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Evoluciona Morfologija Prikaz
Evoluciona Morfologija Prikaz
TEORIJSKE POSTAVKE I
GEOMETRIJSKA MORFOMETRIJA
Ana Ivanovi i Milo Kalezi
Evoluciona morfologija
Teorij ske p ostavke i geometrij ska morf ometrij a
PREDGOVOR
Ova knj iga nastala j e iz p otrebe da se evoluciona morf ologij a, oblast koj a doivlj ava svoj p onovni
p rocvat u p oslednj e dve decenij e, p ribilii zainteresovanim istraivaima, studentima, kao i strunj acima
iz drugih oblasti ij a se istraivanj a oslanj aj u na morf ologij u. Na naem j eziku ne p ostoj i odgovaraj ua
knj iga (udbenik) u koj oj se razmatraj u op te p ostavke evolucione morf ologij e. Takoe, i p ored toga to
danas morf ologij a ima veliki uticaj na biologij u razvia, a u irem smislu i na evolucionu biologij u, do
sada ova oblast nij e bila odgovaraj ue p redstavlj ena ni u p osledip lomskoj nastavi biologij e u nas. To j e
osnovni razlog p oj ave ove knj ige, kao osnove za drugaij i p rilaz nastavi iz domena morf ologij e, na
sp ecij alizovanim kursevima dodip lomske nastave, a p osebno na doktorskim studij ama, sa oekivanj em
da e p odstai i savremena istraivanj a u oblasti morf ologij e.
Knj igu ine dva osnovna dela koj a su sutinski integrisana. Osnovna koncep cij a knj ige j e da se u p rvom
delu p redstavi evoluciona morf ologij a kao nauna oblast. Smatramo, da j edino kroz razmatranj e
osnovnih teorij skih p ostavki evolucione morf ologij e mogu p roistei drugi, sp ecij alizovanij i p ogledi na
morf ologij u, kao to j e to na p rimer f unkcionalni p ristup . Dakle, o ovoj knj izi su iznete p ostavke
savremene evolucione morf ologij e, uklj uuj ui esto i nj ihov istorij at. Paralelno, u velikom broj u
sluaj eva, dati su karakteristini p rimeri koj i dop rinose, barem delimino, konkretizacij i teorij skih
osnova. Trudili smo se da navedena literatura bude sa j edne strane relevantna, kao i da p redstavlj a
osnov za p roirenj e znanj a iz morf ologij e shodno p otrebama i af initetima studenata i istraivaa. Drugi
deo j e p osveen p redstavlj anj u naina reavanj a p roblema evolucione morf ologij e, koj i se uglavnom
zasnivaj u na p rimeni geometrij ske morf ometrij e. Geometrij ska morf ometrij a, i u teorij skom i u p raktinom
p ogledu, ve due vreme p redstavlj a osnovni p ravac istraivanj a u morf ometrij i.
Oba autora knj ige su nastavnici razliitih kurseva morf ologij e kimenj aka. Takoe, oni su i istraivai
koj i su se u naunom radu naj veim delom bavili samo nekim kimenj akim grup ama (naj vie
vodozemcima i donekle gmizavcima) . Zato j e daleko naj vei broj p rimera iz sveta kimenj aka. Svesni
smo da to u odreenoj meri osiromauj e zamilj eni op ti koncep t knj ige, p redstavlj anj e morf ologij e u
celini. Sa druge strane, nadamo se, da e p rikazi razliitih teorij skih p roblema i p rimeri nj ihovog
reavanj a dati na istoj grup i, omoguiti studentima j ednostavnij i uvid i u istraivake metode koj e se
koriste u savremenoj morf ologij i. Takoe, p otreba za p reciznou p odataka u iznetim p rimerima nuno
dovodi do ogranienj a u ovom p ogledu.
U ranij im f azama rada na ovoj knj izi veliku p omo imali smo od naih studenata doktorskih studij a
Milene Cvij anovi (Furtula) i Aleksandra Uroevia koj i su nam ukazali na mnoge greke i neloginosti
u tekstu. Koleginici Vidi Joj i ip eti zahvalj uj emo na konstruktivnim komentarima i na p omoi u
analizi p odataka, dok j e za zavrnu graf iku obradu ilustracij a zasluna Tanj a Vukov. Od recenzenata
ove knj ige, Lj ilj ane Tomovi, Predraga Simonovia i Nikole Tucia dobili smo veliki broj korisnih
saveta i sugestij a. Neke od nj ihovih sugestij a nismo p rihvatili, tako da snosimo celokup nu odgovornost
za stavove i inj enice iznete u ovoj knj izi.
Nadamo se da e se nedostaci ove knj ige brzo videti, p osebno u p ogledu razumlj ivosti teksta i
ilustrativnosti iznetih p rimera. Tome e p omoi p rimedbe koj e oekuj emo od studenata i kolega.
U Beogradu,
20. f ebruar 2009.
Autori
Sadraj
I
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.3.1
II
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.4.1
2.4.2
2.5
2.5.1
2.5.2
2.5.3
2.6
III
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.5.1
3.5.2
3.5.3
3.6
3.6.1
3.6.2
3.7
3.8
IV
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
V
5.1
5.2
UVOD
ta je morfologija?
Morfologija jue
Morfologija danas
Genetika osnova razvia morfolokih celina
MORFOLOKA EVOLUCIJA
Morfoloke evolucione novine
Redukcija i nestanak morfolokih celina
Morfoloka evolucija i osobine ivotne istorije
Morfoloka i taksonomska raznovrsnost, morfoloke staze
Evolucioni trendovi i ekogeografska pravila
Opte odlike i karakteristini trendovi
Evolucione promene u veliini tela
Poveanje veliine tela (Kopeovo pravilo)
Smanjenje veliine tela (minijaturizacija)
Ekogeografska pravila
Heterohronija
Ontogenetske putanje
Vrste heterohroninih promena
Heterotopija
Odnos ontogenije i filogenije
MORFOMETRIJA
Opte postavke
Morfoloki prostor
Definisanje veliine i oblika
Odnos veliine i oblika morfoloke celine alometrija
Zato postoji alometrijski rast?
Koncepti alometrije
MORFOMETRIJSKE ANALIZE
Morfometrija u praksi
Veliina i oblik
8
8
9
13
16
27
27
29
35
39
39
40
40
41
47
52
52
55
55
57
59
60
63
63
64
64
64
68
71
71
74
82
82
88
88
90
90
91
92
93
95
95
99
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.6.1
5.6.2
5.7
5.7.1
5.7.2
5.7.3
VI
GEOMETRIJSKA MORFOMETRIJA
Generalizovana Prokrustova Analiza (engl. General Procrustes Analysis
GPA)
Veliina centroida
Prokrustova distanca
Vizuelizacija promena oblika
Varijable oblika
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
VII
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.3.1
7.3.2
7.3.3
7.3.4
7.3.5
7.3.6
VIII
ALOMETRIJSKE ANALIZE
Analize alometrijskih odnosa
Promene u alometrijskim odnosima veliine ekstremiteta kod velikih
mrmoljaka
Analiza alometrijskih odnosa primenom geometrijske morfometrije
8.1
8.2
8.3
99
101
102
103
103
104
104
105
106
108
110
110
110
113
114
116
118
118
119
120
120
124
127
131
133
135
140
142
144
148
IX
150
9.1
9.2
9.3
Poreenje matrica
Poreenje vektora kovarijacionih matrica
Analize meusobne povezanosti i analize obrazaca kovariranja
150
151
151
153
10.1
10.1.1
10.1.2
10.1.3
10.2
10.2.1
10.2.2
10.3
153
155
156
158
159
159
159
163
10.3.1
10.3.2
10.4
10.4.1
10.4.2
10.5
163
164
169
169
170
174
XI
175
XII
182
XIII
LITERATURA
190
Indeks
210
Evoluciona morfologija
Teorijske postavke i geometrijska morfometrija
I
1.1
UVOD
ta je morfologija?
Slika 2.1. Odnosi osnovnih nivoa bioloke organizacije (nivoa genotipa, morfologije i ponaanja).
Mogua morfoloka reenja (nivo morfologije 1), kao i realizovane morfoloke celine (nivo
morfologije 2) prikazane su tamnim poljima. Procesi razvia povezuju nivoe genotipa i morfologije, a
funkcija nivo morfologije i ponaanja. Realizovana morfoloka celina predstavlja morfoloku osnovu
ponaanja koje se realizuje kroz bioloku ulogu te celine. Prema: Sluys 1996, Kalezi 2001,
izmenjeno.
19
21
plastinost razvia dovodi do novih fenotipova da bi se kasnije mutacijama i kooptiranou starih gena javila njihova genetika osnova koja ih vodi u daljoj
evoluciji (Palmar 2004).
U osnovi, mree gena i genske kaskade (genetiki moduli) povezuju
genotip sa morfogenetskim jedinicama (npr. klicini listovi, diskretne grupacije
odnosno kondenzacije elija) da bi epigenetski procesi (npr. indukcije, interakcije
tkiva, funkcionalne integracije) povezali morfogenetske jedinice sa fenotipom
(Hall 2003b, Hall 2003c). Danas znamo da se razvie organizama odvija kroz niz
relativno stabilnih modula, koji stupaju u vee ili manje interakcije jedan sa
drugim. Organizmi su konstruisani od jedinica koje su relativno koherentne
unutar sebe (modula), a opet su delovi veih jedinica. Modularna organizacija,
koju oblikuju geni glavni kontrolori razvia, omoguava razliitim delovima tela da
se menjaju, a da se, pri tome, ne ugroavaju druge telesne funkcije.
Prilog 2.6 Epigenetika
Kao to je ranije navedeno, pod epigenetikom se podrazumevaju i mehanizmi stabilnog odravanja
ekspresije gena koji ukljuuju fiziko ,,markiranje DNK ili sa njom povezanih proteina. U ovom
sliaju, epigenetskim modifikacije ine procesi metilacije DNK i post-translacione modifikacije
proteina histona koji su u vezi sa DNK. Od toga zavisi konformacija, odnosno prostorna struktura
hromatinskih vlakana, unutar kojih se nalazi DNK i histoni. Promene u prostornoj strukturi
hromatinskih vlakana utiu na transkripcioni potencijal gena. Pouzdani primeri genetike
asimilacije ukljuuju oblik ljuture kod slatkovodnih pueva (postoji meupopulaciona razliitost
u plastinosti oblika prema kretanju vode), viviparija kod gmizavaca (jaja se kod nekih stalno
zadravaju u oviduktima, a kod drugih samo sporadino), odreenje pola kod kornjaa (sredinsko
odreenje je primitivna odlika, dok se genetiko odreenje nezavisno javilo u est filogenetkih
linija (Palmer 2004).
Filotipski stupanj embrionskog razvia kimenjaka je faringula (slika: Prema Kalezi 2001,
izmenjeno). Svi kimenjaci na stupnju faringule imaju opte morfoloke karakteristike kao to su
to: notohorda, nervna cev, bone divertikule drela, aortine lukove, itd. Ove morfoloke celine se
zatim, tokom daljeg razvia embriona i kasnije u postnatalnom razviu, diferenciraju u razliitim
pravcima koji su karakteristini samo za pojedine grupe kimenjaka (klase, redove, rodove, vrste)
ime se javlja izraena varijabilnost pojedinanih karakteristika ovih grupa. Na osnovu bazinih
postavki Darvinove evolucione teorije proizilazi da su opte karakteristike u filogenetskom
pogledu najstarije, poto su nasleene od ranog zajednikog pretka. Shodno tome, pojedinane
karakteristike bi u filogenetskom pogledu bile mlae. Drugim reima, primitivne karakteristike (ili
stanja karakteristika) su one koje se javljaju na ranim stupnjevima ontogenetskog razvia, a
izvedene karakteristike (ili stanja karakteristika) u kasnijim stupnjevima razvia. To je osnova
ontogenetskog kriterujuma odreenja polariteta promena morfolokih karaktera koja je pouzdana
jedino u sluajevima rekapitulacija (poglavlje 3.8)
23
Morfoloke karakteristike najee odreuje relativno veliki broj gena poligeni. Retki su ustanovljeni sluajevi da se morfoloke promene dogaaju
akumulacijom promena jednog gena. To je ustanovljeno u sluaju promena
rasporeda polja sa dlaicama (engl. trichoma p attern) kod vie vrsta vone
muice (D r o s o p h i l a spp.) kod kojih se ove morfoloke promene, koje
karakteriu razliite vrste, dogaaju akumulacijom malih promena (cisregulatornih mutacija) jednog genskog lokusa (McGregor i sar. 2007).
Znatne promene u morfotipu kod osnovnih grupa deavaju se u duem
vremenskom periodu i relativno su retke. Primer ovih promena su razlike u
regionalnoj diferencijaciji somita i njihovih derivata (kimenice) kod osnovnih
grupa kimenjaka. Znatno bre i ee su promene u drugim delovima skeletnog
sistema kimenjaka, kao to je na primer, redukcija dermalnog skeleta, redukcija
bodlji u dorzalnom peraju i redukcija pelvisa kod nekih populacija gregorca
(Gastrosteus aculeatus) (Wray 2007).
Prilog 2.9 Tentakularni organ
Redukcija oiju kod beznogih vodozemaca (Gymnophiona) dovela je do nastanka posebnog,
tentakularnog organa pomou koga se hemijske supstance iz ivotne sredine mogu preneti preko
nazolakrimalnog kanala do vomeronazalnog organa. Tentakularni organ ima i mehanoreceptornu
bioloku ulogu. Mii koji uvlai ovaj organ homologan je miiu retraktoru onih jabuica drugih
grupa vodozemaca (oba miia su inervisana VI parom glavenih nerava), dok je mii koji izbacuje
tentakularni organ homologan miiu levatoru onih jabuica. Takoe, otvor na koi kroz koji se
organ izbacuje i uvlai odgovara interpalpebralnom otvoru oiju, dok Harderove lezde oblasti
orbita podmazuju nabore tentakularnog organa (Wake 1992a).
25
tkiva, kao i promenama oblika tkiva i organa. Jedan od ovih primera je model
ontogentskog razvia i evolucije mandibule sisara, sloene morfoloke celine
(videti Atchley i Hall 1991).
Prilog 2.10 Zubi sisara kao sloene morfoloke celine
Zubi sisara su jedan od model sistema naina nastanka diskretnih sloenih morfolokih celina
tokom razvia od kontinuiranog embrionskog zaetka (Polly 2008). Zubi nastaju od izduene
dvoslojne dentalne lamine u interakciji ektoderma i ektomezemhimskih elija, regionalno se
diferencirajui u sekutie, onjake, prekutnjake i kutnjake. Invaginacijom i savijanjem dentalne
lamine u priblian oblik krunice zuba je korak u razviu koji prethodi mineralizaciji (stvaranje
dentina i glei). Oblik krunice zavisi od mnogih gena koji kontroliu stopu deobe epitelnih elija,
zatim stepena ekspresije molekula aktivatora i inhibitora koji upravljaju aktivnou epitelnih i
mezenhimskih elija, kao i koncentracije ovih molekula u prostoru zaetaka zuba. Male promene
ovih parametara menjaju stepen savijanja epitela, od ega zavisi broj diferencijacija na krunici,
njihov oblik (otar, tup), kao i eventualna transformacija grbica u nabore (lofe) koja se dogaa kod
nekih grupa sisara, itd.
II
2.1
27
Dakle, filogenetski vie ili manje povezane grupe (vrste jednog roda, ili
rodovi jedne porodice), ne mogu se smatrati nezavisnim iniocima u istraivanjima
odnosa biolokih celina, poto one imaju barem jedan zajedniki deo evolucione
istorije grupe i zbog ega one, na primer, imaju slian odgovor na selektivne
pritiske u odnosu na filogenetski manje srodne vrste koje najee drugaije
reaguju. Stoga je uzimanje u obzir stepena bliskosti srodstva grupa vaan
preduslov biolokih istraivanja sa ciljem da se ove analize oslobode
optereenja prethodne, zajednike evolucije. Filogenetski komparativni metod je
postao standardna statistika procedura prilikom intraspecijskih poreenja zbog
sve veeg broja empirijskih podataka o postojanju filogenetskog signala za veoma
razliite karaktere, ne samo za morfoloke odlike (Blomberg i Garland 2002,
Blomberg i sar. 2003).
Postoje i ontogenetska ogranienja, odnosno uslovljenosti koje u osnovi
proistiu iz specifinosti osnovnih mehanizama morfogeneze i epigenetskih
2.5.2
Homoplazija
47
49
51
2 .5 .3
Analogija i anaplazija
2.6
53
III
3.1
MORFOLOKA EVOLUCIJA
Morfoloke evolucione novine
55
3 .2
57
3 .3
59
3.4
meri menjalo tokom njihove evolucije u odnosu na cerebralne hemisfere, kod kojih
su promene bile daleko izrazitije. Takoe, neke grupe su veoma konzervativne u
pogledu promena svoje morfologije, dok su u drugim grupama morfoloke
promene bile daleko bre. Intezitet morfolokih promena esto zavisi od faze
evolucije u kojoj se data grupa nalazi. Tako je utvreno da u ranim fazama
evolucione istorije grupe esto dolazi do brzih promena morfologije, da bi kasnije,
dolo do smanjenja brzine i veliine morfolokih promena (Ciampaglio i sar. 2001,
Pie i Weitz 2005). Klasian primer ovog trenda je kambrijska eksplozija
filuma (prilog 3.4). Razlozi ovakve pravilnosti su dvojaki (Pie i Weitz 2005).
Prvo, evoluciona radijacija grupa poinje u uslovima postojanja relativno praznih
ekolokih nia (nepopunjenog ekoprostora) koji se sve vie puni poveanjem
broja filogenetskih linija (tj. poveanjem taksonomskog diverziteta). Drugi razlog
je da se tokom evolucione istorije grupa poveava kanalisanost razvia, to u
velikoj meri smanjuje mogunost javljanja nove morfoloke razliitosti.
Prilog 3.4 Kambrijska eksplozija filuma
Pre oko 600 miliona godina, zapoela je kambrijska eksplozija filuma kada su naglim ubrzanjem
evolucije, u periodu od priblino nekoliko desetina miliona godina, nastali svi filumi metazoa. U
tom periodu diverzitet vrsta bio je mali; procenjuje se da je svaka etrdeseta vrsta pripadala novoj
klasi ili filumu. Dakle, mogunosti nastanka evolucionih, pre svega osnovnih morfolokih novina
(osnovni plan grae), koje odlikuju visoke taksonomske nivoe iscrple su se ve tokom
paleozoika. Smatra se, da su se u tom periodu stabilizovali najkonzervativniji delovi genskih
regulatornih mrea koji predstavljaju genetiku osnovu morfolokih odlika filuma (Davidson i
Erwin 2006). Po jednom tumaenju, diverzifikacija ivoga sveta tekla je od nivoa filuma, zatim
klasa, pa redova, porodica, itd. (Davidson i Erwin 2006), pri emu su nii nivoi koristili
potencijale evolucionih reenja koje odlikuju vie nivoe (filume, klase). Diverzifikacija se, po
pravilu, odvijala u uslovima relativno slobodnih adaptivnih zona, bilo potpuno novih za
organizme, bilo onih koji su se oslobaali kasnije masovnim izumiranjem grupa (ekstinkcijama).
Po drugom tumaenju (Coyne 2006), procesima specijacije tokom kabrijuma nisu nastali filumi ve
vrste. Nastale vrste su se potom, u dugom vremenskom periodu, sve vie razlikovale, dostiui
nivoe filuma u pogledu morfolokih razlika, odnosno u osnovnim planovima grae. Dakle, filumi
nisu nastali u jednom koraku ve u dugom vremenskom periodu delovanjem evolucionih
mehanizama, ukljuujui i prirodnu selekciju.
61
Jedan od najee navoenih primera morfoloke staze, odnosno ivog fosila je tuatara (dve
vrste roda Sp henodon ) koji ivi na priobalnim ostrvima Novog Zelanda. Tuatare su reliktna
grupa gmizavaca, jedini pripadnici stare filogenetske linije Sphenodontida. Grupa Sphenodontida
je nastala sredinom trijasa, imala je iroku rasprostranjenost i taksonomsku raznolikost do krede,
kada izumiru sve grupe osim roda Sp henodon. Kada je morfologija u pitanju tuatare su u mnogo
emu ostale neizmenjene tokom itave evolucione istorije (oko 140 miliona godina, odnosno od
poetka krede). Ovako dugaak period morfoloke staze nije zabeleen ni za jedan drugi rod
kimenjaka. Tuatare imaju mnoge primitivne morfoloke odlike. Njihova lobanja je u dobroj meri
zadrala izvorne diapsidne odlike. Imaju dobro razvijen otvor na parijetalnim kostima kao i
difrenciran parijetalni organ (tree oko). Kimeni prljen je amficelan, a postoje i intercentri u
dorzalnom, sakralnom i kaudalnom regionu kimenice. Proatlas se nalazi izmeu lobanje i atlasa.
Aksijalna muskulatura je segmentisana, dok su epiaksijalni miii slabo razvijeni. Tuatare nemaju
kopulatorni organ. Zubi su sa spojenim osnovama i vrsto vezani za vilice, ne zamenjuju se i
akrodontni su. Jezik tuatare ima niz pleziomorfnih odlika Lepidosauria (odsustvo bifurkacije vrha,
Schwenk 1986). Takoe, morfoloke odlike vomeronazalnih organa pokazuju slinosti sa
karakteristikama embrionskih vomeronazalnih organa krokodila, Squamata i sisara. Tuatare imaju i
niz sekundarnih morfolokih karaktertistika (Gans 1983), kao to je, na primer, postojanje
specijalizovanih gustatornih papila na epitelu jezika i usne duplje (Schwenk 1986). Od odvajanja
Novog Zelanda od Gondvane, tj. tokom poslednjih 82 miliona godina, tuatare imaju potpuno
nezavisnu evoluciju koju karakterie veoma nizak morfoloki, genetiki i taksonomski diverzitet
(Hay i sar. 2003). Dolazak i naseljavanje ljudi iz Polinezije na Novi Zeland (i zajedno sa njima
polineanskog pacova) pre 8 odnosno pre 12 vekova, doveo je do potpunog nestanka populacija
tuatara na kopnu. Dananje populacije ograniene su na 35 manjih ostrva u priobalju Novog
Zelanda. Ono to je interesantno je da tuatare karakterie izuzetno dug ivotni vek (preko 100
godina), kasno dostizanje polne zrelosti (15 godina), mali reproduktivni potencijal, i izuzetno dug
period inkubacije jaja (11 - 15 meseci) sa sredinski uslovljenim odreenjem pola. Pri tome, malo
razlike u temperaturi (od samo 1 C) tokom temperaturno senzitivnog perioda, kod vrste S.
guntheri dovode do razvia samo jednog pola (samo mujaka na 22 C ili samo enki na 21C, sa
pivotalnom temperaturom inkubacije 21.6 C, temperaturom, na kojoj dolazi do ravnomernog
razvia oba pola, Nelson i sar. 2004). Meutim, najnovija istraivanja ukazuju na visok stepen
meupopulacione varijabilnosti i polimorfnosti u mitohondrijalnoj DNK (McAwoy i sar. 2007),
visok stepen stope mutacija, kao i na varijabilnost u pivotalnoj temperaturi izmeu populacija
(Mitchell i sar. 2006). Molekularne analize subfosilnih skeletnih ostataka skeleta (starih 8000
godina) pokazala su da tuatare imaju najbru zabeleenu stopu molekularne evolucije (Hay i sar.
2008). Iako su rezultati prethodno navedene studije stavljene pod znak pitanja (Miller i sar. 2009),
postoje pokazatelji koji ukazuju na velike razlike u brzini molekularne i morfoloke evolucije kod
ove grupe (Subramanian i sar. 2009).
4.6
Koncepti alometrije
93
Koncep ti alometrij e
V
5.1
MORFOMETRIJSKE ANALIZE
Morfometrija u praksi
U kojoj meri male razlike u varijabilnosti u veliini i obliku simetrinih
delova tela ukazuju na stabilnost itavog sistema razvia?
Da li promene oblika neke morfoloke celine odraavaju filogenetske
odnose u okviru date grupe?
Da li se na osnovu oblika odreene morfoloke celine mogu precizno
identifikovati taksoni?
U kojoj meri faktori ivotne sredine utiu na varijabilnost u veliini i
obliku morfolokih celina?
Da li fine razlike u obliku nekog organa mogu ukazivati na predispoziciju
ka nekoj bolesti ak i pre pojave prvih simptoma?
95
Veliki mrmoljci pripadaju grupi evropskih mrmoljaka (ranije pripadnika roda Triturus, danas
pripadnika tri roda Triturus, Mesotriton i Lissotriton). Veliki mrmoljci formiraju nesumnjivo
monofiletsku grupu koja se u taksonomskom pogledu odreuje kao nadvrsta (Artenkreis) Triturus
cristatus superspecies (Arntzen i sar. 2007). Grupa se sastoji od pet vrsta: obian veliki mrmoljak
T. cristatus (Laurenti 1768), podunavski veliki mrmoljak T. dobrogicus (Kiritzescu 1903), dugonogi
veliki mrmoljak T. karelinii (Strauch 1870), i dve vrste glavatih mrmoljaka, zapadni glavati
mrmoljak T. carnif ex (Laurenti 1768) i istoni glavati mrmoljak T. macedonicus (Karaman 1922). Od
pet nabrojanih vrsta, T. karelinii i T. dobrogicus su politipske vrste. Areal grupe velikih
mrmoljaka obuhvata vei deo Evrope, izuzev jugozapadnog dela Francuske, Iberijskog poluostrva,
Irske, june Grke i ostrva Mediteranskog mora. Na sever dopiru do Skandinavije i kotske, a na
istoku do Kavkaza i centralne Azije (severni deo Irana). Balkansko poluostrvo je ne samo centar
nastanka velikih mrmoljaka, ve i jedini prostor preklapanja areala (posebno Srbija, Duki 1993,
Kalezi i sar. 1997, Crnobrnja-Isailovi i sar. 1997, Arntzen i sar. 2007). Na Balkanskom poluostrvu
se areali ovih vrsta (izuzev areala T.carnif ex i T.macedonicus) preklapaju u uskim zonama
prostornog kontakta u kojima se deava ograniena hibridizacija i introgresija (Wallis i Arntzen
1989). Po svoj prilici, ove vrste su nastale skoro istovremeno, to se moe zakljuiti na osnovu
politomije filogenetskog stabla dobijenog na osnovu molekularnih (Arntzen i sar. 2007, Ivanovi i
sar. 2008) i morfolokih podataka (Vukov 2009). S jedne strane, pretpostavka da su osnovne klade
velikih mrmoljaka nastale priblino u isto vreme, prua veliku pogodnost istraivaima prilikom
Veliki mrmoljci, kao i ostali pripadnici evropskih mrmoljaka, imaju sloen ivotni ciklus (Griffiths
1996). Parenje se odigrava u prolee, najee u manjim, stajaim, trajnijim vodama (Duki 1993).
Nakon sloene igre, mujaci polau spermatofore koje enke prihvataju i unose u kloaku. Broj
poloenih jaja obino variara od 200 do 300 koje polau pojedinano lepei ih na submerznu
vegetaciju. Embrionsko razvie velikih mrmoljaka, pored kongenerinih vrsta mramorastih
mrmoljaka, odlikuje jedna osobenost. Od 12 pari hromozoma, prvi par se odlikuje
heteromorfizamom za koji se vezuje balansni letalni sistem tokom embrionskog razvia. Naime,
homozigotni embrioni (imaju isti oblik prvog para hromozoma, i koji broje 50% od ukupnog broja
embriona), ugibaju na ranim stupnjevima razvia, dok heterozigotni embrioni (sa razliitim prvim
hromozomima) preivljavaju i nastavljaju normalno razvie (Wallace 1994). Duina larvenog
perioda traje nekoliko meseci, obino do druge polovine leta. Larve metamorfoziraju i juvenilne
jedinke pri kraju jeseni naputaju vodu i najee prezimljavaju na kopnu. Veliki mrmoljci obino
dostiu polnu zrelost izmeu 2 i 4 godine ivota, dok je prosena starost adultnih jedinki od 6 do
10 godina, retko preko 12 godina (Miaud i sar. 1993, Kalezi i orovi 1998, Olgun i sar. 2005). Kao
i kod drugih evropskih mrmoljaka, kod velikih mrmoljaka postoji ograniena sposobnost disperzije
i vezanost za mesto parenja (zaviajno ponaanje, engl. homing behaviour) i njegovu okolinu
(filopatrija) na ta ukazuju podaci o relativno malom udaljavanju od vodene sredine (Smith i Green
2005).
Grupa velikih mrmoljaka odlikuje se paralelnom evolucijom u nizu morfolokih celina ukljuujui i
veoma sloene morfoloke celine (kranijum), zatim odlike ivotne istorije, kao i u embriogeniji. Pri
tome, interspecijske razlike su najee u obliku kline sa vrstom T. dobrogicus na jednom kraju,
dok je T. karelinii, a u manjoj meri i vrste T. carnif ex i T. macedonicus, na drugom kraju kline.
Vrsta T. cristatus je uglavnom sa intermedijarnim poloajem u odnosu na ova dva pola.
Osobenost ovog evolucionog trenda je izuzetan poloaj podunavskog mrmoljka u svim do sada
istraivanim karakteristikama. To se posebno ogleda u veliini i obliku tela (Kalezi i sar. 1998,
Arntzen i Wallis 1999), broju trupnih kimenih prljena (Crnobrnja-Isailovi i sar. 1997; Arntzen
and Wallis, 1999), u obliku lobanje (Ivanovi i sar. 2008a) i ontogenetskim putanjama promena
97
Veliina i oblik
5.2
Veliina i oblik
5.3
99
5.4
101
5.5
Parametarski testovi
Parametarski testovi
5.6
Neparametarski testovi
5 .6 .1
103
5.6.2
Permutacioni testovi
Preporuena literatura:
Efron B, Tibshirani RJ. 1993. An Introduction to the Bootstrap . Chapman & Hall.
Manly BFJ. 2007. Randomization, Bootstrap and Monte Carlo Methods in Biology, 3rd ed. Chapman &
Hall/CRC.
Zelditch ML, Swiderski DL, Sheets DH, Fink WL. 2004. Geometric Morp hometrics f or Biologists: A
Primer. Elsevier Academic Press, San Diego.
5.7
5.7.1
Duinske mere
105
5.7.2
Specifine take
ekstremne take, ali se mogu odrediti samo u odnosu na itavu strukturu, odnosno
objekat koji se analizira. Poloaj objekta moe uticati na odreivanje ovih taaka,
to poveava procenat mogue greke prilikom odreivanja ovih specifinih
taaka. Najvei broj studija geometrijske morfometrije baziran je na analizi
dvodimenzionalnih taaka. U poslednje vreme, prikupljanje i analiza u
trodimenzionalnom prostoru (3D), ima sve iru primenu. U geometrijskoj
morfometriji, digitalne fotografije predstavljaju najjednostavniji, najjeftiniji, i
samim tim, najraireniji nain prikupljanja podataka (videti prilog 5.2).
Prilog 5.1 Specifine take
Iako se u literaturi specifine take esto nazivaju homologim takama (termin koji je uveo
Bookstein, 1991), zbog mogue konfuzije do koje dovodi upotreba samog termina homologija, kao
i zbog toga to odabrane specifine anatomske take u osnovi ne moraju biti homologe take,
termin specifine take (engl. landmark s ) predstavlja mnogo adekvatniji termin (videti Zelditch i
sar. 2004 p. 25) .
107
5.7.3
109
Preporuena literatura:
Cardini A, Elton S. 2007. Sample size and sampling error in geometric morphometric studies of size and
shape. Zoomorphology, 126:121-134.
Nakagawa S, Cuthill IC. 2007. Effect size, confidence interval and statistical significance: a practical guide
for biologists. Biological Review, 82: 591-605.
VI
6.1
GEOMETRIJSKA MORFOMETRIJA
Generalizovana Prokrustova Analiza (engl. General
Procrustes Analysis GPA)
6.2
Veliina centroida
Veliina centroida
111
Veliina centroida
6.3
Prokrustova distanca
113
Simetrij a i asimetrij a
t r a nsfor ma c ij a .
Slika10.3. Prikaz konfiguracije 20 specifinih taaka na ventralnom delu lobanje. (a) juvenilna, i (b)
adultna jedinka velikog mrmoljka T. karelinii.
165
Faktori varijabilnosti
juvenilne jedinke
jedinka
strana
jedinka strana
greka merenja
adultne jedinke
jedinka
strana
jedinka strana
greka merenja
SS
MS
df
0.13899886
0.00263042
0.02696635
0.01069036
0.0004290088
0.0001461342
0.0000832295
0.0000156292
324
18
324
684
5.15
1.76
5.33
<.0001
0.0296
<.0001
0.04561493
0.00136605
0.00834874
0.00097487
0.0001407868
0.0000758917
0.0000257677
0.0000014253
324
18
324
684
5.46
2.95
18.08
<.0001
<.0001
<.0001
Simetrij a i asimetrij a
167
Slika 10.5. Individualna varijabilnost poloaja specifinih taaka na ventralnom delu kranijuma kod
adultnih jedinki i njihova varijabilnost uslovljena FA. (a) Individualna varijabilnost opisana prvom
glavnom komponentom (26.47 %); (b) Varijabilnost uslovljena FA opisana prvom glavnom
komponentom (33.05 %) .
Preporuena literatura:
Palmer AR. 1994. Fluctating asymmetry analyses: a primer. In: Develop mental Instability: Its Origins
and Evolutionary Imp lications. Markow T.A., (ed.), Dordrecht (the Netherlands): Kluwer. pp.
335-364.
Simetrij a i asimetrij a
Palmer AR, Strobeck C. 2003. Fluctuating asymmetry analyses revisited. In: Develop mental Instability:
Causes and Consequences, M. Polak, ed. Oxford University Press, Oxford. pp. 279-319.
Klingenberg CP, McIntyre GS. 1998. Geometric morphometrics of developmental instability: analyzing
patterns of fluctuating asymmetry with Procrustes methods. Evolution, 52:13631375
Klingenberg CP, Barluenga M, Meyer A. 2002. Shape analysis of symmetric structures: quantifying
variation among individuals and asymmetry. Evolution, 56:19091920
10.4
10 .4 .1
169
10.4.2
171
PLS1
0.00026873
P
(permutacioni
test)
0.0128
PLS2
0.00021306
<.0001
32.285
0.60766
0.8240
PLS3
0.00010368
0.0117
7.646
0.69580
0.4433
PLS4
0.00009398
<.0001
6.281
0.60100
0.2571
PLS5
0.00005159
0.0046
1.893
0.51993
0.1113
PLS6
0.00002121
0.2907
0.320
0.24066
0.1271
PLS7
0.00001729
0.0213
0.213
0.22247
0.9610
Simetrina
komponenta
SA
% ukupne
kovarijanse
Korelacija
51.362
0.69952
P
(permutacioni
test)
0.9927
Asimetrina
komponenta
SA
% ukupne
kovarijanse
Korelacija
0.00005108
P
(permutacioni
test)
0.1486
74.704
0.54474
P
(permutacioni
test))
0.3290
PLS1
PLS2
0.00002133
0.3925
13.020
0.41695
0.3568
PLS3
0.00001709
0.0470
8.363
0.44192
0.6222
PLS4
0.00000739
0.5461
1.562
0.28014
0.6115
PLS5
0.00000667
0.0651
1.274
0.35955
0.2460
PLS6
0.00000526
0.0079
0.793
0.32725
0.2245
PLS7
0.00000315
0.0129
0.284
0.31009
0.4896
Preporuena literatura:
Klingenberg CP, Badyaev AV, Sowry SM, Beckwith NJ. 2001. Inferring developmental modularity from
morphological integration: analysis of individual variation and asymmetry in bumblebee wings.
American Naturalist, 157:1123.
Klingenberg CP. 2003. Developmental instability as a research tool: using patterns of fluctuating
asymmetry to infer the developmental origins of morphological integration, In: Develop mental
Instability: Causes and Consequences. M. Polak, (ed.) pp. 427442. New York, Oxford
University Press. Oxford, U.K.
Klingenberg CP. 2008. MorphoJ. User's Guide. Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, UK.
http://www.flywings.org.uk/MorphoJ_page.htm
173
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Indeks
adaptivna vrednost 13, 16, 35, 182
akceleracija 66, 74, 182
Alenovo pravilo 68
alometrija 57, 91, 92, 140, 142, 151
evoluciona alometrija 94
filogenetska alometrija 93
ontogenetska alometrija 94
statika alometrija 94
alometrijski odnos 142
alometrijski rast 92
amfioksus 9, 182
analiza glavnih komponenti 87, 90, 131, 175
analiza varijanse 95, 120
analiza zajednikih glavnih komponenti 151
analogija 9, 41, 47, 52, 182
anaplazija 52, 182
anatomija 9, 29, 41, 92, 106, 182
ANCOVA 153, 158, 159, 175
anizometrijski odnos 99
antropologija 82
apomorfna karakteristika 39
apoptoza 41
arhetip 8, 9, 13, 41, 82, 182
arhipterigium 9
Aristotel 8
asimetrina komponenta varijabilnosti 164
asimetrija 16, 66, 68, 182
antisimetrija 163
direkciona asimetrija 35, 163
fluktuirajua asimetrija 13, 35, 163, 164
atavizam 47, 57, 182
Bacillus licheniformis 68
Bauplan 9, 16
Belon 8
Bergmann 68
Bergmanovo pravilo 68
bilateralna simetrija 35
biogenetski princip 9, 39, 74, 82, 182
biogenetski zakon 82
biogeografija 68
Caenorhabditis elegans 74
Carabidae 57
Caudata 95
centriranje 110
Cervidae 74
Cichlidae 52
cis- i trans regulatorni elementi 16
CPC, analiza zajednikih glavnih komponenti 151
Crossopterygii 40
Crustacea 41
CS, veliina centroida 110, 148, 156, 158
Cuvier 8, 9
CV osa 133
CVA, kanonijska diskriminantna analiza 133, 135, 174, 175
CytB gen 159
Indeks
113
F test 95
faktorska analiza 87, 120, 159, 163
fakultativna pedomorfoza 74, 182
faringula 16, 182
femur 104
fenotip 9, 13, 16, 27, 29, 35, 41, 47, 52, 55, 57, 64, 71, 74,
82, 87, 90, 95, 150, 159, 163, 182
fenotipska plastinost 16
fibula 104
filoembriogeneza 9
filogenetska analiza 159
Bioloki f akultet, Univerzitet u Beogradu
filogenetska embriologija 82
filogenetska homologija 40
filogenetska inercija 27
filogenetska ogranienja 27, 47
filogenetski komparativni metod 27, 150
filogenetski signal 27, 182
filogenija 9, 41, 47, 74, 82, 182
filopatrija 95
filotipski stupanj 16, 182
fizioloka adaptacija 92
fluktuirajua asimetrija 13, 35, 163, 164, 169
folikuli pera 29
Foster 68
Fosterovo pravilo 68
funkcija 52
funkcionalna morfologija 13
Furijeova analiza 108
Galen 8
Galilej 91
gametogeneza 16
Garstang 74
Gastrosteus aculeatus 16
gen glavni kontrolor razvia 16
generalizovana Prokrustova analiza 110
generalizovano stanje 39
genetika asimilacija 16, 35, 182
genetika distanca 159
genetika heterohronija 74
genetika ogranienja 27
genetiki drift 57
genetiki modul 29
genetiko stopiranje 57
genom 8, 9, 13, 16, 41, 47, 55, 57, 66, 82, 87, 182
Genomika 13, 182
genotip 9, 16, 41, 55, 95, 182
geometrijska morfometrija 29, 87, 95, 148, 163
gigantizam 64
glavna komponenta 124, 127, 133, 140, 175
Gloger 68
Glogerovo pravilo 68
Gnathostomata 52
Gobiidae 52
Goethe 8
Gondvana 60
Goodall F-test 120, 159
211
Goodrich 9
Gould 13, 27, 74, 82, 92, 93, 142
GPA, generalizovana Prokrustova analiza
127, 153, 163, 164, 175
greka merenja 104, 153, 163
greka tipa I 101
greka tipa II 101
Gymnophiona 16
Haeckel 8, 9, 74, 82
Haldane 57, 92
Harvey 8
Hertwig 9
heterodontna dentacija 63
heterohronija 13, 27, 29, 55, 74, 87, 182
heterotopija 41, 55, 82, 182
hibridizacija 95
Hijerarhijski koncept homologije 40, 41
hiobranhijalni aparat 57, 59
hipokon 55
histoni 16
hoana 106
homeoblok 16
homeomorfija 41
homeonomija 41
homeotopija 41
homeoza 16
homiologija 41
homodontna dentacija 63
homologija 13, 47, 55, 87, 106, 182
duboka homologija 40
generativna homologija 41
latentna homologija 41
seksualna homologija 41
serijska homologija 41
homonomija 40, 41
homoplazija 13, 47, 66, 182
Hox gen 13, 16, 41, 47, 57, 169
humerus 104, 142
Huxley 9
idealistika morfologija 9
inerciona homeotermija 65
interspecijska kompeticija 68
interval poverenja 101, 102, 103
intraspecijska kompeticija
Inuti 68
istorijska homologija 40
izometrijski rast 91
izomorfoza 74
68
K selekcija 74
Kambrija 16, 60
kambrijska eksplozija 16, 60
kanalisanost razvia 87
kanonijska varijabla 133
kanonijska varijatna analiza 87, 133
karakteristika ivotne istorije 59, 74
karapaks 55
karapaksni nabor 55
Kendalov prostor 113
kinetika lobanja 40
kladogram 13, 59
klaster analiza 120, 175
koeficijent alometrije 91, 92, 140, 142
komparativna anatomija 92
koncenzus konfiguracija 110
koncept zajednikog pretka 9
konfiguracija specifinih taaka 106, 110
kontrast promenljiva 159
kontrolni parametar ontogenetske putanje 71, 74
kontura 104, 108, 118
konvergencija 40, 47
ko-optacija 16, 182
koordinata specifine take 8, 101, 104
2D 106
3D 106
Kopeovo pravilo 63, 64, 90
kovarijabla 153, 156, 158, 159
kranijometrija 82
kranijum 95
kvadratum 106
kvalitativna osobina 8
kvantitativna genetika 59
Lacertidae 52
Lapicque 91
larvena faza 8, 47, 59, 74, 82, 95, 182
Latimeria 39
Lepidobatrachus 59
Bioloki f akultet, Univerzitet u Beogradu
Indeks
Lepidosauria 60
Leptodactylidae 59
Lewontin 13, 27
linearna regresija 95, 142, 175
Linne 9
Lissotriton vulgaris 74, 95
varijacioni modul 29
molekularna evolucija 60
molekularna filogenija 47
molekularna genetika 87
monofiletska grupa 40, 95
Monotremata 39
morfogen 16, 182
morfogenetska polja 16, 29
morfogeneza 9, 182
morfologija razvia 13
morfoloka evolucija 60
morfoloka integracija 29, 169, 170
morfoloka novina 29, 40, 55, 74
morfoloka staza 27, 60, 62, 71, 182
morfoloki konzervativizam 40, 41
morfoloki prostor 90, 118, 175
morfometrija 29, 87, 95, 98, 142, 175
morfotip 13, 16, 47, 55, 182
Moringa 29
Moringaceae 29
modano stablo 60
multivarijatna morfometrija 87
multivarijatna analiza varijanse 120, 175
multivarijatna regresija 148
multivarijatni RV koeficijent 170
mutacije 16, 35, 47, 55, 57, 74
neontoloko istraivanje 8
neotenija 29, 74, 182
neparametarski test 101, 120, 151, 175
neterminalna adicija 82
neuniformna komponenta 116
neuromast 57
norma reakcije 9
notohorda 16, 57
nulta hipoteza 99, 151, 175
213
Ornithorynchus 39
ostatak organa 57
Ostracoda 108
ostrvska biogeografija
Oven 9, 41, 47, 52
oviparna reprodukcija
68
71
Paedocypris 66
paleontoloka istraivanja 8
panmiktika populacija 95
parafiletska grupa 47
paralelizam 40, 47
paralelna evolucija 95
parametarski testovi 101, 102, 120, 151, 175
parcijalna deformacije oblika 116
parcijalna Prokrastova superimpozicija 113
parijetalni organ 60
Pax6 gen 41, 82
PC ose 90, 124, 133, 140, 153
PCA, analiza glavnih komponenti 90, 124, 127
pedomorfoza 16, 29, 39, 47, 74, 82, 182
pentadaktilni ekstremitet 40, 41
peramorfoza 74, 82, 182
Perissodactyla 63
permutacioni test 101, 103, 175
perna zastavica 29
pero 29
Pinokio efekat 113
Pirsonov koeficijent korelacije 119, 150
plan grae 9, 16, 60, 182
plastron 55
Platon 40
Pleistocen 74
Plethodontidae 47, 57, 59
pleziomorfna karakteristika 39
PLS, metoda parcijalnih najmanjih kvadrata 150, 151, 169,
175
2B-PLS 151, 170
pluteus 74
polaritet promena 8, 16, 71, 182
polifenizam 74
polifiletska grupa 47
poligen 9, 16
politomija 95
Polypterus 39
potiljani gleanj 106
r selekcija 74
radijalna simetrija 35
radiolus 29
radius 29
ramus 29
Rapoportovo pravilo 68
razmernik 106
referentna konfiguracija 110
regresija 95, 135, 140, 144, 148, 150, 158, 175
regulatorni gen 16, 47
regulatorni protein 16
Renovo pravilo 99
reverzija 40, 47
Rhynchonellidae 66
RNK 16, 64
rostralni organ 39
rudiment 47, 55, 57, 82
RW osa 131
Bioloki f akultet, Univerzitet u Beogradu
Indeks
131
saltacionistika evolucija 9
scala naturae 82
Scincidae 52
seksualna selekcija 74
seksualni dimorfizam 99, 120, 159
sekundarna minijaturizacija 66
sekvencijalna heterohronija 74
selektor geni 16
Severcov 9
signalni proteini 16
simetrina komponenta varijabilnosti 164
sinapomorfna karakteristika 41
sinapomorfnost 40
sinergija 41
sistematika 87
skaliranje 87, 110, 113, 133, 140, 163
somatike mutacija 35
somit 29, 71
sopstvena vrednost 124, 127, 135, 175
sopstveni vektor 124, 175
specifina taka 110, 113, 114, 120, 153, 170, 175
specijalizovano stanje 40
Sphenodon 60
Sphenodontida 60
Spirmanov koeficijent korelacije 175
Squamata 60
srednja vrednost 101
SSD, seksualni dimorfizam u veliini tela 120, 169
stabilizaciona selekcija 35
standardna devijacija 118
standardna greka srednje vrednosti 101
statistika nulta hipoteza 159, 169, 170
stopa ontogenetskih promena oblika 71, 158
stres 35
strukturni gen 16
Synapsida 63
malhauzen 9
t test 102
taksonomija 82
Teleologija 9, 82, 182
tentakularni organ 16
teorija rekapitulacije 9, 16, 82
Bioloki f akultet, Univerzitet u Beogradu
teorija segmentacije 9
teorija tipova 82
teorijska morfologija 13
teorijski morfoloki prostor 90
terminalna adicija 82
test kongruentnosti 40, 41
test konjukcije 40, 41
Thompson 91
tibia 104
topografska ekvivalencija 41
topoloki izomorfizam 47
TPS, metoda beskonano tanke metalne ploe 114, 120,
131, 174, 175
tradicionalna morfometrija 87, 120, 148
transcendentalisti 82
transkripcioni faktor 16, 41
Triturus cristatus superspecies 133
Triturus carnifex 96, 108, 120, 135, 144, 153, 156,
158, 159, 164, 170
Triturus cristatus 40, 120, 135, 144, 153, 156, 158,
159
Triturus dobrogicus 40, 96, 120, 135, 144, 153,
158, 159
Triturus karelinii 96, 120, 127, 144, 153, 156, 158,
159, 170
Triturus macedonicus 159
tuatara 60
ulna 104
uniformna komponenta
unutranje vreme 71
UPGMA 120
uzajamno ograniavanje
uzorak 101
52, 95
215
Wilks' lambda
Xenopus
114
29
zakon ubrzanja 82
zaviajno ponaanje 95
zigantra 52
zigosfena 52
zootip 16, 41
ivotna istorija 8, 13, 16, 47, 59, 64, 66, 68, 74, 90, 95, 182
uljevito telo 39
- parametar RWA analize 131
- poetni signal 71, 74
- zavrni signal 71, 74
- stopa rasta 71, 74