1.

1.1.

.

( ) ,
1.1.

. 1.1
,
F, , .
, .
,
.
F,
. , ,
.
, ,
,
.
.
,
, ,

. ,
, . , ,

, ,
.
:
1.

2.


. ,
,
.
, , ,
.
,

.
.
, . ,

.
, ,
. ,
.
,

, .
, ,
, ,
,
.
,
,
.
, ,
.

.
,
.
,

. ,

(Continuum Mechanics).

1.2.

,
,
.
:
a)

.
.

b)

. ,
,
.

c)

Newton. ,

.

d)

1.3.

,

, .
1.3.1. .
,
, .
,
.
,
, ,
,
, .
, ,
.
, .

(gauge pressure), ,
.

 , . ,
, ,
5%.
:
= x
.
,
, .
Pascal, :


:
Pascal
1m2, 1 Newton.
1 Pa = 1 Newton / 1m2.
105 Pa bar :
1bar = 105 Pa
bar kPa, : 1kPa = 103 Pa

Newton.
= x
:
F=mx
:
F = [M][LT-2]
, :
P = [ML-1T-2]
1.3.2. .
,
.

= lim(m / V )
V 0

(1.1)

m V .
(1.1) ,
.
, ,

:

! = m /V

(1.2)

V, .
,
( )
4 C.
1.3.3. .
,
, . ,
.
, ,
.
, ,
(partial pressure)
, .


.
,
,

.
, .

.

 ,
, , ,
, .
1.1.
.
C
0
20
40
60
80
100

(Pa)
615
2340
7400
20000
47400
101500
1.1.

1.3.4. .
,
.
,
:

K = p /(V / V )

(1.3)

p, V
V
p.

.
p , :

K = V (p / V )

(1.4)

K = (

p
)

(1.5)

, (1/),
.
(1.5)
.

 ,
.
,
p, . ,

,
, .
, ,
, .
, , ,
1000bar, .
p, 1 bar 3500
bar.
1.3.5. .
,
,
.
,
. ,
.
, .
. .

.
. 1.2, , t
.

. 1.2

 x, Cx,
y. t, ,
. Cx,
y, :

!Cx
)>0
!y

,
, y.
,
.
.

:

!Cx
)>0
!y

. 1.3, , Cx,
Cx+Cx.
1, , 2,
, F .

. 1.3
Newton (3 ), , 2,
1.
, , :

F
A

(1.6)

Newton () 2,
, :

!=

F "Cx
!
A "y

(1.7)

!Cx
!y

(1.8)

! =

.
(1.8.)
, :

! ij = (

!Ci !C j
+
)
!x j !xi

(1.9)

j x, y, z.
, i=x j=y, (1.9) :

! xy = (

!Cx !Cy
+
)
!y
!x

(1.10)

(1.8)
.

. 1.4 y
, . 1.4
.
, .
,
. ,
(Newtonian) , ,
.

 , . , ,
, .
(1.9)
.

. .
,
,
y . ,
, .
, ,
.


. ,
.
,
,
.

.
()
.
1.8.
F
2
# FT &
!
=
" L =% 2 (
!Cx
L
( )/L $ L '
!y
T

, F

ML
F = 2
T
:

=
LT

 S.I. ,
(Pa s). CGS,
Poise.

1Poise ! 1dyne " sec/ cm 2

SI CGS :

1(Pas ) = 10P
20C 10-3 Pa s.
:

M M L
/ 3 =

LT L T

CGS, Stokes :

1Stokes = 1cm 2 / sec

, Stokes
Centi-Stokes (c St).
, : = 1c St 20,2C.
1.2, ,
, 15C.

Kg/m3
1.2
860
1000
136000

m2/s
1,5x10-5
1,0x10-5
1,1x10-6
1,1x10-7

1.2.
1.3.5.1.

,
(shear rate) e,
.
,
(e) , . . . 1.5 ,

e.
.

.

.1.5
, , ,
.,
e . .
Dilatant
e.
, .
,
, .
.
, ,
thixotropic.
1.3.6.

,
.
, .
, ,
. , ,

. ,
.

= 0.073 /m.
, .

.
R
,
p=2/R

(1.11)

.
1.3.7.

(Adhesion & cohesion).

. ,
.
, .

.
.
. 1.5 R
.


.

.
R,
2/R

!p = p1 " p2 = 2! / R

(1.11)

p1 p2
.
,
.

 ,
, ,
.

. 1.5
4.11

p2 = pa ! 2! / R

(1.12)

h=

4 (cos )
gd

(1.13)

. >90,

h<0,

.
h ,

.
d
3mm.
1.4.

,
.

 ,
. ,
:

=
,
:

= f ( p,T )

(1.15)

(perfect gas)
- :

p = RT

(1.16)

R .
(1.16)
.
:

R = 287J / Kg o K
(1.16)
,
.
,
. ,
.

.
,
-, :

(1.17)

,
:

cp
cv

=1,4

(1.18)

2.

2.1 .

.
,

.

. 2.1
. 2.1 .
,
.
.

p.

(p+p)

mg = -.l..g

( p + ! p)! A ! p! A + ".g.! A.!1.cos# = 0

! p + ".g.dz = 0 !

"p
= #" g
"z

(2.1)

z = 0 2.1 p=0
.
:
)
(
).

)
)

dp
= g
dz

2.1 :

p = gdz
=const ( ) :
p + ! gz = const

(2.2)

. 2.2
. 2.2 .

.


.
2.1.1
Pascal ,
.
,
.

. 2.3

 p :
F
F
p1 = 1 p1 = p2 = 2
A1
A2
A
A
F2 = F1 2 2 >> 1 ! F2 >> F1
A1
A1
2.1.2

. pa= 0

.


.

, .. .
( ),
( ).

. 2.4
. 2.4 .
, ,
, , .

h.
Hg ,
.
,
p.
p :

p = p + gh

(2.3)

Hg 200 C

 = 13560Kg / m 3
p = 0,16Pa

pa = 105 Pa
2.3
h= 0,752m.
Hg p = 0
:
h = 10,4m
150 C
Pv = 2000 Pa
:
h = 10,22 m
2.1.3 .


. U
. 2.5 .
.

. 2.5 U

, Pascal,
p .2.5 , :

Pp = P!

 p
P :

pP = p + ! A gy
:

pA = pa + ! B gx
p
, p
:

p = ! B gx ! ! A gy + pa

(2.4)

x, y
& p.
, ..
Hg, :

p!"#$ = p % p! = " B gh

(2.5)

h
U, 2.5.

. 2.6

& . 2.6.

p1 + A g( x + y ) = p2 + B gx + A gy p1 p2 = ( B A )gx

:
)


, ,
. 2.7

. 2.7 .

.


, x

.
.
,
,
. 2.8.

.2.8




p.

.

 s
x
x = ssin !

. p
:

p = s. sin .g

(2.6)

.
,
strain gauges

.
2.2
,

. 2.2

.

. 2.9

.
2.2.1 :

.
d :

dF = pdA = ghdA
2.9
y
,

dF = gy . sin.dA


.
F

F = gy . sin.dA = g. sin ydA

A

y dA = " y

y .
:

F = g. sin .A y = gAh
h
.
,
.
F .

x y
F.
.

( gy . sin.dA)y = gy 2 . sin.dA
:

Fy = gy 2 sin.dA
A

y! =

! g.sin "

"

y 2 dA

! g.sin " .Ay

"
=

y 2 dA
Ay

y, :

Fx = gxy. sin.dA = g. sin xydA

A

x! =

"

xy dA
Ay

F x, y
.
: y>y,
.
y

y = yc + y
yc :

y =

1
Ay

( y c2 dA + 2y y c dA + y

2
1
y c2 dA + y A =
Ay
A

dA) = Ay
A

y c2 dA + y

F
. ,
.
..

.
2.2.2 .
p
.


.
( )
.

 p
Pascal , Fx
F p ()
, y x.
Fx F ,
:

Fx = p( A) y
A

()y.
x ,
y ,
.
. ,
.
, .
,
,
,
.
.
:

M = Fxl
l
F.
2.2.3

.

.
,
, (
F >F) :

. 2.10

FA = FA!" # FAB" =

$!"

! gh dA #

$&"

! gh dA = ! gV

V .

, ( ), .


.
:
. ,

.

1 2 : V1
1 V2 2, :

F = F1 + F2
F = !1gV1 + !2 gV2
, 1 2
F,
.
2.2.4 .
,
, .
,
W
, :

F = W = mg

 m .
F>W, (
) F<W, .
,
,
.
:
)

.
)

,
)

,
.
2.11
.. . .
,

.
W-F. ,
-

.

. 2.11
, , , .. ,

.

 G .
, G,
.
,
. ,
, .
, ,
.
,

GM .
, . 2.12
,

.
,
.

. 2.12
,
.

,
.

,

.

.
300mm 1,2m.
,

, .
.
2.2.5 .

.
.

, ,

.
.
, ,
..
.
.
2.3

.
.
Newton
. , .
,
.

. Newton

.

.

. 2.13

 yz
. , ,
,

.
yoz :

p x
p 1
p +
dx yz = xyza x
p

p
= y
x

.
:

p
= ( z + g )
z
:

dp =

p
p
dx +
dz
x
z

, p=const

dp=0 :

p
p
dx +
dz = 0
x
z
.
,
.
.

. 2.14.


.