15C

.



,
, ...

.

.


,
.
()
( )
, .
,
,
.
,
,
.
,
, .
, ,
, .
, .
,
.


.


. ,
, , .


, . , ,

.
, ,
..

. 6
,
.




,
, .

,
.

.


.
,
.

, ,
(climacteric), .
,
.
, , , ,

, , , , , ..,
, ,
, , , , , , .
,
, ,



.
. (2.1)

,
,
.

2.1.
. . (,
1996)

.

.
.

 ppm.
, , , .

, ,
.
()
, pH
7 5.1 6.5.
1-36 h .
pH
.
ATP . ATP pH
.
pH
.

. (2C 2 3
) .
(, ...)

.
-

.
.

, -
.
,

.

:
Gram- : Pseudomonas ( ),
Acinetobacter, Aeromonas, Alcaligenes, Alteromonas, Flavobacterium, Moraxella,
Shewenella, Vibrio.
, , , .

 0 -3C
5-10C.
, pH (<5.5), (<0.98),
. , ,
.
/ : Citrobacter, Escherichia, Enterobacter,
Klebsiella, Proteus, Serratia. gram-
,
.

. -2 8C
8-15C.

pH (
). , , ,
.
Gram- : Bacillus, Clostridium.

(.. )
. 0
5C > 8C.

.
: Lactobacillus, Streptococcus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus.
gram-
. < 8C

. pH
3.6,
. .

(, , ) .
: Brochothrix
thermosphacta
.
Corynebacterium, Kurthia Arthobacter.
Micrococcus


.
: Candida, Debaryomyces, Hansenula, Kluveromyces,
Rhodotorula, Saccharomyces, Torula, Zygosaccharomyces (), Aspergilus,
Cladosporium, Geotrichum, Mucor, Penicillium, Rhizopus, Thamnidium
().
.

.
0C .
pH ,
.
, ,
(
-).

( )
( ).
3-10C,
3C.
,
12C.

2.1.
2.1.
.

a
Listeria
monocytogenes
(inf)
< 0C
0- 5C
5-10C

Yersinia enterolytica (inf)

Vibrio parahemolyticus (inf)
Aeromonas hydrophilia (inf)
Salmonella (inf)
Escherichia coli 0157 (inf)
Staphylococcus aureus (tox)
Campylobacter jejeuni (inf)

Clostridium botulinum type E,

(tox)a
Bacillus cereus (tox)
Bacillus subtilis (tox)
Clostridium perfringens (inf)

Clostridium botulinum type A & (tox)

10-15C
a
inf: , tox:
: Brown and Gould, 1992 Walker and Stringer, 1992

 ,
Staphylococcus aureus
2.1, ,
. ,
Clostridium botulinum type E Bacillus cereus
5C.
,
.


.

.
..
13C, 14C,
.
4C,
,
.
.
,



.
.

.

.

3-10C, 3C.

, ,
.

,
.

(chilling injury).
,
, ,
.
.

0-5C .
.



, .

.

2.2. ,
1-2C
.
1C .
, , ,
.
,
7C.


.


.
,

,
.
2.2. ,
.

(C) . (%)

7-9
90-95
10-14

0-8
65-75
8-12

-1-0
85-95
6-7

-1-0
90-95
2-7

-1-0
90-95
2-3

0
85-90
1-2

0-2
80-85
2

0
90-95
3-7

0-9
85-90
4-6

-1-0
90-95
2-4

7-10
85-90
4-6

0
90-95
4-5

2-4
85-90
2-3

0-8
65-75
8-12

-1-0
90-95
2-3

0
85-90
2-3

0-1
88-92
1-6

0-1
85-90
5-12

0-1
85-90
3-7

0
90-95
3-4

0-4
85-90
3-6

0-1
85-90
3-5

0-2
60-70
1

0
90-95
2-3

7-9
85-90
9-11

-1-0
88-90
3-8

14-16
85-95
7-11

-1-0
85-90
2-4

7-9
85-90
1-2

0-9
85-90
6-12

-1-0
85-90
2-4

0-2
90
2-3

-1-0
85-90
3-6

-1-0
85-90
8-10
85-90
8-10

6-8

0
85-90
7-9

0
50-60
9-12

0
65-75
6-12

0-2
90-95
5-15
: , 1996


90-95%. 85-90%.
, , 85%.
,
85%. 2.2
.

.
0-1C
.

. (,
...)
.


, .
. ,
(, ...) , ,
.
.



.
.

.
() ().

.
.



, .
(Modified
Atmosphere, MA) (Controlled Atmosphere, CA).

.
,
.
.
2 10%
CO2. 2
CO2.
CO2 10%
.
2
.

, .
2
( 2 ),
.
2 1.8% 3.5C, 2.3%
1.2% 20 10C, 4%
20C.
CO2
, ,
.

.
2 CO2
. CO2
10% .
(
), ,
.
CO2 2
, .


.

,
, , , ...
. ,
.

(.. , ), ,
,
.


()
. ,
.

.
2.3. .
(m3)
500
5000
20000
50000
85000
: Woolfe, 1992.

2
3
4
5
6

,
.

. 500 m3
.
2.3.

.


1-2C.


.
,
, ().
(Chromel-Alumel) (Copper-Constantan).
,
(-184 1600C).
,
( )
.., .
(0.8C) (1.8C).

(-270 850C)
(0.4C), .

. (0.3C),
(-40 140C)

.
(chart recorders) (data logging
systems)
,


.
H
.

(temperature indicators),
(time-temperature
indicators or integrators).
,
.
, ,
.

 (, CA)
,
,

, .
, .
2.4.

2
CO2

(C)
(%)
(%)
()

7/12
2-3
3-10
2

12
1-4
0
0.7

0/1
2-4
2-3
0.7

0
2
4-5
7

-1.5/0
1-5
0.5-8
3-8

0
2
5
1.5

0
3
10
3

0
3-10
10-12
1

0
3-4
5-7
1.3-1.7

0
1-2
0-1
9

0
2-3
4-5
3-4

0
10-14
8-10
0.3-0.7

0/4.5
1.5-4
1-6
4-8

0
2-3
5-10
0.3

-0.5/0
2
5
1.7

0
3-4
4-5
1-1.3

-0.5/0
2
4-5
1.3

-1
3
5
7

1/3
10-16
10-14
0.3-0.5

2
3-4
2-3
1-1.3

7
3-4
4-5
0.3

:Gorini et al, 1990

.

.
.
2 3% 2-3% ,
CO2 2

7% 0.5 2% .
, .
, , , , ,
(1-2 )
20% CO2.
CO2 .
SO2
. .
(, , , )
5-50% CO2 1-7 ,
.
.
2.4.

.


.
O2 CO2,

.

.
2.5. .

.
10 20C.

CO2,
.
10% CO2 -1 -1.5C.
,
50% .
.

CO2,
15%.

 2.5.
5C
(mL CO2/kg h)
<5
5-10
10-20

20-40
40-60
>60

,

, , (),
,
, , , ,
, , , ,

, ,
,
, , , ,

: OBeirne, 1990

CO2>20%.
50-100% CO2 .

/

.
, .
.
25 mm .
5
mm . 0.2%
12.5 mm
.
30 mm
30 min (15 mm ).

,
.

.

.


. H
:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 +6H2O
O CO2 O2
1.
CO2/ O2 1. ,
CO2
(10.7 J/mg CO2).
CO2 2
.
,
,
.

.
.


. ,
, (
,
).
,
.


(scrubbers).
Ca(OH)2, NaOH
.
,
.
.

.
,

 ,
CO2 / N2.


.
:
1. ,

, .
.
2. ,

.


,
.
, ,
.

:
dT
ma ca a = ( )-( )
(2.1)
dt
:
dWa
ma
= ( )-( )
(2.2)
dt
ma (kg)
ca (J/kgC)
Ta (C)
Wa (kg /kg )
/ :
) /
) , , .
) , (), .
)
) /


().
,
,
.
.
:
)
)
) ,
/

,

.
,
.

.

.

, .

p1
p2 (C) :
Q = m p c p ( Tp 1 T p 2 )
(2.3)
mp (kg)
cp p1 p2 (J/kgC).

.

.
4

 , , .

837.36 J/kgC,
1647.72 J/kgC 4186 J/kgC


.


, :
dTp
mp c p
= hA p (Ta Tp ) Tp = Ta + (TpIT Ta ) exp hA p t / m p c p
(2.4)
dt

q p = hA p (Tp Ta )

(2.5)

Bi<0.1.
Bi >0.1
. h,

(hAp) (2.4) (2.5),
.

,
:
N p = k g A p ( pa p s )
(2.6)

q evap = N p L

:
dTp
mp c p
= q p + q evap = hA p (Ta Tp ) + q evap
dt

(2.7)

(2.8)

.

()
:
qr = ae bT
(2.9)
b .

 2.6.
qr = ae bT , qr mW/kg C.

12.1
11.7
29.1
6.9
16.8
59.1
19.4
111.0
97.7
33.4
13.4
14.8
20.3
65.6
173.0
38.1
13.2
86.1
50.1

b
0.173
0.092
0.083
0.099
0.074
0.074
0.108
0.106
0.121
0.072
0.106
0.133
0.104
0.131
0.086
0.056
0.103
0.115
0.106

: Toledo, 1980.
b
2.6. t

(2.9):
t

Qr = ae bT ( t ) dt

(2.10)

,

. (2.10)


.


.
:

mp c p

dTp
dt

= hA p (Ta Tp ) + q evap + q r

(2.11)

, ,


.
, ,
.
,
.

.

:
q w = UA(Text Ta )
(2.12)

qw (W)
U (W/m2 C)
A (m2)
ext (C)
24
. (Text-Ta)
Text. qw
(2.1)
Ta .


. .

. , ,
.
,
,
.
, ,
1025
J/s(hp). .


.

, , 300 J/s
.

(2.2) .
, (..
).
(Nt)
(2.2)


,
, ( )
.

22 66C
:
q d = 2126Wd e 0.0484 T H d1.71
(2.13)
qd (W)
Wd (m)
Hd (m)
(C)

, :
q d = 0.5 Av a a ca (Text Ta )
(2.14)
(m2)
va (m/s)
a (kg/m3)
ca (J/kgC)
ext (C)
:
N d = 0.5 Av a a (Wext Wa )

(2.15)

Wext (kg /kg )

Wa (kg /kg )



, .

,
:
dT
mb cb b = hAb (Ta Tb )
(2.16)
dt
qb = hAb (Tb Ta )
(2.17)
mb (kg)
cb (J/kg C)
Tb (C)
Ab (m2)
(h)

.
.

1. 32.2C 4.4C 4h.

,
.

(Q) :
Q = (Qs)+ (Qr)
90%
Siebel:
cp=33.49x90+837.36=3851 J/kg C
:
Qs = c p T = 3851
. (32.2 4.4) = 107.07 kJ/kg
(tc)
(2.11):
tc

Qr = ae bT ( t ) dt
0

:
T1 T2
T1 T T1 T2
t
=
T = T1
tc
t
tc

tc

Qr = a e e
bT1

T1 T2
t
tc

tc

dt = ae

bT1

T1 T2
t
tc

ae bT1
dt =
b(T1 T2 ) / t c

b T1 t T2 tc

e c 1

t c ae bT1
1 e b ( T1 T2 ) ]
=
[
b(T1 T2 )
b 2.6 16.8
0.074, . 1=32.2, 2=4.4, tc=4 h=14400 s
Qr=1112 J/kg
Q=Qs+Qr=107.07+1.11=108.18 kJ/kg

.

2. (1 kg) 2 L
50% . 4C
1 atm
2.5%.
CO2 / 2 = 1.

CO2
10.7 J/mg CO2 .
2.6 :
=65.6
b=0.131
qr=ebT=65.6xe0.131x4=110.78 mW/kg
1 kg
110.78 mW.
(110.78x10-3 W) / (10.7 J/mg CO2) = 10.35x10-3 mg CO2/s = 37.3
mg CO2/h = 37.3x10-3/44 = 0.85x10-3 mole CO2/h.
CO2 / 2 = 1
0.85x10-3 mole O2/h.
mole O2 ,
50%, :
1 0.5 2
PV
= 0.21 0.044 mole
n IT = 0.21n = 0.21
= 0.21
RT
0.08206 277
2 2.5%
n Fin = 0.025n = 0.025 0.044 mole
2 ,
:
(0.21 0.025) 0.044
= 9.6 h
t=
0.85 10 3

1. 0.08x0.04x0.065 mxmxm
27C 2C.
8C.

 h=40 W/m2 C,
=1030 kg/m3.
2. 21C 4C
1.5C.
4C
50 W/m2 C,
0.035 m, =975 kg/m3
k=0.52 W/m C.
14.6%, 0.4%,
0.3%, 0.5%, 84.2%.
3. 2 C, 100 m3
50% .
2C 1atm. N
CO2
5%,
2=2% CO2 =5%.
CO2 / 2 = 1, 840 kg/m3.

(2.10)
(m2)
w
b (2.10)
i Biot: hR/k
c (J/kg K)
f
(s)
Fo Fourier kt/(cpR2) t/R2

h
Hd
j
k
kg
L
m

N
Nt
pa
ps

(W/m2 C)
(m)

(W/m K)
(s/m)
(J/kg)
(kg)
(% )
(kg/s)
(kg/s)
(Pa)
(Pa)

 (W)
Q (J)
T (C)
U (W/m2C)
va (m/s)
V (m)
W (kg /kg )
Wd (m)
Y=(T-Tm)/(TIT-Tm)
q

( )
av
b
c
d
ext
IT
m
p
r
rad
s
w

Brown M.H. and Gould G.W. (1992) Processing in Chilled Foods A Comrehensive
Guide, ed. C. Dennis and M. Stringer, Ellis Horwood, N.Y., pp.111-146.
Cleland A.C. (1990) Food Refrigeration Processes Analysis, Design and Simulation,
Elsevier Applied Science, London-N.Y., pp. 1-32, 79-94.
Fennema O. (1975) Preservation of food by storage at chilling temperatures in

Physical Principles of Food Preservation, ed. O. Fennema, Marcel Dekker Ink.,

N.Y., pp. 133-171.
Gorini F.L., Eccher Zerbini P. and Testoni A. (1990) The contolled atmosphere
storage of fruit and vegetables in Chilled Foods The State of the Art, ed.
T.R.Gormley, Elsevier Applied Science, London-N.Y., pp. 201-224.
Heldman D.R. and Singh R.P. (1981) Food Process Engineering, 2nd ed., The AVI
Publishing Co. Inc., Westport, Connecticut, pp.87-157, 385-408.

James S.J. and Bailey C. (1990) Chilling systems for foods in Chilled Foods The
State of the Art, ed. T.R.Gormley, Elsevier Applied Science, London-N.Y., pp. 1-35.
.. (1981) , , ,
. 201-219.
. (1996) , , , .
87-92.
OBeirne D. (1990) Modified atmosphere packaging of fruits and vegetables in
Chilled Foods The State of the Art, ed. T.R.Gormley, Elsevier Applied Science,
London-N.Y., pp. 183-199.
Rahman S. (1995) Food Properties Handbook, CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp. 416-417.
Singh R.P. and Mannapperuma J.D. (1990) Developments in food freezing in
Biotechnology and Food Process Engineering, ed. H.G. Schwartzberg aand M.A.
Rao, Marcel Dekker, N.Y., pp. 309-358.
Toledo R.T. (1991) Fundamentals of Food Process Engineering, 2nd ed, The AVI
Publishing Co. Inc., Westport, Connecticut, pp. 398-436.
Walker S.J. (1992) Chilled foods microbiology in Chilled Foods A Comrehensive
Guide, ed. C. Dennis and M. Stringer, Ellis Horwood, N.Y., pp. 165-195.
Woolfe M.L. (1992) Temperature monotoring and measurement in Chilled Foods A
Comrehensive Guide, ed. C. Dennis and M. Stringer, Ellis Horwood, N.Y., pp.77109.