Bridge Loading

Bridge Loading
BS5400 Part 2 & BD37/01 Part 14
azlanfka/utm06/mab1053
Objective
To identify the principal actions on bridge

structures and to describe how they are
considered in design.
Why Bridge Loading is Important
Bridges, particularly larger structures, are

substantial investments of public funding for
which a high level of safety is required.
Loads may be determined with greater
precision than with many other types of
structure.
Load paths are usually well defined - some
bridge structures are effectively iso-static.
Strength, static or fatigue, is more frequently
the governing design condition.
Definitions of Loads
Loads includes external forces applied to the structure

and imposed deformation such as caused by restraint of
movement due to changes in temperature.
Dead Loads are the weights of the parts of the structure
that are structural elements.
Superimposed Dead Loads are the weights of all
materials on the structure that are not structural
elements - road surfacing, ballast, parapets, ducts etc.
Live Loads are the vertical loads due to the traffic
(vehicles, locomotives, rolling stock and pedestrians).
Loads & Factors
Nominal loads specified in the code.

Design loads. Nominal loads should be multiplied by the
appropriate value of fL to derive the design load to be
used in the calculation of moments, shears, total loads
and other effects for each of the limit states under
consideration.
Additional factor f3. Moments, shears, total loads and
other effects of the design loads are also to be multiplied
by f3 to obtain the design load effects.
Loads to be considered. The loads to be considered in
different load combinations, together with the specified
values fLare given in the code.
Design Load Effects

Moments, shears etc must be resisted at a
particular limit state
Design Load Effect:
S* = f3 (effects of design load Q*)

= f3 (effects of fL .Qk)
= f3 . fL .Qk
Partial Safety Factors
f3 takes account of any inaccurate assessment of effects

of loading, unforeseen stress distribution in the structure
& variation in dimensional accuracy in construction.
f3 ~ 1.1 to 1.2 for imposed load

f3 is always 1.15 for dead load
For simplicity, f3= 1.15 for all loads and all types of
analysis, provided the percentage redistribution is not
more than 20%.
fL values are given in the code for different types of loads

& load combinations
Partial Safety Factors fL

(Clause 4.4, Table 1)
Load Classification
Classification of loads. The loads applied to a structure

are regarded as either permanent or transient.
Permanent loads include dead loads, superimposed
dead loads, loads due to filling material, differential
settlement and loads derived from the nature of
structural material (e.g. creep & shrinkage)
Transient loads include wind loads, temperature loads,
erection loads, primary & secondary highway loadings,
footway & cycle track loadings.
Primary loadings are vertical live loads. Secondary
loadings are due to changes in speed or direction (e.g.
centrifugal, braking, skidding & collision loads)
Load Combinations
Combination 1. Permanent Loads + Appropriate

Primary Live Loads
Combination 2. Combination 1 + Wind Load + Erection
Loads
Combination 3. Combination 1 + Temperature Load +
Erection Loads
Combination 4.
For highway bridges : Permanent Loads + Secondary LL
with associated Primary LL
For footway/cycle bridge : Permanent Loads +
Secondary LL of a vehicle colliding with a support
Combination 5. Permanent Loads + Friction at bearings
10
Application of Loads
Arrangement of loads on a bridge depends on the load

effects and the critical section being considered.
Code requires that when the most severe effect on a
structural element can be diminished by the presence of
a load on a certain portion of the structure, then the load
is considered to act with its least possible magnitude.
(i) In case of DL, fL = 1.0 is applied to all parts of the DL
(ii) In the case of SDL & LL, these loads should not be
applied to those portions where their presence would
diminish the load effect.
In the use of influence line, the SDL & LL should be
applied to the adverse parts and not the relieving parts of
the influence line.
11
Highway Definitions
Carriageway Width - Width includes all traffic

lanes, hard shoulders, hardstrips and marker
strips. It is the width between raised kerbs or the
distance between safety fences minus the setback for the fences.
Traffic Lanes - Lanes marked on the running
surface of the bridge. They have a maximum
width of 3.65 metres.
Notional Lanes - Parts of the carriageway road
for deriving the intensity of the live loads.
12
Carriageway Dimension
13
Carriageway
14
Notional lanes (BS5400 Part 2)

Clause 3.2.9.3 : Notional lanes are part of the
carriageway used solely for the purpose of applying the
specified live loads.
Notional lanes shall be taken to be not less than 2.3m &
not more than 3.8m wide. For carriageway 4.6m,
Carriageway width m
Number of notional lanes
4.6m up to and including 7.6
2
above 7.6 up to and including 11.4
3
4
5
6
15
Notional Lanes (Clause 3.2.9.3 BD37/01)
Notional lanes shall be taken to be not less than 2.50m

wide. Where the number of notional lanes exceeds two,
their individual widths should be not more than 3.65m.
The carriageway shall be divided into an integral number
of notional lanes have equal widths as follows:
Carriageway width m
Number of notional lanes
5.00 up to and including 7.50
2
3
4
5
6
16
Loaded Length & Influence Line
Bridges are very load position sensitive. The effect of the

applied loads will vary with their position on the bridge.
The UDL is to be applied to a loaded length (see notes)
corresponding to either the positive or negative portion of
an influence diagram relevant to the effects being
considered.
For a two-span bridge, the loaded length should be
positioned in the span for worst span moments but should
be applied over the central pier for maximum support
reactions. Simply applying a UDL across the whole
bridge, with a load intensity appropriate to the whole
length, will not necessarily be the worst case.
17
Traffic Loads (Live Loads)
Traffic loads on bridge decks are used to simulate the

effects of vehicles and/or pedestrian loads. Some traffic
loads represent the weight of real vehicles that can
travel over the bridges; other values and distributions
are chosen in such a way that they produce maximum
internal forces in bridge structures similar to the ones
produced by real vehicles.
Four types of loads are specified in the many codes:
a) Uniform distributed loads
b) Knife-edge load
c) Single wheel loads
d) Truck load
18
UDL Live Load
This load simulates the effects of normal permitted vehicles. In some

national codes its value is constant and independent of the loaded
area. In other codes the load value decreases with the area occupied
by the load. Distributed load is applied on the traffic lanes and over the
lengths that give the extreme values of the stress resultant (or internal
force) being considered. It may be continuous or discontinuous.
19
Highway Bridge Live Loads

(BS 5400, BD 37/01)
Loads to be considered. The structure and its elements

shall be designed to resist the more severe effects of
either:
a) design HA loading or
b) design HA loading combined with design HB loading
All road bridges shall be designed to carry HA loading. In
addition, a minimum of 30 units of type HB loading shall
be taken for all road bridges except for accommodation
bridges which shall be designed to HA loading only.
Motorways/trunk roads : 45 units HB, Principal roads :
37.5 units HB; Other public roads : 30 units HB (min.)
20
Type HA Loading (BD37/01)
Nominal uniformly distributed load (UDL). For loaded

lengths up to and including 50m the UDL, expressed in
kN per linear metre of notional lane, shall be derived
from the equation,
1
W 336
L
0.67
where L is the loaded length (in m) and W is the load

per metre of notional lane (in kN).
See Example
21
Type HA Loading (HA UDL)

BD37/01
For loaded lengths in excess of 50m but less than

1600m the UDL shall be derived from the equation,
1
W 36
L
0.1
For loaded lengths above 1600m, the UDL shall be

agreed with the appropriate authority. Values of the load
per linear metre of notional lane and the loading curve
are given in the code.
22
Intensity of HA Load (BD37/01)
23
HA Load Intensity
24
KEL Live Load
This load is usually associated with the uniform distributed load. It

does not represent a single axle load, but is a device to ensure that,
together with the uniform distributed load, the vertical shear and the
longitudinal moments that may occur in real bridge elements are
produced.
25
Type HA KEL (Knife Edge Load)
The HA-KEL is a line load acting across the

width of the notional lanes. It is a movable load
along the span and is placed is such a position
so as to cause the most adverse effect. Intensity
of HA-KEL is 120kN/width (kN/m).
In the design of abutment or pier, the HA-KEL
must be positioned over the abutment. In beam
design, HA-KEL is usually positioned at midspan.
26
Application of HA Load
HA-KEL
HA-UDL
span
width
Total HA Loading
27
JKR Specification for Live Loads
a)
b)
c)
Read in conjunction with BS5400: Part 2:

1978 with loaded lengths not exceeding
50m. All references to HA & HB loadings
are replaced with LTAL & SV loadings.
Loads to be considered :
Design LTAL loading
Design SV loading
Design LTAL combined with design SV
28
JKR Specification for Live Loads
Notional Lanes : fixed as 2.5m for LTAL

loading.
The width of SV is taken as 3.5m.
Areas of carriageway not covered by
notional lanes are loaded with the
minimum pedestrian loading of 5.0kN/m2.
Load combinations similar to BS5400.
29
JKR UDL Loadings (LTAL)
30
Multiple Lanes
Full HA loading should be applied in up to two lanes on

the bridge. When there are more than two lanes, the
extra lanes should be loaded with 60% (or 1/3 or
specified lane factor) of HA loading.
The choice of which lanes are loaded with full HA and
which are loaded with 60% (or 1/3 or lane factor) HA
should be made such that the maximum bending
moment or shear force is produced in the part of the
structure which is being designed.
Except where otherwise specified, the HA lane factors
for HA UDL & KEL shall be applied and the values are
given in Table 14 BD37/01 Part 14.
31
HA Lane Factors (BD37/01)
32
Single Nominal Wheel Load
Single nominal wheel load alternative to UDL and

KEL. One 100 kN wheel, placed on the carriageway and
uniformly distributed over a circular contact area
assuming an effective pressure of 1.1 N/mm2 (i.e.340mm
diameter), shall be considered.
Alternatively, a square contact area may be assumed,
using the same effective pressure (i.e. 300mm side).
Dispersal. Dispersal of the single nominal wheel load at
a spread-to-depth ratio of 1 horizontally to 2 vertically
through asphalt and similar surfacing may be assumed,
where it is considered that this may take place.
Dispersal through structural concrete slabs may be taken
at a spread-to-depth ratio of 1 horizontally to 1 vertically
down to the neutral axis.
33
Single Wheel Load
Some national codes

specify the
application of a single
heavy wheel load
placed anywhere on
the carriageway, with
a circular or
rectangular contact
area.
34
Truck Load
This load is intended to represent the
extreme effects of a single heavy vehicle.
In some countries it consists of a specified
number of wheel loads and arrangements.
Other codes indicate only the distances
between axles, the spacing of wheels in
each axle, and the minimum number of
axles.
35
Truck Load (Denmark)
36
JKR Malaysia SV Load
37
British HB Load
38
BS5400 Type HB Loading
Nominal HB loading. The plan and axle arrangement

for one unit of nominal HB loading is given in the code.
One unit shall be taken as equal to 10 kN per axle (ie 2.5
kN per wheel).
The overall length of the HB vehicle shall be taken as 10,
15, 20, 25 or 30 m for inner axle spacings of 6, 11, 16,
21 or 26 m respectively, and the effects of the most
severe of these cases shall be adopted. The overall
width shall be taken as 3.5m. The longitudinal axis of the
HB vehicle shall be taken as parallel with the lane
markings.
39
1.0m
1.0m
Position
of HB
Load to
produce
Maximum
Moment
1.0m
1.5m
1.8m
1.5m
3.0m 1.8m
cL of HB
cL of bridge
Maximum
moment
occurrs here
1.0m 1.0m 1.0m
Section A-A
Depends on
judgement of
designer.
~400mm
cL of bridge
40
Type HA & HB Loading Combined
Type HA UDL determined for the appropriate

loaded length and type HA KEL loads shall be
applied to each notional lane in the appropriate
parts of the influence line for the element or
member under consideration.
Type HB loading shall occupy any transverse
position on the carriageway, either wholly within
one notional lane or straddling two or more
notional lanes.
See Example.
41
HB Vehicle within One Lane

BD 37/01
42
HB Vehicle straddling 2 Notional Lanes

(BD 37/01)
43
HB Vehicle straddling 2 Notional Lanes

(BD 37/01)
44
JKR Lane Loadings (LTAL)

see Example
45
JKR Lane Loadings (Controlled SV)
46
JKR Lane Loadings (Uncontrolled SV)
47
Sidewalks/Footway
Many highway bridges, in urban and non-urban areas, have

sidewalks (footpaths) for pedestrian traffic and/or cycle tracks. On
these areas a uniform distributed load is usually considered.
Some codes indicate also that one wheel load applied on the
sidewalks should be considered.
48
Nominal Pedestrian Live Load

Elements supporting footways or cycle tracks only.
The nominal pedestrian live load on elements supporting
footways and cycle tracks only shall be as follows:
(a) for loaded lengths of 36 m and under, a uniformly
distributed live load of 5.0 kN/m2.
(b) for loaded lengths in excess of 36m, k x 5.0 kN/m2
where k is the
nominal HA UDL for appropriate loaded length (in kN/m) x 10

L+270
where L is the loaded length (in m).
49
Where the footway (or footway and cycle track together)

has a width exceeding 2m these intensities may be
further reduced by 15% on the first metre in excess of
2m and by 30% on the second metre in excess of 2m.
No further reduction for widths exceeding 4m shall be
made. These intensities may be averaged and applied
as a uniform intensity over the full width of the footway or
cycle track.
Special consideration shall be given to the intensity of
the pedestrian live load to be adopted on loaded lengths
in excess of 36m where exceptional crowds may be
expected. Such loading shall be agreed with the
appropriate authority.
50
Elements supporting footways or cycle tracks and a

carriageway. The nominal pedestrian live load on
elements supporting carriageway loading as well as
footway or cycle track loading shall be taken as 0.8 of
5.0 kN/m2 or k(5.0) kN/m2 as appropriate, except for
loaded lengths in excess of 400m or where crowd
loading is expected.
Reduction for footway exceeding 2m width is similar to
the previous case. Other reduction conditions are given
in the code.
See Example.
51
Parapets
Parapets of footpaths and cycle tracks that are protected from

highway traffic by an effective barrier are designed to resist
horizontal distributed force applied at a height of 1m above the
footway. The nominal value of this force is about 1.5kN/m.
When footways and cycle tracks are not separated from the highway
traffic by an effective barrier, design loads have to recognise the
need to contain traffic in the case of an accident. These loads are
considerably higher and include an alternative concentrated load.
52
Traction & Braking Forces
These forces result from the

traction or braking of vehicles
and they are applied to the road
surface, parallel to the traffic
lanes.
BS use 100kN HA for span up
to 3m, & plus 17kN each metre
of span over 3m but not
exceeding 253kN. For HB,
450kN for all spans.
JKR use a predetermined
maximum value of 253 kN for
both HA and HB loading.
53
Loads due to movement of beam caused by

Temperature, Shrinkage and Creep.
These are horizontal forces acting longitudinally on a

bridge generated by movement of beam caused by
effects of temperature, shrinkage and creep.
Temperature and shrinkage coefficients are often
assumed to be universal values. Creep coefficients
are dependent on concrete cube strength and cube
strength at transfer for prestressed concrete beams.
When the actual movement of beam is known and the
plan area of elastomer and its shear modulus found,
the horizontal forces due to temperature, shrinkage
and creep can be determined.
54
Beam Movement due to S,T,C

Forces
Movement due to shrinkage = (shrinkage coefficient x

beam length)
Movement due to temperature = (Temp. Coefficient x
beam length x Temp. difference)
Movement due to creep = (creep coefficient x beam
length)
JKR assumes shrinkage & creep have taken place
at time of beam placement.
Total beam movement = (Movement due Temp.) +
(movement due to shrinkage) + (movement due to
creep)
55
Horizontal Force due to STC Forces
The horizontal forces due to S,T,C produce beam

movement which are taken up by the elastomeric
bearing. The size and properties of the elastomer must
be known to calculate the total shear force due to S,T,C.
See Example.
56
Centrifugal Forces
Curved bridges are subject to centrifugal forces applied by the

vehicles that travel on them. These forces are related to the traffic
loads by a coefficient, a, whose value depends on the radius of the
curve, R, and on the design speed, v .
Some codes consider a uniform distributed radial load and others
divide it into concentrated loads.
57
Wind Loads
The wind actions on a bridge depend on site conditions

and geometrical characteristics of the bridge. The
maximum pressures are due to gusts that cause local
and transient fluctuations about the mean wind pressure.
Design gust pressures are derived from the design wind
speed defined for a specified return period.
BS153 : Part 3A : 1972 gives the values of wind
pressure and wind speeds for the Loaded Case and
Unloaded Case.
Exposed area of traffic on bridges has the length
corresponding to the maximum effects and in general a
height of 2.50m above the carriageway in highway
bridges and 3.70m above rail level in railway bridges.
58
Lateral Wind Effects (Unloaded Case)

(BS153 : Part 3A : 1972) Clause 12.2.2.1
a)
b)
Unloaded case : wind pressure 1.4 kN/m2 taken as

acting horizontally & normal to the sides of the bridge
on a total exposed area of the superstructure made up
of the these areas :
Windward girder, deck & bracing : the net exposed
area in normal projection elevation of the windward
girder, deck construction, bracing & parapet.
Leeward girders : the fraction n/16 of the net exposed
area in normal projected elevation of the leeward girder
(when the windward girder is a plate girder).
n is the ratio of distance c-c between windward &
outermost leeward girder, to the depth of the windward
girder.
59
Lateral Wind Effects (Loaded Case)

(BS153 : Part 3A : 1972) Clause 12.2.2.2
Loaded case. A wind pressure of 0.7kN/m2 shall be

taken as acting horizontally & normal to the sides of the
bridge on the exposed area of the superstructure and
live load taken as a single vertical plane surface having
a continuous height of 2.50m above the carriageway.
60
Longitudinal Wind Effects

(BS153 : Part 3A : 1972) Clause 12.3
For Plate Girder Bridges

Unloaded Case : A quarter of the total
lateral wind forces on the superstructure
Loaded Case : A quarter of the total
lateral wind forces on the superstructure
and half of the total lateral wind forces on
the live load.
See example
61
Settlement of Foundation
The settlements of foundations determined by

geotechnical calculations should be taken into account
during design of the superstructure.
For continuous beams the decisive settlements are
differential vertical settlements and rotations about an
axis parallel to the bridge axis.
For earth anchored bridges (arch bridges, frame bridges
and suspension bridges) horizontal settlements have to
be considered.
Where larger settlements are to be expected it may be
necessary to design the bearings so that adjustments
can be made, e.g. by lifting the bridge superstructure on
jacks and inserting shims. In such a case the calculations
should indicate when adjustments have to be made.
62
Earthquake Effects
The behaviour of a structure during an

earthquake depends on its dynamic behaviour,
namely its natural vibration modes and
frequencies, and damping coefficients.
When the bridge has a simple dynamic
behaviour, for instance when the first vibration
frequency is much lower than the other ones,
the seismic action may be reduced to an
equivalent static force.
63
Dynamic Behaviour of Bridge
64
Forces due to Water Current
All piers and other portions of the bridge should

be designed to resist the forces induced by
flowing water or debris.
Effect of stream current = KV2
Where, P = pressure (lb/ft2)
V = velocity of stream flow (ft/s)
K = constant
(K = 4/3 for square end; 2/3 for circular end)
Effect of debris is calculated as above but with

K=1.
65
Collision Force
In structures where essential load-carrying elements may be

subject to impact by vehicles, ships or aircraft, the
consequences should be considered as accidental load cases unless the risk of such collisions is evaluated as being so small
that it can be neglected.
It is necessary in many cases to allow partial destruction or
damage of the element which is directly hit. This element then
has to be repaired after the collision. It should, however, be
shown that the partial destruction of a single element will not
lead to a total collapse of the entire structure.
To reduce the consequences of collisions it may be necessary to
limit the movements of movable bearings so that only the
movements due to temperature effects can take place without
restraint.
66
Friction in Bearings
It should be checked whether the unavoidable friction

in bearings can induce forces or moments that have to
be considered in the design of the structural elements.
In a continuous beam with a fixed bearing at the
centre and longitudinally movable bearings on either
side, expansion (or contraction) of the beam induces
symmetrical frictional forces.
To take into account the uncertainty in the magnitude
of frictional forces it may be reasonable to assume full
friction in the bearings on one side of the fixed bearing
and half friction on the other side.
67
Erection Loads
Erection loads are especially important for the design of

composite and long-span bridges.
In long-span bridges the internal forces existing when
the construction is completed are frequently adjusted by
movements of supports or, in the case of cable stay
bridges and suspension bridges, by adjustment of the
cable forces.
In composite bridges the formwork for the deck is
usually supported by the steelwork alone, and is not
removed until after the deck becomes composite. The
stresses induced in the composite deck by the removal
of the formwork may be small enough to neglect, but in
principle, they are a form of permanent prestressing,
which can be considered in load combinations.
68
Critical Variable Action Effects
positive longitudinal moments within the span

negative longitudinal moments at internal supports
greatest longitudinal moments at changes of girder crosssection
maximum shears at supports
maximum shears at changes of web resistance
maximum reactions
critical combinations of moment and shear (usually at
supports)
maximum torsions (usually most critical for box sections)
maximum moments, shears and torsions on cross girders,
cross bracing and slabs
69
Analysis for Load Moments, Shears

and Torsions
Most global analysis is carried out by grillage

analysis.
Influence lines are still used; sometimes just to
identify critical locations for heavy vehicles and
knife-edge loading and sometimes for the
determination of numerical values. They may be
developed by the use of coefficients for
transverse distribution or they may be
determined by grillage analysis.
70

and Torsions
Most countries have one or two heavy vehicles,

usually with defined axle and wheel layouts. (e.g.
JKRs SV Load). They govern global effects for
medium and short span bridges. They are applied at
specific positions on the structure.
These positions may be determined by general
inspection, or by examination of influence lines.
Some modern computer programmes have automatic
load stepping facilities, both along and across the
bridge with search routines to determine relevant
maxima and minima.
71

and Torsions
Knife Edge Loads are applied at specific locations,

usually at midspan or close to supports.
Distributed loads are applied over the full lengths of
positive, or negative, influence lines. For example,
both neighbouring spans are loaded to determine
governing support moments, only one span is loaded
to determine governing mid-span moment
Software routines for automatic summation are
becoming more popular to determine governing
values of action effects.
Local slab and deck analysis is carried out
separately.
72

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BS5400 Part 2 & BD37/01 Part 14

To identify the principal actions on bridge

Why Bridge Loading is Important

Bridges, particularly larger structures, are

Loads includes external forces applied to the structure

Loads & Factors

Nominal loads specified in the code.

Design Load Effects

S* = f3 (effects of design load Q*)

Partial Safety Factors

f3 takes account of any inaccurate assessment of effects

f3 ~ 1.1 to 1.2 for imposed load

fL values are given in the code for different types of loads

Partial Safety Factors fL

Classification of loads. The loads applied to a structure

Combination 1. Permanent Loads + Appropriate

Arrangement of loads on a bridge depends on the load

Carriageway Width - Width includes all traffic

Notional lanes (BS5400 Part 2)

Notional Lanes (Clause 3.2.9.3 BD37/01)

Notional lanes shall be taken to be not less than 2.50m

Loaded Length & Influence Line

Bridges are very load position sensitive. The effect of the

Traffic Loads (Live Loads)

Traffic loads on bridge decks are used to simulate the

UDL Live Load

This load simulates the effects of normal permitted vehicles. In some

Highway Bridge Live Loads

Loads to be considered. The structure and its elements

Type HA Loading (BD37/01)

Nominal uniformly distributed load (UDL). For loaded

where L is the loaded length (in m) and W is the load

Type HA Loading (HA UDL)

For loaded lengths in excess of 50m but less than

For loaded lengths above 1600m, the UDL shall be

Intensity of HA Load (BD37/01)

KEL Live Load

This load is usually associated with the uniform distributed load. It

Type HA KEL (Knife Edge Load)

The HA-KEL is a line load acting across the

JKR Specification for Live Loads

Read in conjunction with BS5400: Part 2:

JKR Specification for Live Loads

Notional Lanes : fixed as 2.5m for LTAL

JKR UDL Loadings (LTAL)

Full HA loading should be applied in up to two lanes on

HA Lane Factors (BD37/01)

Single Nominal Wheel Load

Single nominal wheel load alternative to UDL and

Single Wheel Load

Some national codes

Truck Load (Denmark)

JKR Malaysia SV Load

BS5400 Type HB Loading

Nominal HB loading. The plan and axle arrangement

1.0m 1.0m 1.0m

Type HA & HB Loading Combined

Type HA UDL determined for the appropriate

HB Vehicle within One Lane

HB Vehicle straddling 2 Notional Lanes

HB Vehicle straddling 2 Notional Lanes

JKR Lane Loadings (LTAL)

JKR Lane Loadings (Controlled SV)