2 3 1 2
2
0 1 3 2 3
3
( ). ( ) ( ). ( )
( )
2 2
( ). ( ) ( ). ( )
( )
2
( ). ( ) ( ). ( )
( )
2 2
i t i t i t i t
F t x
a a
i t i t i t i t
F t x
a a
i t i t i t i t
F t x
a a
t
| |
=
|
\ .
| |
=
|
\ .
| |
= +
|
\ .
(N/m) 2
Where
9
0
is the vacuum magnetic permeability = 4t10
-7
H/m.
a is the interphase distance (m).
The force, being due to current flow, very much depends on phase shift between currents. It
generally includes:
- Pseudo-continuous DC component, with a time-constant decay,
- Continuous dc component, sometimes, and
- Two oscillating AC components, one at network frequency, with a time-constant decay,
and one at the double of the network frequency, which is not damped.
In the case of a two-phase fault, the force is proportional to the square of the current. Thus it
always has the same directionthat is, a repulsion between the two faulted phases.
In the case of a three-phase fault, it is much more complex. In flat-phase configuration,
illustrated by the top view of Figure 4, the middle phase has a zero mean value, and at least
one of the outer phases has forces similar to those generated by a two-phase fault (Figure 5
left).
The same location in a network gives two different values of current for three- or two-phase
faults with a ratio 0.866 between them. For example, a 34.8 kA three-phase fault would give a
30.1 kA two-phase fault at the same location. Therefore, a three-phase fault has to be
considered for estimation of design forces.
Figures 4 (top) and 5 give examples of currents and forces on horizontal, or purely vertical,
arrangements. In the case of an equilateral triangular arrangement, Figure 4 (bottom), the
forces are similar on all three phases, similar to the force on phase 1 for the horizontal
arrangement.
Figure 5 shows the currents and forces applied to each phase during a three-phase fault with
an asymmetry chosen to create the maximum peak force on one outer phase as calculated
using Equation 2. This is for a horizontal or vertical arrangement of the circuit. The fault
current is 34.8 kA rms with peak currents of 90.4, 79.2, and 61.2 kA. The time constant is 70
ms, and the short-circuit duration is 0.245 seconds. The current frequency is 50 Hz. The loads
shown are per unit length for a = 6 m clearance between phases. The repulsion peak load on
phase 1 is 228 N/m. (| = 1.39 rad). The signs convention is positive in the directions shown in
the upper diagram in Figure 4.
But the time dependence of the forces is very different on the outer phases compared to
middle phase. On the outer phases, the force is unidirectional and has a significant continuous
component. On phase 2, the continuous component is zero (except during the asymmetrical
part of the wave).
10
Figure 4 Two different geometric arrangements for a three-phase circuit and the
electromagnetic force reference directions on each phase corresponding to Equation 2. The
numbers 1, 2, and 3 are phase numbers.
It must be noted that the level of the peak force, about 200 N/m in Figure 5, is far greater than
the conductor weight and is proportional to the square of the current. But the continuous
component is much lower, about 30 N/m in this case, as shown later. Under actual short-
circuit levels and clearances, it is closer to the conductor weight, but acts, in most cases, in the
other direction. See upper right panel in Figure 5.
Figure 5 Example of calculated three-phase short-circuit current wave shape and
corresponding loads on a horizontal or vertical circuit arrangement.
11
Thus the interphase effects, for the case of horizontal or purely vertical arrangement only,
may be summarized as:
1. The design force on the horizontal or vertical three-phase arrangement is the force due to a
three-phase fault considering the outer phase with appropriate asymmetry. Taking into
account the fact that only the continuous dc component has to be considered, the force on
an outer phase can be approximated by Equation 3. This is the horizontal repulsion force
for the horizontal arrangement, or the vertical repulsion force for the vertical arrangement:
2 2 /
3
0.2
(0.75 1.616 )
t
F I e
a
t
= + (N/m) 3
Where
a is the interphase distance (m).
I
3
the rms three-phase fault at that location (kA).
t is the network time constant at that location (s).
t is time (s).
2. The forces considered above cannot be directly applied to structure design loads, because
the structural response to these loads has to be taken into account.
The continuous dc component acting after the short transient during the asymmetrical
period of the current is obtained by using t = infinity in Equation 3. For example, in
Figure 5, the continuous dc component after transient is given by:
2
0.2
34.8 0.75 30.3
6
F x = = N/m
12
3. BEHAVIOR OF BUNDLE CONDUCTORS UNDER SHORT CIRCUITS
Detailed behavior of bundle conductors under short circuit is most easily illustrated through
short-circuit tests in actual bundles. Some results from a program of tests at the Veiki
substation in Hungary are used here for that purpose (Lilien and Papailiou 2000).
The systematic single-phase fault tests on twin conductors were performed in the 1990s on a
power line with a double deadended span, with a length of 60 m, with the following
characteristics (Figure 6):
Span length 60 m
Sub conductor type ACSR CONDOR (455 mm, | = 27.7 mm, 1.52 kg/m, UTS 125 kN)
Spacing 0.457 m
Current 35 kA (90 kA peak), Time constant 33 ms
Duration 0.17 to 0.2 s
Sagging tensions 15, 25, or 35 kN (per subconductor)
All cases are single-phase faults; the return path is through the ground
Supporting structure:
Stiffness: about 8.5 10
6
N/m
First eigen frequency: about 14 Hz
Figure 6 Test arrangement applying short circuits to a 60-m span length with one spacer at
mid-span. (Lilien and Papailiou 2000).
measurement
60 m
13
Figure 7 Two test span arrangements for spacer compression tests (Lilien and Papailiou
2000).
Figure 7 shows installation of rigid spacers and measurement points (bold lines) for the 60-m
subspan (Figure 7 top) and 30-m subspan (Figure 7 bottom). For the 30-m sub-span, two
spacers were installed close to each other so as to receive half the contribution. The
installation of measurement is such that actual load for spacers in power lines would be twice
the measured value.
The following oscillograms were recorded (Figure 8). On the left hand side, the 60-m span
length results are presented, and on the right-hand side, the 30-m span length results are
presented. It should be noted that the actual pinch occurs during the first approximately 0.2
seconds, while the fault current is on, and that the other spikes in the records arise from
subsequent motion of the bundle.
Saggingtension15kN-35/90kA
-2000
-1000
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1
time(s)
c
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
l
o
a
d
(
N
)
subspanlength60m
Saggingtension15kN-35/90kA
-3000
-2000
-1000
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4
time(s)
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
l
o
a
d
s
(
N
)
subspanlength30m
measurement
30 m 30 m
14
Saggingtension25kN- 35/90kA
-4000
-2000
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4
time(s)
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
l
o
a
d
s
(
N
)
subspanlength60m
Saggingtension25kN- 35/90kA
-4000
-2000
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4 1,6
time(s)
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
l
o
a
d
(
N
)
subspanlength30m
Saggingtension35kN-30/90kA
-3000
-2000
-1000
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4
time(s)
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
l
o
a
d
s
(
N
)
subspanlength60m
Saggingtension35kN- 30/90kA
-3000
-2000
-1000
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4
time(s)
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
l
o
a
d
s
(
N
)
subspanlength30m
Figure 8 Typical tests results on spacer compression on 60-m and 30-m subspan length, at 35
kA on twin-bundle line 2x Condor, with different sagging tensions. Half of the compression is
given. The drawings are covering short-circuit and significant after short-circuit time to better
see the wave propagation effects after the end of the short circuit. (Courtesy Pfisterer/Sefag).
After the short circuit, the subconductors separate from each other during a long transient,
with wave propagation along each subspan (as can be seen in the video that accompanies this
book and in Figure 8). During that transient, significant tensile forces (the opposite of
compression) are applied on the spacers, the level of which reach about 50% of the maximum
compression load. In spite of their smaller magnitude, the effect of these tension forces on the
spacer must be considered separately, because some spacer attachments are not as strong in
tension as they are in compression. A particular example is the attachment using an open or
saddle clamp, with helical rods to capture the subconductor. These loads are repeated with
every passage of the wave up and down the span. Note the shorter repetition time in the 30-m
span. These loads decay very slowly, so that many repeated such loads have to be taken into
account.
The graphs in Figure 8 show the effect of gradually increasing initial tension before the fault
from 15 kN (12.5% EDS) to 35 kN (28% EDS). The effect on propagation speed can be seen
in the after short-circuit peaks, but the influence on maximum pinch is limited in actual range,
as predicted by Manuzio (the pinch being proportional to the square root of the tension), and it
15
is particularly valid for long subspans, as used in power lines and as validated by Manuzios
test arrangements (Manuzio 1967).
In case of spring-type dampers, which could be compressed by the pinch, there could be a
large increase of these tensile loads acting on spacer attachment as the relaxation of energy
stored in spring compression during short-circuit is released after the end of the short circuit.
Depending on the configurations of the spacer and spacer dampers, the short-circuit forces
could cause large bending moment in the conductor and the elements of the spacer.
Figure 9 Typical tension oscillogram in one subconductor during and after the fault, for the
60-m span length configuration (15 kN initial). Irms 35 kA (peak 90 kA), 0.18 s courtesy
Pfisterer/Sefag).
In these tests, limited to one-phase fault, there is no interphase effect but, due to the increment
in tension caused by the pinch, the whole phase jumps up after short-circuit inception and
falls down afterwards. This behavior induces some tension changes in the conductors, as can
be seen in Figures 9 and 10. It is notable that the pinch effect (the first peak during the fault in
the first 0.18 s) in the conductor has a smaller tension rise than that which occurs, at 0.9
seconds, as the phase falls. In both cases, the latter is limited to 1.8 times the initial static
sagging tension.
16
Figure 10 Typical tension oscillogram in one subconductor during and after the fault for the 2
x 30-m span length configuration (15 kN initial). Irms 35 kA (peak 90 kA), 0.18 s. (courtesy
Pfisterer/Sefag).
Subspan Length Effect
Bundle pinch is very much related to subspan length. There exists a critical subspan length
under which no contact is possible and over which contact occurs on a significant part of the
subspan. Of course, that length depends on short-circuit level and some other parameters.
That critical value corresponds to extreme loading (for pinch effect in substations [El Adnani
1987; Lilien and El Adnani 1986]). For the power lines with typical subspan lengths,
subconductors experience contact in all cases except in jumpers.
Subconductor Separation Effect
A closer bundle spacing results in a smaller increment in subconductor tension. In fact, initial
electromagnetic force are stronger, but the tension increment is generated by conductor
deformation into the triangles of Figure 2 after contact, and most of deformation is located in
those triangles. Smaller conductor separation thus leads to less deformation in that area. At
the limit, if conductors are in contact all along the span, there is no increment in tension.
17
4. INTERPHASE EFFECTS UNDER SHORT CIRCUITS
Maximum Tensile Loads during Movement of the Phases
Figure 11 shows a typical response of a bundle conductor two-phase fault in a horizontal
arrangement (CIGRE 1996). Both cable tension versus time (Figure11 left) and phase
movement in a vertical plane at mid-span (Figure 11 right) are shown. On the cable tension
curve, three maxima (and their corresponding time on the abscissa) have been indicated,
which is discussed below. On the phase movement curve at mid-span, the curve has been
marked by dots every 0.1 s to get an idea of the cable speed, and in particular to show that the
short circuit ends before there is significant movement of the phase.
Typical maximum loads (Figures 11 and 12) that could influence design appear when total
energy (including a large input during short circuit) has to be mainly transformed to
deformation energy.
Peak design load could occur under the following three conditions:
1. Maximum swing-out F
t
(at time t
t
in Figure 11left and square 1 in Figure 11 right): very
little kinetic energy (cable speed close to zero) and potential energy with reference to
gravity, so that a large part is converted in deformation energythat is, increase of
tension. In power lines, t
t
occurs always after the end of the short circuit (the cable
position at the end of the short circuit (0.1 s) is indicated in Figure 11 right).
2. Maximum F
f
at the extreme of downward motion (at time t
f
in Figure 11 left and square 2
in Figure 11 right): generally more critical because of a loss of potential energy of gravity
due to the cable position at that moment. t
f
always occurs after the end of the short circuit.
3. The pinch effect F
pi
(at a very short time after short-circuit inception at t
pi
). The pinch
effect only occurs with bundle conductors, when subconductors come close to each other:
t
pi
always occurs during short circuit.
Figure 11 Left Figure: Tensile force (left) time evolution of a typical twin-bundle span during
two-phase short circuit between horizontal phases. Three maxima: F
pi
at time T
pi
(so-called
pinch effect, due to bundle collapse), F
t
at time T
t
(the maximum of the force due to
maximum swing of the span represented by circle point 1 on the right figure), and F
f
at time
T
f
(the maximum of the force due to cable drop represented by circle 2 in the right figure.
Typically, T
pi
-40 ms, T
t
+1.2 s and T
f
= 4 s
18
Right figure: Movement of one phase (right) in a vertical plane at mid-span (X and Z are the
two orthogonal axes taken in the vertical plane at mid-span, perpendicular to the cable. Z is
vertical, -10 m is the initial point showing sag, and X is horizontal and transverse to the
cable). Such movement has been calculated for a two-phase fault of 63 kA (duration 0.1 s end
of short circuit being noted on the figure) on a 2 X 570 mm
2
ASTER on a 400-m span length
(sag 10 m) (Lilien and Dal Maso 1990).
It is interesting to compare the level of these loads with typical overhead line design loads
related to wind or ice problem (Electra 1991). Figure 11 shows results of such a case
calculated by simulation on a typical 400-kV overhead line configuration. Figure 12 shows
cable tension versus time in different dynamic loading conditions, as explained in the legend.
It can be seen that cable tensions due to short-circuit currents are significantly smaller than
other causes such as ice shedding.
Figure 12 Simulated longitudinal loads applied on attachment point on a cross arm on a
Beaubourg tower (the circuit configuration is shown by points T, R, and S in Figure 13) for
loading conditions (Lilien and Dal Maso 1990):
1. three-phase fault of 72.3 kA
2. two-phase fault of 63 kA
3. initial wind of 60 km/h followed by a gust at 100 km/h for 5 seconds on a quarter of the
span
4. shedding of ice sleeve of 6 kg/m
Reduction in Phase Spacing
After the initial outward swing, the phases move towards each other. For the case illustrated
in Figure 11, this inward movement exceeds 4 m per phase. That means a phase-spacing
reduction of more than 8 m. Other cases are shown in Figures 13 and 14 (only the rectangular
envelope of the movement is given) for different configurations and short-circuit level.
The timing of this inward swing may be such that the phase spacing is less than the critical
flashover distance at the time that voltage is restored by automatic reclosure. That would
induce a second fault with the dramatic consequence of a lock-out circuit breaker operation,
with all its consequences (power outage).
19
Figure 13 Calculated envelopes of phase-conductor movements for three types of loading
conditions on a Beaubourg tower (the figure is drawn in a vertical plane located at mid-span:
R, S, and T are their phase locations in still conditions) (Lilien and Dal Maso 1990):
1. two-phase short-circuit 63 kA either RT, RS, or TS
2. three-phase short-circuit 72.3 kA
3. initial wind speed of 60 km/h followed by a wind gust at 100 km/h during 5 s on a quarter
of the span.
Figure 14 Calculated envelope of phase-conductor movements for two-phase faults of
different rms amplitude (Lilien and Dal Maso 1990).
Distribution Lines
As mentioned earlier, very large movements may be seen on distribution lines (Figure 3).
Figure 15 shows a case of two circuits on the tower, where the faulted circuit forces some of
its phases to get in contact with the second (healthy) circuit, inducing a fault in the other
circuit so that both circuits trip out.
How to estimate the required interphase spacing is discussed further in Section 5 (Equation 8)
20
Figure 15 Three-phase short-circuit on 15-kV line (left circuit), with autoreclosure. a = fault
inception, b = 0.1 s, end of the first fault, c =0.4 s, time of reclosing, and d = 1.4 s end of the
second fault and definitive removal of the voltage on the line. Short-circuit of 2700 A on a
165-m span length, conductor 93.3 mm
2
AAAC (Lilien and Vercheval 1987).
21
5. ESTIMATION OF DESIGN LOADS
The most critical effects on power lines are:
1. For bundle conductors: spacer compression (Equation 4).
2. For power lines in general, but particularly for distribution lines: reduction in phase
spacing (Equation 8 for high-voltage line).
3. To a much lesser extent, and generally having negligible effect compared to other kind of
loading: tension increase generating longitudinal and transverse loads (Equation 7 for
longitudinal load due to interphase effect).
The loads under no. 3 above due to short circuits should be considered by line designers by
including them in the loading schedule for structures. Since there are three ways to have one
phase fault, three to have a two-phase fault, and one to have a three-phase fault, there may be
seven different loading conditions. They must, of course, be taken separately, since these
events cannot occur simultaneously.
Advanced calculation methods (Lilien 1983, El Adnani 1987, Wendt et al 1996, Declercq
1998, Stein et al 2000) may be used for any situation.
Bundle Conductors in Transmission Lines
Manuzio developed a simple method for spacer compression effect in bundle conductors
(Manuzio 1967).
10
log ( / )
c st s
F kI F s | = (N) 4
Where:
F
st
is initial sagging tension for each subconductor (N).
k is a correction factor depending on the number of subconductors.
k
twin
= 1.57.
k
tripple
= 1.44.
k
quad
= 1.27.
I is the rms short-circuit value/phase (kA).
s is the bundle diameter, related to subconductor separation a
s
by the formula (n = number
of subconductors):
sin(180 / )
s
a
s
n
=
(m) 5
|
s
is the subconductor diameter (m).
Example:
22
Consider a case of a short circuit of 35 kA (rms/phase) acting on a twin ACSR Condor (27.7
mm diameter) conductor with 0.457 m conductor separation, tensioned at 25
kN/subconductor. Equation 4 gives a spacer compression force of:
10
1.57 35 25000 log (0.457 / 0.0277) 9586
c
F x x N = =
However, in the analysis by Manuzio (Manuzio 1967), short-circuit current asymmetry was
neglected.
That has been taken into account in IEC 60865 for evaluating the maximum tension in the
conductor during fault. But IEC 60865 gives no recommendation for spacer compression.
Other methods to estimate spacer compression forces have been proposed (Hoshino 1970;
Pon et al. 1993; Lilien and Papailiou 2000). Some tests performed in Canada (Pon et al. 1993)
on spacer dampers for power-line-estimated spacer-compression design load up to 20 kN for
typical configurations and anticipated short-circuit levels.
Manuzios method can be safely applied to faults with maximum asymmetry through a correction
factor of 25% (multiply all k factors by 1.25). In fact, Manuzios method is very simple to apply
compared to other methods. It may not be accurate enough for use with respect to substation
flexible bus.
Alternatively, if we define F
pi
(as shown in Figure 11) as the maximum tensile load in one
subconductor during the bundle pinch, another best fit would be to use Manuzio method (without
correction factor), but using F
pi
pinch value instead of initial static pull. F
pi
can be evaluated by IEC
60685 method.
F
pi
increases linearly (and not with the square) with short-circuit current. That is because a stronger
short-circuit current will increase contact length, thus reducing acting parts of the conductors.
Note: In the use of IEC method 60865 to evaluate F
pi
, there is a need to introduce the so-
called supporting structure stiffness. In this application, that stiffness is not simply the
static stiffness of supporting structure, but must take into account insulator chain movement
during the first tens of milliseconds of the fault to arrive at an equivalent stiffness (which in
fact would permit evaluation of span end movement, from short-circuit inception up to the
maximum pinch value, after about 40 to 90 ms. An heuristic evaluation indicates that a good
estimate for such equivalent stiffness may be to consider in most of the practical cases a value
of 10
5
N/m.
Despacering as a Means to Limit Pinch Effect
Despacering (removal of spacers) is an antigalloping measure (see Section 4.5) for some
power lines. It has been used up to the 245-kV level for twin bundles of limited diameter. In
such cases, the bundle is turned in vertical or slightly oblique position, and conductor
separation is increased compared to a spacered bundle. Moreover, it has been recommended
to use larger subconductor spacing at the middle of the span (compared to end of the span)
for example, 0.6 m at ends and 0.8 m at mid-span.
Such configurations may suffer from the kissing phenomenon under high electrical load,
because electromagnetic forces also act under load current. At such current levels,
nevertheless, the electrostatic repulsion (due to voltage) cannot be neglected. It can be shown
23
that, at surge impedance loading (SIL), equilibrium exists between attraction and repulsion
forces. Power flows are often several times (up to four times) the SIL, so that attraction forces
are generally stronger than repulsion. One of the major problems of such configurations is
linked to possible sticking of the subconductors following a perturbation. As electromagnetic
forces depend on distances, there exists a distance under which the subconductors always
come together and stick together, and it is very difficult to separate them without opening the
circuit. Sticking induces large permanent noise and increase in corona. To avoid such
problems, line designers have developed several proposals like the hoop spacer (see Section
4.5).
Under short circuit, these configurations result in clashing between subconductors and, as
subspan length (= span length in this case) is very large, there is little increment in tension.
But, in the case of hoop spacers or similar, the conductor clashing destroys these light spacers
beyond a certain level of short-circuit current.
Interphase Effects: Estimation of Tension Increase and Reduction in Phase Spacing
The following discussion pertains to the case of horizontal/vertical configuration and neglects
temperature heating effects (Lilien and Dal Maso 1990). Only one span is considered.
a = interphase distance (m).
m = mass per unit of length of one phase (kg/m).
I
rms
= root mean square of the three phase short-circuit current/phase (kA).
t = time constant of the short-circuit asymmetric component decay (s).
t
cc
= duration of the fault (= time of first fault + time of second fault if auto-reclosing) (s).
L = span length (m).
T
st
= phase conductor static tension before the fault condition (N).
EA/L = conductor extensional stiffness (product of Young modulus times cross section
divided by span length) (N/m).
K = tower stiffness (N/m) (order of amplitude 10
5
N/m).
f = initial sag (m).
R = maximum displacement (m).
1. The energy imparted to the conductor is given by:
24
2
2
0
0.2 ( ) 1 3
.
2 . 4
rms cc
I t L
E m
a m
t ( +
=
(
(Joules) 6
2. The maximum tension in the conductor during movements:
2 0
max
2
2
st
E
T T
L
EA K
= +
+
7
3. The maximum displacement of one phase (zero to peak):
2
2 2 0
2
3
E
R f f
mgL
| |
|
= +
|
|
|
\ .
8
That maximum may be observed in the case when the conductors are moving away from
each other. But phase spacings can be critical when the phases move back towards each
other, in which case there is generally lower displacement (say, 80% of the separation
movement). In this case, the clearances may be reduced (the most dramatic case being a
two-phase fault) by 2 x 0.8 x R or 1.6 R.
25
The combined values of T
max
and R result in a transverse load on the suspension tower in
the case of a horizontal arrangement, for example.
There is very limited experimental validation of these formulas, because full-scale tests on
power lines have not been conducted.
It must be noted that advanced methods (finite elements) can be used to evaluate these
effects (details are given in CIGRE brochure 214-2002).
It is estimated that these formulas give results with 20% precision on the conservative
side.
Example:
For example, consider the following:
Short-circuit current at 63 kA during 100 ms (with time constant 60 ms) on a twin ASTER
570 mm
2
(m = 2 x 1.55 = 3.1 kg/m) with interphase distance a = 8.5 m, span length of 400
m and initial sagging tension of 2 x 31000 = 62000 N:
Energy imparted to the conductor using Equation 6:
2 2
2 2
0
0.2 ( ) 0.2 63 (0.100 0.060) 1 3 1 3 400
. 3.1 . 10803
2 . 4 2 8.5 3.1 4
rms cc
I t x L x
E m
a m x
t ( ( + +
= = =
( (
Joules
With conductor Young modulus = 5.6 x 10
10
N/m
2
and tower stiffness of K= 5 x 10
5
N/m,
the maximum conductor tension is calculated as:
2
max
10 6 5
2 10803
62000 77127
400 2
2 5.610 57010 510
x
T
x x
= + =
| |
+
|
\ .
Newtons
Assuming an initial sag of 9.8 m, the maximum displacement of one phase is :
2 2
2 2 2 0
10803
9.8 9.8 27.88
2 2
3.1 9.81 400
3 3
E
R f f
mgL x x
| | | |
| |
= + = + =
| |
| |
| |
\ . \ .
means R = 5.2 m
Thus the reduction in phase spacing is 2 x 0.8 x 5.2 = 8.32 m.
It means that the remaining clearance is 8.5 - 8.3 = 0.2 m.
For the same case at 45 kA, the results are:
E
0
= 2812 Joules
T
max
= 66270 N
26
Remaining clearance = 4.3 m
It can be noted that that energy varies as the fourth power of the short-circuit current.
This is due to the fact that short-circuit forces vary with the square of the current, so the speed
of the conductor at the end of the short-circuit also varies with the square of the current, and
energy in the system varies with the square of that speed.
The Case of Jumpers
At deadend structures, jumpers are used to connect the adjacent spans. These jumpers also
react during short circuit:
Interphase forces may cause jumper swing with possible drastic reduction of clearance with
tower legs or cross arms. Such effects may easily be limited by installation of appropriate
hold-down weights.
In case of bundle configuration, subspan length in the jumper cannot be large. Thus, the pinch
effect may cause the jumpers to bound upward toward the tower cross arms. Use of short
subspans in jumpers may be recommended to avoid clashing. Their use in substations may be
of interest in that connection.
Reference (CIGRE 1996) explains how to choose short subspans to avoid conductor clashing.
Interphase Spacers as a Mean to Limit Clearances Problem Linked with Short Circuit
Interphase spacers have been proposed to solve the phase-clearance problem during short
circuits (Declercq 1998). Experience has shown that appropriate installation of such devices
may effectively maintain appropriate clearances since conductor movement is restricted at
some location in the span.
A major challenge is defining the design load on these interphase spacers. Tests can be
performed, and some are available on the video accompanying this book. Advanced
calculation methods may also help to define these loads. Interphase spacers may be subjected
to bending stresses induced by conductor movements.
27
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H. Hoshino, 1970. Estimate of forces exerted against spacers when faulty condition occurs.
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28
IEC 60865-1 1993. Short-circuit currents - Calculation of effects. Part 1: Definitions and
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