Network Architectures

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 Objectives
• Compare and contrast media access
methods used in network
architectures
• Describe the operation of Ethernet
• Differentiate between Ethernet
standards and speeds
• Explain the four Ethernet frame types
and how they are used
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 Objectives (continued)
• Describe the token ring architecture
and its components
• Explain the function of Fiber
Distributed Data Interface
• Describe other LAN and WAN
architectures and their role in today’s
networks

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 Putting Data on the Cable:
Access Methods
• Given that network architectures
communicate in a number of different
ways, some factors in network
communications must be considered
– How computers put data on the cable
– How they ensure that the data reaches its
destination undamaged

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 Function of Access Methods
• The way in which computers attached to a
network share the cable must be defined
• A collision results from two or more devices
sending a signal along the same channel at the
same time
– Splitting data in small chunks helps prevent collisions
• Channel access methods specify when
computers can access the cable or data channel
– Ensure that data reaches destination by preventing
computers from sending messages that might collide
– Every computer on a network must use the same
access method

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 Major Access Methods
• Channel access is handled at the MAC
sublayer of the Data Link layer in the
OSI model
• Five major types of channel access
– Contention
– Switching
– Token passing
– Demand priority
– Polling

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 Contention
• In early networks based on contention,
computers sent data whenever they had
data to send
• As networks grow, outgoing messages
collide more frequently, must be sent again,
and then collide again
• To organize contention-based networks, two
carrier access methods were created
– CSMA/CD
– CSMA/CA

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 Carrier Sense Multiple Access
with Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD)

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 Carrier Sense Multiple Access
with Collision Avoidance
•
(CSMA/CA)
When the computer senses that no other computer is
using the network, it signals its intent to transmit
– Other computers with data to send must wait when they
receive the “intent-to-transmit” signal and send their “intent-
to-transmit” only when channel is free
• The overhead created by intent-to-transmit packets
reduces network speed significantly
• Used in wireless LANs with an access point
– Wireless NIC tells access point its intents to transmit
– Access point hears transmissions from all devices, so it can
determine whether it’s okay to transmit

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 Switching
• Switching: nodes are interconnected through a
a switch, which controls access to the media
– Contention occurs only when multiple senders ask to
reach the same receiver simultaneously or when the
simultaneous transmission requests exceed the
switch’s capability to handle multiple connections
• Advantages: fairer, centralized management
(enables QoS), switch can have connection ports
that operate at different speeds
• Disadvantage: higher cost

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 Token Passing

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 Demand Priority
• Demand priority: channel access method used
solely by the 100VG-AnyLAN 100 Mbps Ethernet
standard (IEEE 802.12)
– 100VG-AnyLAN runs on a star bus topology
– Intelligent hubs control access to the network
• Hub searches all connections in a round-robin fashion
• When an end node has data to send, it transmits a demand
signal to the hub
• The hub then sends an acknowledgement that the computer can
start transmitting its data
– The major disadvantage of demand priority is price

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 Polling

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 Choosing an Access Method

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 Choosing an Access Method
(continued)

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 Choosing an Access Method
(continued)

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 The Ethernet Architecture
• 1960s and 1970s: many organizations worked on
methods to connect computers and share data
– E.g., the ALOHA network at the University of Hawaii
– 1972: Robert Metcalf and David Boggs, from Xerox’s PARC,
developed an early version of Ethernet
• 1975: PARC released first commercial version (3 Mbps, up to 100
computers, max. 1 km of total cable)
• DIX developed standard based on Xerox’s Ethernet (10
Mbps)
• 1990: IEEE defined the 802.3 specification
– Defines how Ethernet networks operate at layers 1-2

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 Overview of Ethernet
• Ethernet is the most popular network architecture
– Advantages: easy to install, scalable, broad media support,
and low cost
– Supported transmission speeds: 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps
– Uses the NIC’s MAC address to address frames
– Ethernet variations are compatible with one another
• Basic operation and frame formatting is the same
• Cabling, speed of transmission, and method by which bits are encoded
on the medium differ

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 Ethernet Operation
• Ethernet is a best-effort delivery system
– It works at the Data Link layer of the OSI model
• Relies on the upper-layer protocols to ensure reliable
delivery of data
• Understanding the following concepts is
important:
– How Ethernet accesses network media
– Collisions and collision domains
– How Ethernet handles errors
– Half-duplex and full-duplex communications

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 Accessing Network Media
• Ethernet uses CSMA/CD in a shared-
media environment (a logical bus)
– Ethernet device listens for a signal or carrier
(carrier sense) on the medium first
– If no signal is present, no other device is
using the medium, so a frame can be sent
– Ethernet devices have circuitry that detects
collisions and automatically resends the
frame that was involved in the collision

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 Collisions and Collision
Domains

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 Ethernet Error Handling
• Collisions are the only type of error for which Ethernet
automatically attempts to resend the data
• Errors can occur when data is altered in medium
– Usually caused by noise or faulty media connections
– When the destination computer receives a frame, the CRC is
recalculated and compared against the CRC value in the FCS
– If values match, the data is assumed to be okay
– If values don’t match, the data was corrupted
• Destination computer discards the frame
• No notice is given to the sender

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Half-Duplex Versus Full-Duplex
Communications
• When half-duplex communication is used
with Ethernet, CSMA/CD must also be used
• When using a switched topology, a computer
can send and receive data simultaneously
(full-duplex communication)
– The collision detection circuitry is turned off
because collisions aren’t possible
– Results in a considerable performance advantage

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 Ethernet Standards
• Each Ethernet variation is associated with
an IEEE standard
• The following sections discuss many of the
standards, some of which are obsolete or
had limited use
• Keep in mind that Ethernet over UTP
cabling has been the dominant technology
since the early 1990s, and will likely to
continue to be for the foreseeable future

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 100 Mbps IEEE Standards
• The most widely accepted Ethernet
standard today is 100BaseT, which is also
called fast Ethernet
– The current IEEE standard for 100BaseT is
802.3u
• Subcategories:
– 100BaseTX: Two-pair Category 5 or higher UTP
– 100BaseT4: Four-pair Category 3 or higher UTP
– 100BaseFX: Two-strand fiber-optic cable
– Because of its widespread use, the cable and
equipment in fast Ethernet are inexpensive
– Architecture of choice for all but heavily used
servers and multimedia applications

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 100BaseTX
• 100BaseTX is the standard that’s usually in
mind when discussing 100 Mbps Ethernet
• Requires two of the four pairs bundled in a
Category 5 twisted-pair cable
• Although three cable types are available for
100BaseT, 100BaseTX is the most widely
accepted
– Generally called fast Ethernet

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 100BaseT4
• 100BaseT4 Ethernet uses all four pairs of
wires bundled in a UTP cable
• Advantage: capability to run over Category 3
cable
– One of the biggest expenses of building a
network is cable installation, so many
organizations with Category 3 cabling chose to
get the higher speed with the existing cable plant
by using 100BaseT4 instead of 100BaseTX

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 100BaseFX
• 100BaseFX uses two strands of fiber-optic cable
– Advantages:
• Impervious to electrical noise and electronic eavesdropping
• Can span much greater distances between devices
– Disadvantage: far more expensive than twisted-pair
– Rarely used as a complete 100BaseTX replacement
• Used as backbone cabling between hubs or switches and to connect
wiring closets between floors or buildings
• Connect client or server computers to the network when immunity to
noise and eavesdropping is required

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 100BaseT Design
Considerations

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 100BaseT Design
Considerations (continued)

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 10 Mbps IEEE Standards
• Four major implementations of 10 Mbps Ethernet
– 10Base5: Ethernet using thicknet coaxial cable
– 10Base2: Ethernet using thinnet coaxial cable
– 10BaseT: Ethernet over UTP cable
– 10BaseF: Ethernet over fiber-optic cable
• Of these 10 Mbps standards, only 10BaseT and
10BaseF are seen today
• 10Base2 and 10Base5 are essentially obsolete

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 10BaseT

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 10BaseF

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Gigabit Ethernet: IEEE 802.3ab
and 802.3z Standards
• Gigabit Ethernet implementations
– 802.3z-1998 covers 1000BaseX
specifications, including the L (long
wavelength laser/fiber-optic), S (short
wavelength laser/fiber-optic), and C
(copper jumper cables)
– 802.3ab-1999 covers 1000BaseT
specifications, which require four pairs of
100 ohm Category 5 or higher cable

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 What’s Next for Ethernet?
• Implementations of 40 Gbps Ethernet are underway
• Ethernet could increase tenfold every 4-6 years
– 100 Gbps Ethernet available by 2006 to 2008, terabit Ethernet by
2011, and 10 terabit Ethernet by 2015
• In October 2005, Lucent Technologies demonstrated for the
first time the transmission of Ethernet over fiber-optic cable at
100 Gbps
– It will be able to transfer data across the city faster than today’s
CPUs can transfer data to memory
– This level of speed has major implications for the entertainment
industry and many other areas

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 Ethernet Frame Types
• Ethernet supports four non-compatible frame
types
– Ethernet 802.3: used by IPX/SPX on Novell
NetWare 2.x and 3.x networks
– Ethernet 802.2: used by IPX/SPX on Novell
NetWare 3.12 and 4.x networks
• Supported by default in Microsoft NWLink
– Ethernet SNAP: used in EtherTalk and mainframes
– Ethernet II is used by TCP/IP
• All Ethernet frame types support a packet size
between 64 and 1518 bytes, and can be used
by all network architectures mentioned
previously

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 Ethernet 802.3

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 Ethernet 802.2
• Ethernet 802.2 frames comply completely with the
Ethernet 802.3 standard
• The IEEE 802.2 group didn’t address Ethernet, only the
LLC sublayer of the OSI model’s layer 2
– Since Novell had already decided to use the term Ethernet 802.3
to describe Ethernet raw, it’s generally accepted that Ethernet
802.2 means a fully 802.3- and 802.2-compliant Ethernet frame
• Ethernet 802.2 frames contain similar fields to 802.3,
with three additional LLC fields

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 Ethernet SNAP
• Ethernet SubNetwork Address
Protocol (SNAP) is generally used on
the AppleTalk Phase 2
• It contains enhancements to the 802.2
frame, including a protocol type
field, which indicates the network
protocol used in the frame’s data
section

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 Ethernet II

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 Wireless Ethernet: IEEE
802.11b, a, and g
• AP serves as the center of a star topology network
• Stations can’t send and receive at the same time
– CSMA/CA is used instead of CSMA/CD
• 802.11b/a/g use handshaking before transmission
– Station sends AP an RTS and it responds with CTS
• Standards define a maximum transmission rate, but
speeds might be dropped to increase reliability
• No fixed segment length
– Maximum of 300 feet without obstructions
• Can be extended with large, high-quality antennas

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The Token Ring Architecture

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 Token Ring Function
• A token passes around the ring
– If an “in use” token is received from NAUN, and
the computer has data to send, it attaches its data
to the token and sends it to its NADN
– If received token is in use, NIC verifies if it is the
destination station
• If not, the computer re-creates the token and the data
exactly and sends them to its NADN
• If it is, data is sent to the upper-layer protocols
– Two bits in data packet are toggled and token is sent to NADN;
when original sender receives it, it frees the token and then
passes it along

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 Beaconing

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 Hardware Components
• A hub can be a multistation access unit
(MSAU) or smart multistation access unit
(SMAU)
• IBM’s token ring implementation is the most
popular adaptation of the IEEE 802.5 standard
– Minor variations but very similar to IEEE specs
• IBM equipment is most often used
– 8228 MSAU has 10 connection ports, eight of which can
be used for connecting computers
– The RO port on one hub connects to RI port on the next
hub, and so on, to form a ring among the hubs
• IBM allows connecting 33 hubs

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 Cabling in a Token Ring
Environment

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 The Token Ring Architecture
(summary)

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 The Fiber Distributed Data
Interface (FDDI) Architecture

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 The Fiber Distributed Data
Interface (FDDI) Architecture
(continued)

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 Networking Alternatives
• Many other network architectures are available
• Some are good for specialized applications, and
others are emerging as new standards
• Topics
– Broadband technologies (cable modem and DSL)
– Broadcast technologies
– ATM
– ATM and SONET Signaling Rates
– High Performance Parallel Interface (HIPPI)

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 Broadband Technologies
• Baseband systems use a digital encoding
scheme at a single fixed frequency
• Broadband systems use analog techniques to
encode information across a continuous range of
values
– Signals move across the medium in the form of
continuous electromagnetic or optical waves
– Data flows one way only, so two channels are
necessary for computers to send and receive data
– E.g., cable TV

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 Cable Modem Technology

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Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
• Competes with cable modem for Internet access
– Broadband technology that uses existing phone lines to
carry voice and data simultaneously
– Most prominent variation for home Internet access is
Asymmetric DSL (ADSL)
• Splits phone line in two ranges: Frequencies below 4 KHz are
used for voice transmission, and frequencies above 4 KHz are
used to transmit data
• Typical connection speeds for downloading data range from
256 Kbps to 8 Mbps; upload speeds are in the range of 16 Kbps
to 640 Kbps

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 Broadcast Technologies
• By definition: one-way transmissions
– This changed in Internet access by satellite
television systems
• Work on the principle that most traffic a user
generates is to receive files, text, and graphics
– The average user’s computer sends very little
traffic
– User connects to service provider through a modem
– Service provider sends data by satellite to the
user’s home at speeds up to 400 Kbps
– E.g., service offered by DirectTV, through its
DirectPC add-on products

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 ISDN

•Integrated Services Digital Network

•A digital telephone service that provides

fast, accurate data transmission over
existing copper telephone wiring

•The way fast way to go online

 What Do I Use It For?
• ISDN offers the speed and quality that previously
was only available to people who bought
expensive, point-to-point digital leased lines.
Combined with its flexibility as a dial-up service,
ISDN has become the service of choice for many
communications applications.
 Why Should I Use ISDN
• Internet becomes more and more information-
intensive with graphics, sound, video and
multimedia
• By combining your two B-channels you have
access to up to 128 kbps -- more than four times
as fast as a 28.8 kbps modem on a standard
phone line
• More efficient and economical
• ISDN brings increased capabilities, reduced costs
and improved productivity to organizations both
large and small.
 Popular ISDN applications
include:
• Internet access

• Telecommuting/remote access to
corporate computing

• Video conferencing

• Small and home office data networking

 ISDN CHANNELS
• B-channel
• The Bearer ("B") channel is a 64 kbps channel
which can be used for voice, video, data, or
multimedia calls. B-channels can be aggregated
together for even higher bandwidth applications.
• D-channel
• The Delta ("D") channel can be either a 16 kbps or
64 kbps channel used primarily for
communications (or "signaling") between
switching equipment in the ISDN network and the
ISDN equipment at your site.
 Two Pre-Defined
Configurations
• Basic Rate Interface (BRI)

• BRI is the ISDN service most people use to connect to

the Internet
• Two 64 kbps B-channels and one 16 kbps D-channel
over a standard phone line
• Often called "2B+D"
• A single BRI line can support up to three calls at the
same time
• Two voice, fax or data "conversations," and one packet
switched data "conversation" can take place at the
same time.
 Primary Rate Interface
(PRI)
• Used primarily by large organizations with
intensive communications needs
• Supports 64 kbps B-channels
• One 64 kbps D-channel
• Often called 23B+D in usa
• 30B+D india
• BISDN – EMPLOYS IN ATM
Typical ISDN Configuration
Network Termination Device 1
(NT1)

• The NT1 is a simple device that serves as an

interface between the ISDN BRI line and your
other ISDN equipment.
• It converts the physical wiring interface delivered
by PSTN to the wiring interface needed by your
ISDN equipment
• Also provides a testing point for troubleshooting.
U-Interface

l The U-interface is the 2-wire interface your phone

company delivers for connection to the NT1
S/T Interface
The S/T-interface is the 4-wire interface between
the NT1 and the ISDN networking equipment such
as an ISDN TA or router
ATM NETWORKS
 Origins of ATM
Existing telecommunication
network(s) were/are very specialized.
They have Following disadvantages:
• Service Dependence
• Inflexibility
• Inefficiency
• Costs
 Issues with current available
transfer modes
• Circuit Switching: Circuit switching is
inflexible since once the duration of a
time slot is fixed the bit rate is fixed.
• Packet Switching: As the error rate
increases more and more of the traffic is
taken up with retransmission activities,
Also due to its high degree of processing
it is not suitable for high bit rates and
real time services
 Asynchronous Transfer
Mode (ATM)
Asynchronous Transfer Mode is a digital
technique for
high speed switching.
• The unit of multiplexing and switching is a cell which
comprises a short fixed length information packet
with a fixed length header to carry signaling
information.
• By offering access at the cell level, information from
many sources with widely differing activity patterns
and transmission rates can be interleaved on a
single transmission link.
• ATM takes advantage of the excellent transmission
characteristics of modern media such as optical fiber,
which provide an extremely low bit error rate. No
loss of cells.
 Benefits of ATM
• Scalability: ATM is a scalable technology. The ATM
standard describes a 53 byte cell format, but does not
dictate bit rates, framing or physical bearers. Thus many
different systems such as LANs, public networks, MANs
can use the same format.
• Transparency: ATM is application transparent. The cell
size is a compromise between the long frames
generated by data applications and the short repetitive
needs of voice. It is also suitable for isochronous
services such as video. ATM will also allow free mixture
of data and voice or video within the same application.
 Benefits of ATM
• Granularity: ATM allows the network to be
tailored to the application rather than forcing
applications to fit the network. Todays TDM
network has trouble dealing with anything that
does not fit the limited granularity of the digital
hierarchy. Thus with TDM if application requires
more than 155 Mbit/s but less than 622 Mbit/s it is
necessary to buy the 622 Mbit/s service.
• High speed switching: ATMs short fixed cell size
points the way to the realisation of high speed
switching extendible in size and speed.
• Network flexibility: -virtual private networks for
data; - provides self routing digital cross-connects
for network reconfigurable; integration to LANs,
MANs through common formats.
ATM Cell Structure
ATM Cell Structure ..
 ATM Cell Structure…
• GFC: generic flow control field; used to
control flow across user-network interface.
• VPI/VCI: Virtual path/virtual channel
identifier-ATM address.
• PT: payload type; type of information
carried by the cell.
• CLP: cell loss priority; set by user; priority
for discarding under congested conditions.
• HEC: header error control field: error
correcting code designed to detect
multiple header errors and correct single
bit errors.
 Characteristics of ATM
• No error protection or flow control on a link by
link basis. In ATM no dynamic actions are taken
against packet loss.
• Operates in a connection oriented mode. Before
information is transferred to the network the
network resources must be reserved.
• ATM assumes one and only one defined path
exists through the network for transport of
cells during a call. Therefore cells will arrive in
sequence since they all travel the same path
(sequence integrity).
• Reduced header functionality. Reduces
processing delays.
• Small information field. Reduced internal
buffers and less jitters and delays.
 Classes of Service of ATM
The ATM Adaption layer (AAL) is used to describe to the
network the type of service that is being carried.
• Class A (AAL1): data streams with constant bit rate, running over
established connections. Telephony, Megastream, Kilostream,
Nx64 kbit/s
• Class B (AAL2): similar to A but instead of being fixed
bit rate they send bursts of data; e.g. compressed video
• Class C: data messages on established connections.
Inherently variable bit rate. E.g. X25 and Frame Relay
• Class D: Connectionless datagrams where a packet is sent
into a network and contains its own destination address.
e.g. LANs, WANs
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode
(ATM)
• High-speed network technology for LANs and
WANs
– Connection-oriented switches
• Dedicated circuits are set up before communicating
– Data travels in fixed-size 53-byte cells (5 byte-header)
• Enables ATM to work at extremely high speeds
– Quick switching
– Predictable traffic flow
• Enables ATM to guarantee QoS
– Used quite heavily for the backbone and infrastructure
in large communications companies
– LAN emulation (LANE) required for LAN applications

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 ATM and SONET Signaling
Rates

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 High Performance Parallel
Interface (HIPPI)
• HIPPI (late 1980s): high-speed interface
developed for supercomputers and high-end
workstations
– Serial HIPPI is a fiber-optic version that uses point-to-
point optical links for bandwidth up to 800 Mbps
• In early 1990s, it was used as a network backbone and for
interconnecting supercomputers
– With the advent of Gigabit Ethernet, interest in HIPPI as a LAN
backbone decreased
– HIPPI-6400 (1998): up to 6.4 Gbps transfer rates
• Known as Gigabyte System Network (GSN)
– HIPPI and GSN are now exotic networking products
and aren’t often found in typical corporate networks

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 Summary
• Cable access methods determine how a network
architecture gains access to the network medium
• A network architecture defines how data is placed,
transmitted, and at what speed, and how problems
in the network are handled
• DIX introduced Ethernet, which later became the
IEEE 802.3 standard, transmitting data at 10 Mbps
– Standards for 10Mbps, 100Mbps, 1000Mbps (Gigabit),
and 10G indicate the supported network mediums
• 10 Gigabit Ethernet runs only over fiber-optic cable and only in
full-duplex mode

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 Summary (continued)
• Token ring networks are reliable, fast, and efficient
– Capable of transmitting at 4 Mbps or 16 Mbps
• Macintosh computers use AppleTalk to communicate
• FDDI is an extremely reliable, fast network
architecture that uses dual counter-rotating rings
• Cable modem technology delivers high-speed Internet
access to homes and businesses
• ATM, a high-speed network technology designed both
for LANs and WANs, uses connection-oriented
switches

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