Keflaio 1

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Parlo pou h prth istorik anafor sth Gewdaisa wc anexrththc episthmonikc
perioqc gnetai ap ton Aristotlh sta Metafusik ton 5o aina p.Q., h sgqronh
antlhyh gia thn epistmh thc Gewdaisac akolouje ton orism pou thc dwse o
germanc gewdathc Friedrich Robert Helmert (1843-1917) to 1880 sth monografa tou Die mathematischen und physikalischen Theorien der Hoheren Geodasie.
Sthn prth pargrafo tou istoriko auto rgou anafretai wc Gewdaisa . . . h
epistmh thc mtrhshc kai apeiknishc thc ginhc epifneiac, orismc pou stic
mrec mac ja prpei gia lgouc plhrthtac na epektaje me thn prosjkh . . . kai
twn qronikn metaboln thc. O sntomoc kai periektikc autc orismc perilambnei to snolo twn jewrhtikn kai praktikn asqolin tou sgqronou gewdath,
tou sgqronou Agronmou kai Topogrfou Mhqaniko. Ete prkeitai gia thn
anlush doruforikn eiknwn me mejdouc Thlepiskphshc, ete gia th sullog
twn aparathtwn metrsewn pedou kai to metpeita sqediasm enc topografiko
diagrmmatoc sta plasia miac tupikc topografikc apotpwshc, o orismc tou
Helmert apodeiknetai tso petuqhmnoc so kai diaqronikc. H epistmh thc Gewdaisac, pwc aut orzetai ap ton Helmert, kalptei lec tic dunatc klmakec
apeiknishc perioqn thc ghc kai fainomnwn pou lambnoun qra sthn epifnei
thc. En periorsoume th sunolik ktash thc perioqc melthc tso, ste gia
thn anaparstash tou kampulmorfou sqmatoc thc ginhc epifneiac na mpore
na qrhsimopoihje na eppedo, katalgoume se ma exeidikeumnh gnwstik perioq
thc Gewdaisac, thn Topografa. Enac genik apodektc orismc thc epistmhc
thc Topografac dnetai ap to Dhmtrio Blqo (1987) wc exc: H Topografa
enai h epistmh pou didskei tic mejdouc me th bojeia twn opown apeikonzetai
up klmaka h epifneia tou edfouc epnw se na eppedo. O diaqwrismc enai safc. En ston orism tou Helmert sumperilambnontai fainmena kai parathrseic

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pou perigrfoun th gh sto snol thc, h epistmh thc Topografac periorzetai

se pol mikrterec ektseic, afo to telik pron miac topografikc melthc to topografik digramma o topografikc qrthc - apotele mia apeiknish tou
up melth kommatio thc ginhc epifneiac sto eppedo tou qrth me morf sqedou up klmaka. H Topografa periorzetai loipn se meltec mikrc ktashc,
pou h nnoia tou epipdou enai kurarqh all kai epitrept. H poluplokthta
thc pragmatikc topografikc epifneiac kai o qaraktrac twn orgnwn kai twn
mejdwn mtrhshc pou qrhsimopoiontai gia tic topografikc efarmogc enai ttoia, pou den epitrpoun th genkeush thc qrshc tou epipdou par mnon ktw
ap kpoiec propojseic, pou upeisrqontai mlista kai sto montlo paratrhshc
wc anagkaec paradoqc kai proseggseic pou ja analsoume me leptomreia sta
epmena keflaia.
To basik majhmatik antikemeno thc Topografac enai o prosdiorismc qarakthristikn shmewn tou qrou me th morf suntetagmnwn se kpoio topik ssthma anaforc. H gnsh autn twn suntetagmnwn epitrpei sth sunqeia thn
apeiknish twn shmewn sto orizntio eppedo tou topografiko diagrmmatoc perigrfontac me autn ton trpo kataskeuc, ktsmata, ria idiokthsin kai genik
to snolo twn anjrpinwn parembsewn sthn perioq pou qei apotupwje. O
zhtomenoc prosdiorismc qei ap majhmatik poyh kajar gewmetrik qarakthristik kai ja mporose na antimetwpiste plrwc me ta upologistik ergalea thc
klasikc analutikc gewmetrac. Wstso, kajc pragmatopoietai msa sto fusik peribllon twn metrsewn me th bojeia kpoiou topografiko metrhtiko
sustmatoc, adunate na parqei na monosmanto apotlesma. Aut shmanei ti
ta qarakthristik tou peribllontoc twn metrsewn, pwc h epdrash thc dijlashc thc atmsfairac kai h qronik metabol thc kat th dirkeia thc hmrac, h
diafor sth diejunsh thc katakorfou anmesa se do opoiadpote shmea tou
qrou, oi metaballmenec atmosfairikc sunjkec kat th dirkeia thc hmrac pou
epidron se diforec metromenec paramtrouc, ephrezoun thn akrbeia tou prosdiorismo thc jshc twn epilegmnwn shmewn tou pedou. Kurwc mwc h akrbeia
tou prosdiorismo twn en lgw shmewn enai mesa exarthmnh ap thn kataskeuastik teleithta twn topografikn orgnwn mtrhshc pou qrhsimopoiontai pou
enai diajsima gia to skop aut.
Ac exetsoume gia pardeigma, to jemelidec prblhma tou upologismo thc apstashc metax do shmewn A kai B pou ankoun se na prokajorismno eppedo.
Gia th majhmatik eplush tou problmatoc enai aparathtoc o orismc kpoiou
koino sustmatoc suntetagmnwn sto dio eppedo kai o prosdiorismc twn sunte-

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.B
sAB

.
A
Sqma 1.1: Gewmetrik perigraf tou problmatoc upologismo thc apstashc
metax do shmewn A kai B pou ankoun se na prokajorismno eppedo

tagmnwn (xA , yA ) kai (xB , yB ) twn do shmewn A kai B antstoiqa wc proc aut
to ssthma. Gnwrzontac thn arijmhtik tim twn suntetagmnwn o upologismc
thc zhtomenhc apstashc apotele ma
apl skhsh thc eukledeiac gewmetrac me
q
to monosmanto apotlesma sAB = (xB xA )2 + (yB yA )2 . Wstso, autc o
upologismc mpore na qarakthriste wc monosmantoc me th basik propjesh
ti oi timc xA , xB , yA kai yB apotelon kat apluto trpo gnwstc arijmhtikc timc, den enai me lla lgia ephreasmnec ap kanenc edouc abebaithtec
sflmata. Sta plasia afhrhmnwn problhmtwn thc analutikc gewmetrac ma
ttoia paradoq enai epitrept. Orzetai na trto shmeo sto en lgw eppedo wc h
afethra tou koino sustmatoc suntetagmnwn kai do kjetoi metax touc xonec
pou tmnontai sthn afethra. H afethra tou sustmatoc apokt ex orismo tic
suntetagmnec (0, 0), en oi suntetagmnec xA , xB , yA kai yB prokptoun metrntac thn apstash twn do shmewn A kai B ap touc antstoiqouc xonec. Kajc
h apstash enc shmeou ap eujea orzetai sthn analutik gewmetra wc to mtro
tou kjetou eujgrammou tmmatoc ap to shmeo proc thn eujea, mia isodnamh
kfrash gia tic parapnw suntetagmnec prokptei wc to mtro thc parllhlhc
metatpishc twn axnwn ap thn afethra tou sustmatoc mqri ta shmea A kai B.
Gia ton trpo orismo twn susthmtwn anaforc kai twn susthmtwn suntetagmnwn ja anaferjome analutik sto epmeno keflaio. Enai mwc profanc ti
sth diamrfwsh twn telikn arijmhtikn timn twn suntetagmnwn shmantik rlo pazei o trpoc orismo twn axnwn kajc kai o trpoc upodiaresc touc sta
stoiqeidh tmmata sou mkouc, ta opoa apotelon kai th bsh gia ton praktik
upologism twn xA , xB , yA kai yB . En gia pardeigma exetsoume to sugkekrimno
prblhma sto eppedo tou qartio, tte ta stoiqeidh tmmata pou mlic anafrjhkan tautzontai me tic mikrterec upodiairseic tou qraka pou qrhsimopoiome
gia th mtrhsh thc apstashc twn shmewn ap touc antstoiqouc xonec. En

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yB

yA

(0,0)

xA

xB

Sqma 1.2: O upologismc thc orizntiac apstashc apaite ton orism suntetagmnwn gia ta do suneppeda shmea

upojsoume ti (1) h kajetthta twn axnwn twn suntetagmnwn qei epiteuqje

me apluto trpo, (2) ta tmmata pou perigrfoun thn apstash twn shmewn A
kai B ap touc xonec enai apluta kjeta se autoc, (3) h mtrhsh me to qraka
tou mkouc twn tmhmtwn de sunodeetai ap kama phg sflmatoc (p.q. sflma
angnwshc thc alhjoc timc upodiareshc tou qraka adunama tatishc thc
sugkekrimnhc upodiareshc me to antstoiqo shmeo sto qart) kai (4) o qrakac
pou qrhsimopoiome de frei kpoio susthmatik sflma, pwc sflma upodiareshc sflma klmakac, tte mporome na pome ti o upologismc thc apstashc
sAB me to majhmatik tpo pou anafrjhke parapnw enai kai monosmantoc kai
apallagmnoc ap sflmata tso tou montlou perigrafc tou problmatoc so
kai tou metrhtiko sustmatoc (qrakac) pou qrhsimopoijhke gia th diexagwg
twn metrsewn.
En mwc to prohgomeno jewrhtik prblhma qei monosmanth lsh mno ktw
ap sugkekrimnec propojseic ta prgmata gnontai akmh pio polploka tso

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ap pleurc montlou so kai ap pleurc apaitsewn gia akrbeia twn qrhsimopoiomenwn metrhtikn susthmtwn, tan anafermaste ston prosdiorism thc
jshc qarakthristikn shmewn tou qrou kat th diexagwg tupikn topografikn ergasin. Se autn thn perptwsh oi suntetagmnec enc shmeou den enai pot
posthtec gnwstc kat ma apluth nnoia, all enai to apotlesma thc epexergasac kpoiwn prwtogenn dedomnwn pou qoun sulleqje sto pedo me kpoio
ap ta diajsima topografik rgana metrsewn. Anloga me thn orjthta twn gewmetrikn sqsewn kai twn qarakthristikn twn mhqanikn mern pou sunjtoun
to eswterik twn topografikn orgnwn pou ja qrhsimopoihjon gia tic anagkaec
metrseic pedou kai anloga me to kat pso ta qarakthristik aut paramnoun
stajer me to prasma tou qrnou tic metaballmenec periballontikc sunjkec
emfanzontai sugkekrimna sflmata stic metrseic. Etsi parathretai to gegonc
oi arijmhtikc timc tou diou gewmetriko megjouc sto pedo me to dio metrhtik
ssthma na diafroun metax touc tan h mtrhsh qei epanalhfje se do diaforetikc qronikc stigmc. Sthn ousa h alhjin tim opoioudpote gewmetriko fusiko megjouc pou parathretai sta plasia miac topografikc efarmogc apotele
pntote ma gnwsth parmetro. To gegonc aut mlista den allzei akma kai
me thn epanalambanmenh mtrhsh tou diou megjouc me to dio metrhtik ssthma.
Aut pou epiqeirome kje for enai, ekmetalleumenoi thn teqnologik exlixh
pou mac prosfrei gia lo to fsma twn efarmosmnwn episthmn kataskeuastik
lo kai teleitera basik rgana mtrhshc kai bohjhtikc metrhtikc diatxeic, na
metrsoume na sugkekrimno gewmetrik ( fusik se orismnec periptseic) mgejoc ston trisdistato qro me lo kai megalterh akrbeia. H diafor metax tou
jewrhtik agnstou parathromenou megjouc kai mac memonwmnhc paratrhshc
ekfrzei to sflma thc mtrhshc, gia to opoo eidik sthn Topografa diakrnoume
sunolik treic sunistsec, to susthmatik, to tuqao kai to qondroeidc sflma.
H jewra sfalmtwn kai anlushc twn dedomnwn, pou apotele ma llh basik
sunistsa thc ekpadeushc tou Topogrfou Mhqaniko, analei se leptomreia
tic nnoiec autc kai tic sundei sthn perptwsh thc Topografac me tic praktikc
topografikc metrseic (dieujnseic, gwnec kai apostseic) pou sullgontai ap
ta antstoiqa rgana metrsewn sto pedo.
Pra mwc ap ton kataskeuastik pargonta pou upeisrqetai sthn poithta twn
topografikn metrsewn (ma nnoia pou sunduzei thn akrbeia kai thn axiopista),
exsou shmantikc enai kai o orismc tou majhmatiko montlou pou perigrfei to
sugkekrimno prblhma tan anafermaste se pragmatikc topografikc efarmogc. Pso orj enai h majhmatik perigraf tou montlou kai pso realistik
perigrfei to zhtomeno prblhma sto plasio tou fusiko peribllontoc twn me-

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.B
sAB

Sqma 1.3: To prblhma tou prosdiorismo thc keklimnhc apstashc sAB metax
do shmewn A kai B sto qro

trsewn; Qarakthristik enai kai pli h perptwsh tou upologismo thc apstashc
pou orzoun do shmea A kai B tan aut anafrontai ston pragmatik trisdistato qro. Se antjesh me thn teleutaa perptwsh pou to eppedo sto opoo
orzontai ta do shmea tautzetai me to eppedo upologismo lwn twn sqetikn
gewmetrikn posottwn (eppedo tou qartio) sto no prblhma apaitetai prosektikc orismc enc epipdou anaforc epnw sto opoo ja efarmoston oi basikc
arqc thc eppedhc analutikc gewmetrac pou anafrjhkan parapnw. O lgoc
enai ti h eujea AB tmnetai sto qro me nan peiro arijm diaforetikn epipdwn. Jewrhtik kje na ap aut ta eppeda ja mporose na qrhsimopoihje
wc to eppedo upologismo thc apstashc sAB me ton trpo pou perigryame prohgoumnwc. Kajc o upologismc thc sugkekrimnhc apstashc entssetai sthn
topografik apotpwsh miac eurterhc perioqc, eisgetai h nnoia tou orizontou
epipdou. Prkeitai gia ma gewmetrik posthta me xeqwrist fusik ermhnea,
pou perigrfei me eniao trpo thn perioq melthc kai ja exetaste analutik sth
sunqeia.
Etsi, to zhtomeno tou upologismo thc orizntiac apstashc metax do shmewn
A kai B sto qro angetai se na prblhma pou apaite do xeqwrist bmata.
Sto prto bma pragmatopoietai h mtrhsh thc keklimnhc apstashc pou orzoun
ta do fusik shmea A kai B sto qro qrhsimopointac kpoio ap ta diajsima
gia to skop aut rgana mtrhshc apostsewn, en sto detero bma pragmatopoietai h anagwg thc keklimnhc apstashc sto orizntio eppedo. Se kpoiec
efarmogc, pwc gia pardeigma ston upologism uyometrikn diaforn msw miac

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trigwnometrikc qwrostjmhshc, zhtomeno enai to mtro thc keklimnhc apstashc sAB . Se kje perptwsh mwc apaitontai kpoia diakrit bmata sto pedo pou
epitrpoun thn praktik mtrhsh thc apstashc metax do shmewn. Arqik apaitetai h ulopohsh twn shmewn me kpoion eudikrito trpo epnw sthn topografik epifneia. Gia to skop aut qrhsimopoiontai difora bohjhtik exartmata
pwc karfi pssaloi, pou epitrpoun, anloga me thn efarmog, ma proswrin
pio makroprjesmh smansh tou shmeou sto pedo. To eujgrammo tmma pou
noht sundei ta do shmea (koruf twn karfin passlwn pou qoun paktwje
katllhla sto dafoc) mac dnei thn keklimnh touc apstash stic treic diastseic. Me thn emplok miac seirc metrhtikn orgnwn kai bohjhtikn kataskeun
pou ja perigryoume sth sunqeia, prospajome na upologsoume thn kalterh
dunat ektmhsh gia to mtro thc keklimnhc autc apstashc kajc kai thc probolc thc sto orizntio eppedo pou qei oriste eniaa gia thn perioq. H akrbeia
twn topografikn orgnwn, h pistthta tou majhmatiko montlou kai to gegonc
ti lec oi metrseic pragmatopoiontai sto idiatera polploko peribllon twn
katterwn strwmtwn thc atmsfairac dnoun na mtro thc poluplokthtac tou
aplo auto egqeirmatoc enc praktiko upologismo thc apstashc metax do
shmewn sto qro. En sto shmeo aut sunupologsoume to gegonc ti uprqei genik mia apathsh twn apodektn miac topografikc ergasac gia auxhmnh
akrbeia kai axiopista tou teliko prontoc, tte katadeiknetai me ton kaltero
trpo h idiatera auxhmnh apathsh thc Topografac gia akrbeia se la ta eppeda: (a) sth majhmatik diatpwsh tou montlou paratrhshc, (b) sth sullog twn
dedomnwn ap ta topografik rgana mtrhshc, (g) sth diadikasa anlushc kai
epexergasac twn metrsewn pedou gia ton upologism twn zhtomenwn pargwgwn
gewmetrikn posottwn kai tloc (d) ston upologism thc akrbeiac twn telikn
apotelesmtwn.
En kpoioc epijumose na perigryei to rlo thc Topografac, all kai thc Gewdaisac geniktera, ja mporose na pei ti prkeitai gia ekenec tic epistmec pou
epiqeiron na ulopoisoun sthn prxh afhrhmnec majhmatikc kai fusikc nnoiec,
pwc autc twn suntetagmnwn, twn susthmtwn anaforc kai twn susthmtwn
suntetagmnwn tou uyomtrou kai twn uyometrikn diaforn. Gia pardeigma,
epistmec pwc h Fusik ta Majhmatik qrhsimopoion gia tic dikc touc efarmogc kat kron gewdaitikc nnoiec, pwc to yoc, th gewdaisiak gramm to
qrth, qwrc sunjwc na anafrontai stic sugkekrimnec mejdouc ulopohshc
mtrhshc autn twn megejn. Ap ta sa anafrjhkan parapnw mpore kanec
na fantaste tic idiaterec apaitseic kai ton idiatero qaraktra thc Topografac
se sqsh me llec epistmec, to giat qei apoktsei ton epijetik prosdiorism

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thc epistmhc twn polln dekadikn. Akribc lgw thc fshc tou antikeimnou
thc h Topografa den mpore na isquriste thn apluth orjthta twn apotelesmtwn thc, pnta ap ma austhr majhmatik skopi. Mpore mwc na isquriste
ti, me bsh to majhmatik montlo pou uiojetjhke kai ktw ap tic dedomnec
exwterikc sunjkec pou epikratosan kat th qronik stigm twn metrsewn, oi arijmhtikc timc twn telikn apotelesmtwn brskontai msa sta ria akrbeiac kai
axiopistac pou kajorzontai ap ta antstoiqa statistik ergalea twn mejdwn
anlushc twn dedomnwn kai sunrjwshc twn parathrsewn pou qoun sulleqje
sto pedo. Etsi, en den filodoxon na pargoun apotelsmata pou na enai apallagmna ap kje qnoc sflmatoc abebaithtac, oi teqnikc mtrhshc kai oi
mjodoi upologismo thc Topografac enai se jsh na mac parqoun thn kalterh
dunat ektmhsh gia to mtro sugkekrimnwn gewmetrikn megejn pou perigrfoun
th sqetik jsh qarakthristikn shmewn epnw sthn epifneia thc ghc kajc kai
na ekfrsoun posotik thn akrbeia thc telikc apdoshc autc thc plhroforac
epnw sto eppedo tou topografiko diagrmmatoc. H ektmhsh thc akrbeiac twn
telikn apotelesmtwn prorqetai ap thn efarmog analutikn statistikn kannwn kai antikatoptrzei afenc tic metrhtikc ikanthtec isodnama ta eppeda
akrbeiac twn topografikn orgnwn mtrhshc pou qrhsimopoijhkan gia tic metrseic pedou, afetrou de thn poithta twn metrsewn kai thn empeira thc omdac
pou tic pragmatopohse.
O skopc twn arqn kai mejdwn pou perigrfontai sta epmena keflaia enai
prwtstwc na analujon oi arqc leitourgac twn orgnwn mtrhshc kai oi mjodoi prosdiorismo thc jshc shmewn thc ginhc epifneiac epnw sto eppedo enc
topografiko diagrmmatoc. Wstso, to telik pron autc thc diadikasac, pou
enai nac katlogoc suntetagmnwn qarakthristikn shmewn tou edfouc wc proc
kpoio katllhla orismno topik uperkemeno ssthma suntetagmnwn, prpei
na exetzetai sto plasio thc mellontikc axiopohshc autc thc plhroforac ap
ma eurterh omda qrhstn. Kajc ta shmea tou qrou pou prosdiorzontai
msa ap ma klasik topografik apotpwsh perigrfoun thn katstash enc
ktsmatoc miac kataskeuc th dedomnh qronik stigm, ja prpei, sta plasia enc swst organwmnou topografiko sqediasmo, tso oi topografikc metrseic
so kai oi antstoiqoi upologismo na apojhkeontai katllhla se na Gewgrafik
Ssthma Plhroforin kai na enai prosbsima gia mellontikc efarmogc. Se
autn thn katllhla diamorfwmnh hlektronik bsh dedomnwn ja prpei na kataqwrontai la ekena ta stoiqea, pou ja epitrpoun thn parakolojhsh kai thn
tekmhrwsh twn opoiwndpote metaboln thc fusikc epifneiac thc ghc, ete lgw
fusikn fainomnwn (seismo, plhmmrec, fusikc katastrofc), ete exaitac thc

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angkhc efarmogc diafrwn dikastikn apofsewn (allag orwn idiokthsin,

prxeic efarmogc k.lp.). Axzei ed na shmeiwje ti, en h nnoia tou gewgrafiko sustmatoc plhroforin prpei na apotele na anapspasto tmma enc
swst organwmnou Ejniko Kthmatologou, h efarmog hlektronikn bsewn dedomnwn gia thn katagraf metrsewn kai upologismn se diaforetikc qronikc
peridouc apotele basik arq ulopohshc miac meglhc kathgorac efarmogn me
uyhlc apaitseic se akrbeia pwc biomhqanikc efarmogc, dianoxeic shrggwn
kai tonel, parakolojhsh paramorfsewn teqnikn rgwn k.lp.