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1.1.
.
( ) ,
1.1.
. 1.1
,
F, , .
, .
,
.
F,
. , ,
.
, ,
,
.
.
,
, ,
. ,
, . , ,
, ,
.
:
1.
2.
. ,
,
.
, , ,
.
,
.
.
, . ,
.
, ,
. ,
.
,
, .
, ,
, ,
,
.
,
,
.
, ,
.
.
,
.
,
. ,
(Continuum Mechanics).
1.2.
,
,
.
:
a)
.
.
b)
. ,
,
.
c)
Newton. ,
.
d)
1.3.
,
, .
1.3.1. .
,
, .
,
.
,
, ,
,
, .
, ,
.
, .
(gauge pressure), ,
.
, . ,
, ,
5%.
:
= x
.
,
, .
Pascal, :
:
Pascal
1m2, 1 Newton.
1 Pa = 1 Newton / 1m2.
105 Pa bar :
1bar = 105 Pa
bar kPa, : 1kPa = 103 Pa
Newton.
= x
:
F=mx
:
F = [M][LT-2]
, :
P = [ML-1T-2]
1.3.2. .
,
.
= lim(m / V )
V 0
(1.1)
m V .
(1.1) ,
.
, ,
:
! = m /V
(1.2)
V, .
,
( )
4 C.
1.3.3. .
,
, . ,
.
, ,
.
, ,
(partial pressure)
, .
.
,
,
.
, .
.
,
, , ,
, .
1.1.
.
C
0
20
40
60
80
100
(Pa)
615
2340
7400
20000
47400
101500
1.1.
1.3.4. .
,
.
,
:
K = p /(V / V )
(1.3)
p, V
V
p.
.
p , :
K = V (p / V )
(1.4)
K = (
p
)
(1.5)
, (1/),
.
(1.5)
.
,
.
,
p, . ,
,
, .
, ,
, .
, , ,
1000bar, .
p, 1 bar 3500
bar.
1.3.5. .
,
,
.
,
. ,
.
, .
. .
.
. 1.2, , t
.
. 1.2
x, Cx,
y. t, ,
. Cx,
y, :
!Cx
)>0
!y
,
, y.
,
.
.
:
!Cx
)>0
!y
. 1.3, , Cx,
Cx+Cx.
1, , 2,
, F .
. 1.3
Newton (3 ), , 2,
1.
, , :
F
A
(1.6)
Newton () 2,
, :
!=
F "Cx
!
A "y
(1.7)
!Cx
!y
(1.8)
! =
.
(1.8.)
, :
! ij = (
!Ci !C j
+
)
!x j !xi
(1.9)
j x, y, z.
, i=x j=y, (1.9) :
! xy = (
!Cx !Cy
+
)
!y
!x
(1.10)
(1.8)
.
. 1.4 y
, . 1.4
.
, .
,
. ,
(Newtonian) , ,
.
, . , ,
, .
(1.9)
.
. .
,
,
y . ,
, .
, ,
.
. ,
.
,
,
.
.
()
.
1.8.
F
2
# FT &
!
=
" L =% 2 (
!Cx
L
( )/L $ L '
!y
T
, F
ML
F = 2
T
:
=
LT
S.I. ,
(Pa s). CGS,
Poise.
1(Pas ) = 10P
20C 10-3 Pa s.
:
M M L
/ 3 =
LT L T
CGS, Stokes :
Kg/m3
1.2
860
1000
136000
m2/s
1,5x10-5
1,0x10-5
1,1x10-6
1,1x10-7
1.2.
1.3.5.1.
,
(shear rate) e,
.
,
(e) , . . . 1.5 ,
e.
.
.
.1.5
, , ,
.,
e . .
Dilatant
e.
, .
,
, .
.
, ,
thixotropic.
1.3.6.
,
.
, .
, ,
. , ,
. ,
.
= 0.073 /m.
, .
.
R
,
p=2/R
(1.11)
.
1.3.7.
. ,
.
, .
.
.
. 1.5 R
.
.
.
R,
2/R
!p = p1 " p2 = 2! / R
(1.11)
p1 p2
.
,
.
,
, ,
.
. 1.5
4.11
p2 = pa ! 2! / R
(1.12)
h=
4 (cos )
gd
(1.13)
. >90,
h<0,
.
h ,
.
d
3mm.
1.4.
,
.
,
. ,
:
=
,
:
= f ( p,T )
(1.15)
(perfect gas)
- :
p = RT
(1.16)
R .
(1.16)
.
:
R = 287J / Kg o K
(1.16)
,
.
,
. ,
.
.
,
-, :
(1.17)
,
:
cp
cv
=1,4
(1.18)
2.
2.1 .
.
,
.
. 2.1
. 2.1 .
,
.
.
p.
(p+p)
mg = -.l..g
! p + ".g.dz = 0 !
"p
= #" g
"z
(2.1)
z = 0 2.1 p=0
.
:
)
(
).
)
)
dp
= g
dz
2.1 :
p = gdz
=const ( ) :
p + ! gz = const
(2.2)
. 2.2
. 2.2 .
.
.
2.1.1
Pascal ,
.
,
.
. 2.3
p :
F
F
p1 = 1 p1 = p2 = 2
A1
A2
A
A
F2 = F1 2 2 >> 1 ! F2 >> F1
A1
A1
2.1.2
. pa= 0
.
.
, .. .
( ),
( ).
. 2.4
. 2.4 .
, ,
, , .
h.
Hg ,
.
,
p.
p :
p = p + gh
(2.3)
Hg 200 C
= 13560Kg / m 3
p = 0,16Pa
pa = 105 Pa
2.3
h= 0,752m.
Hg p = 0
:
h = 10,4m
150 C
Pv = 2000 Pa
:
h = 10,22 m
2.1.3 .
. U
. 2.5 .
.
. 2.5 U
, Pascal,
p .2.5 , :
Pp = P!
p
P :
pP = p + ! A gy
:
pA = pa + ! B gx
p
, p
:
p = ! B gx ! ! A gy + pa
(2.4)
x, y
& p.
, ..
Hg, :
p!"#$ = p % p! = " B gh
(2.5)
h
U, 2.5.
. 2.6
& . 2.6.
p1 + A g( x + y ) = p2 + B gx + A gy p1 p2 = ( B A )gx
:
)
, ,
. 2.7
. 2.7 .
.
, x
.
.
,
,
. 2.8.
.2.8
p.
.
s
x
x = ssin !
. p
:
p = s. sin .g
(2.6)
.
,
strain gauges
.
2.2
,
. 2.2
.
. 2.9
.
2.2.1 :
.
d :
dF = pdA = ghdA
2.9
y
,
dF = gy . sin.dA
.
F
y dA = " y
y .
:
F = g. sin .A y = gAh
h
.
,
.
F .
x y
F.
.
( gy . sin.dA)y = gy 2 . sin.dA
:
Fy = gy 2 sin.dA
A
y! =
! g.sin "
"
y 2 dA
"
=
y 2 dA
Ay
y, :
x! =
"
xy dA
Ay
F x, y
.
: y>y,
.
y
y = yc + y
yc :
y =
1
Ay
( y c2 dA + 2y y c dA + y
2
1
y c2 dA + y A =
Ay
A
dA) = Ay
A
y c2 dA + y
F
. ,
.
..
.
2.2.2 .
p
.
.
( )
.
p
Pascal , Fx
F p ()
, y x.
Fx F ,
:
Fx = p( A) y
A
()y.
x ,
y ,
.
. ,
.
, .
,
,
,
.
.
:
M = Fxl
l
F.
2.2.3
.
.
,
, (
F >F) :
. 2.10
FA = FA!" # FAB" =
$!"
! gh dA #
$&"
! gh dA = ! gV
V .
, ( ), .
.
:
. ,
.
1 2 : V1
1 V2 2, :
F = F1 + F2
F = !1gV1 + !2 gV2
, 1 2
F,
.
2.2.4 .
,
, .
,
W
, :
F = W = mg
m .
F>W, (
) F<W, .
,
,
.
:
)
.
)
,
)
,
.
2.11
.. . .
,
.
W-F. ,
-
.
. 2.11
, , , .. ,
.
G .
, G,
.
,
. ,
, .
, ,
.
,
GM .
, . 2.12
,
.
,
.
. 2.12
,
.
,
.
,
.
.
300mm 1,2m.
,
, .
.
2.2.5 .
.
.
, ,
.
.
, ,
..
.
.
2.3
.
.
Newton
. , .
,
.
. Newton
.
.
. 2.13
yz
. , ,
,
.
yoz :
p x
p 1
p +
dx yz = xyza x
p
p
= y
x
.
:
p
= ( z + g )
z
:
dp =
p
p
dx +
dz
x
z
, p=const
dp=0 :
p
p
dx +
dz = 0
x
z
.
,
.
.
. 2.14.
.