Particle Identification

PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 0/57
8
PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION
Fabio Sauli - CHIPP Winter School 2010

PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION IN HEP PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 1/57
CMS SECTOR CROSS SECTION:

PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 2/57
A particle is identified measuring at least two independent quantities:

Momentum P (and charge C)
Total energy E
Velocity
Mass M
METHODS OF MEASUREMENT:
Magnetic deflection -> P and C
Calorimetry -> E
dE/dx ->
Cherenkov emission ->
Transition radiation ->
APPROXIMATE RANGE OF IDENTIFICATION POWER:

MAGNETIC DEFLECTION PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 3/57
The sagitta of the deflection provides the transverse

L
momentum PT in the bending plane:
PT = B" . B
PT (GeV c) = 0.3B" (T # m) s
L 0.3L # B
= sin $ 2 % $ 2 & $ %
2" PT
'PT = PT sin $ % 0.3L # B

$2
0.3 L B 2
s = "(1 ( cos $ 2) % " %
8 8 PT
For three independent position measurements, with equal error x : Example:
x +x meas. 3 3 PT = 1GeV/c
! s = x2 ! 1 3 "P
=
"S
= 2" X
= 2" X
# 8PT
L=1m
2 P s s 0.3 # BL2
B=1T
For N equidistant measurements (N>10): x = 200 m
N = 10
meas. !
" PT " #P
= X T2 720 /(N + 4) s ~ 3.75 cm
PT 0.3 # BL
meas.
" PT
# 0.5%
PT
!
Fabio Sauli - CHIPP Winter School!2010

TIME OF FLIGHT PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 4/57
TIME OF FLIGHT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO PARTICLES

m1 1 , m2 2 L: distance of detectors TOF DIFFERENCE/METER:
L% 1 1 (
"T = ' $ *
c & #1 # 2 )
FOR RELATIVISTIC PARTICLES (E>>m0 c2)
Lc
"T #
2p 2 (
m12 $ m 22 )
The resolving power depends on the distance and

! time resolution of the detectors
K. Grupen, Particle Detectors (Cambridge Univ. Press. 1996)

TEMPO DI VOLO PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 5/57
PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION AS A FUNCTION OF MOMENTUM FOR 100 ps TOF RESOLUTION
SOLID LINES: 220 cm

DASHED LINES: 320 cm
W. J. Llope et al, Nucl. Instr. and Meth A 522(2004)252

PESTOV COUNTER PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 6/57
NARROW GAP AVALANCHE COUNTER OPERATED IN SPARK MODE
PICK-UP STRIPS
ANODE:
RESISTIVE GLASS High resistivity electrodes prevent spark propagation
100 m GAP
Electron conducting glass (Pestov glass)
CATHODE
HIGH PRESSURE VESSEL
High pressure (10 bars) heavily TIME RESOLUTION AS A FUNCTION OF OVERVOLTAGE:

quenched gas mixture:
Ar (9.23)-C4H10 (2.4)-C2H4 (0.3)-
C4H6 (0.07)
Yu. Pestov
Nucl. Instr. and Meth. 196(1982)45
Yu. Pestov et al,
Nucl. Instr. and Meth. A456(2000)11

MULTIGAP RESISTIVE PLATE CHAMBERS PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 7/57
OPERATION AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE: Narrow Gap -> Good time resolution, low efficiency
MULTIGAP RPC
HV
Stack of parallel plate counters with high resistivity glass
electrodes
FLOATING
Floating Inner electrodes set dynamically at proper voltage
ALICE MRPC TOF MODULES GND
EFFICIENCY AND TIME RESOLUTION
A. Akindinov et al, Nucl. Instr. and Meth. A533(2004)74

ALICE TOF PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 8/57
ALICE MULTI GAP RESISTIVE PLATE CHAMBERS (MRPC)MRPC

Double modules with 5 250 m gaps each
400 m glass electrodes
MODEST RATE CAPABILITY

Efficiency decreased by signal current:
A. Akindinov et al,
A. Akindinov et al, Nucl. Instr. And Meth. A602(2009)658

MUON IDENTIFICATION PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 9/57
LARGE AREA DETECTORS: RESISTVE PLATE CHAMBERS ABSORBER
Muons have only electromagnetic and weak interaction, and can

pass heavy layers of material; all other particles are absorbed.
Use of low-cost resistive electrodes (bakelite) allows the cheap

coverage of very large detection areas. The electrodes have an
external resistive coating (graphite) to distribute the potentials MUON CHAMBERS
and signal readout strips, insulated from the electrodes:
READOUT STRIPS X
HV INSULATOR
GRAPHITE COATING
HIGH RESISTIVITY ELECTRODE (BAKELITE)
GAS GAP
GND
READOUT STRIPS Y
R. Santonico and R. Cardarelli, Nucl. Instr. and Meth. 187(1981)377

R. Santonico and R. Cardarelli, Nucl. Instr. and Meth. A263(1988)20

RPCS PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 10/57
AVALANCHE VS STREAMER OPERATION AVALANCHE MODE:

Resistive plate chambers can be operated in the avalanche
mode (small signals, higher rate capability) or in the
streamer mode (higher signals, reduced rate capability).
The transition voltage depends on gas and geometry.
STREAMER MODE:
3.109 cm
3.1011 cm
P. Camarri et al,
Nucl. Instr. and Meth. A414(1998)317 R. Arnaldi et al,
Nucl. Physics B (Suppl) 78 (1999) 84
RPCS: SURFACE TREATMENT PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 11/57
Coating the bakelite plates with a thin layer of SINGLE RATES vs HV:
linseed oil considerably improves performances
(smoothing of local defects?)
AVERAGE CURRENT vs HV:
NON-OILED
NON-OILED AFTER OIL TREATMENT
AFTER OIL TREATMENT

M. Abbrescia et al,
THEORY OF RPCs:
R. Santonico and R. Cardarelli, C. Lippmann and W. Riegler,
Nucl. Instr. and Meth. 187(1981)377 Nucl. Instr. And Meth. A533(2004)11

BABAR RPCS (SLAC) PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 12/57
RATE CAPABILITY::
Decrease of efficiency with beam current
F. Anulli et al, Nucl. Instr. And Meth. A552(2005)276

BABAR RPCS LIFETIME PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 13/57
Many problems encountered with the detectors: OILY DROPLETS:

large local currents, efficiency drop with time.
COATING OF SPACERS:
F. Anulli et al. Nucl.Instr. and Meth. A515(2003)322

CMS RPCS PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 14/57
610 LARGE SIZE RPCs ENDCAP:
BARREL:

DIFFERENTIAL ENERGY LOSS PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 15/57
AVERAGE DIFFERENTIAL ENERGY LOSS IN GASES
LOW ENERGY: HIGH ENERGY: RELATIVISTIC RISE
~ 2keV cm-1

ENERGY LOSS DISTRIBUTION IN THIN LAYERS OF GAS (LANDAU)

MULTISAMPLING:
SINGLE LAYER dE/dx:
Truncated mean on 64 4-cm samples in
ne-ar-ch4 at 4 atmospheres
Counts 15 GeV/c p-p-e SEPARATION AT 15 GeV/c:
6000
protons electrons
4000
2000
0
0 500 1000
N (i.p)
I. Lehraus et al, Phys. Scripta 23(1981)727
Lerhaus et al, Nucl. Instr. Methods 200 (1982) 199

LBL TPC
Weighted average on 185 samples measured in A-CH4 at 8.5 bars:
H. Aihara et al, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. NS-30(1983)63

CLUSTER COUNTING PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 18/57
IMPROVING PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION: CLUSTER COUNTING

Total ionization energy loss: Landau distribution
Primary clusters: Poisson statistics
Counts
4 cm Ar-CH4 (95-5) NT=460 i.p. FWHM=250 i.p.
6000
5 bars
" T 100
N = 460 i.p. ~ = 0.22
NT 460
4000
NP~150
FWHM~250 i.p. " P = N P ~ 12
!
2000 "P
~ 0.08
NP
!
0
0 500 1000
N (i.p.) !
Poisson NP~150
F. Lapique and F. Piuz, Nucl. Instr. and Methods 175(1980)297

HIGH RESOLUTION LOW ENERGY X-RAY SPECTROSCOPY:
ENERGY RESOLUTION FROM CLUSTER COUNTING:
Energy (eV): 110 185 277 523 676
"N
~ 0.12
N
A. Panski et al, !
Nucl. Instrum. Methods A323 (1992) 294
A. Breskin,

PROBLEMS OF CLUSTER COUNTING FOR PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION:
1. DECLUSTERING
Due to diffusion, electron in clusters spread during drift
2. RELATIVISTIC RISE:
Mostly due to ionization of energetic
electrons (large clusters)
DRIFT
&
DIFFUSION
(DECLUSTERING)
TOTAL
CLUSTERS
F. Lapique and F. Piuz, Nucl. Instr. Methods 175(1980)297

CALORIMETRY PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 21/57
MEASUREMENT OF THE TOTAL ENERGY LOSS
HOMOGENEOUS CALORIMETERS:
HADRONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC
SAMPLING CALORIMETERS:
Review:
C. Fabjan and F. Gianotti, Rev. Mod. Phys. 75(2003)1243

ELECTROMAGNETIC CALORIMETRY PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 22/57
RADIATION LENGTH X0:

Distance at which the initial energy is reduced by 1/e:
x
"
X0
E(x) = E 0 e
In good approximation:
! 716 A A
X0 = " 180 2
g cm #2
Z(Z + 1) ln(287 Z) Z
For good resolution, a calorimeter length should be 20 X0

!
MATERIAL T I X0 X0
(g cm-3) (g cm-2) (g cm-2) (g cm-2) (cm)
C 2.26 60.2 86.3 42.7 18.8

Al 2.7 70.6 106.4 24.01 8.9
Fe 7.87 82.8 131.9 13.84 1.76
Cu 8.96 85.6 134.9 12.86 1.43
W 19.3 110.3 185 6.76 0.35
Pb 11.35 116.2 194 6.37 0.56
U 18.95 117.0 199 6.00 0.32
T; nuclear collision length

I : nuclear interaction length Review of Particle Properties
http://pdg.lbl.gov/

ELECTROMAGNETIC CALORIMETRY PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 23/57
EM SHOWER DEVELOPMENT: LONGITUDINAL:
TRANSVERSE:
ENERGY RESOLUTION:
" (E) a c
= !b!
E E E
stocastic noise
constant
K. Grupen, Particle Detectors (Cambridge Univ. Press 1996)
T. Yuda, Nucl. Instr. and Meth. 73(1969)301

HOMOGENEOUS CALORIMETERS PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 24/57
LED GLASS: CHERENKOV LIGHT BY RELATIVISTIC ELECTRONS
TYPICAL ENERGY RESOLUTION:
Si-Pb-O
PHOTOMULTIPLIER
2%

IONIZATION IN LIQUID NOBLE GAS
NA48 LIQUID KRYPTON CALORIMETER
0.5 % V. Marzulli et al,


L3 BISMUTH GERMANATE EM CALORIMETER (LEP)

11,500 trapezoidal BGO crystals 25 cm long
Readout by silicon photodiodes
GOOD RESOLUTION, SLOW RESPONSE
BGO = 300 ns
0.4 %
L3 Collaboration

CMS LEAD TUNGSTATE EM CALORIMETER (LHC)

BARREL: 65,000 crystals 23x2.2x2.2 cm3
END CAP: 15.000 crystals 22x2.86x2.86 cm3
READOUT: Avalanche photodiodes
RESOLUTION
Y. Musienko, Nucl. Instr. and Meth. A494(2002)308

0.27 %

SAMPLING CALORIMETERS PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 28/57
ATLAS LIQUID ARGON SAMPLING CALORIMETER

Converter Cu plates used as electrodes for LA ionization chamber layers
Accordion geometry reduced angular

dependence of response:
D.M. Gingrich et al,

SAMPLING CALORIMETERS PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 29/57
ATLAS LIQUID ARGON-Cu CALORIMETER

ELECTROMAGNETIC
HADRONIC
/E
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.7 % 7%
0
0 100 200 300
Beam Energy (GeV/c)
C. Fabjan and F. Gianotti,

Rev. Mod. Phys. 75(2003)1243

HADRONIC CALORIMETERS PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 30/57
HADRONIC SHOWER
Composed of two components: ENERGY SPECTRA OF SECONDARY PARTICLES
Hadronic (p, n, , .....) PRODUCED BY 100 GeV PROTONS (FLUKA):
Electromagnetic (e-, e+, )
NUCLEAR ABSORPTION
A 1 LENGTH
"I = $ A3 "I < "a
N A# total
Missing energy balance: Neutron, nuclear interactions

!
-> Poor energy resolution
A. Ferrari (2001)

LONGITUDINAL SHOWER
DEVELOPMENT IN IRON
LATERAL SHOWER DEVELOPMENT

IN IRON

ENERGY RESOLUTION
RELATIVE ELECTRON/HADRON RESPONSE
V.V. Abramov et al, Nucl. Instr. and Meth. A457(2001)75

HADRONIC CALORIMETERS: COMPENSATION PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 33/57
COMPENSATION:
Increase the contribution of hadronic energy loss with signal ! /! >1
e h
converters having large neutron cross section (Uranium)
! /! =1
e h
238U/Scintillators
! /! <1
e h
E (hadron)
R. Wigmans Nucl. Instr. and Meth. A259 (1987) 389

HADRONIC CALORIMETERS: COMPENSATION PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 34/57
COMPENSATION:
IMPROVED HADRONIC RESOLUTION
ABANDONED, DUE TO
SAFETY REGULATIONS
COMPENSATED
C. Fabjan and R. Wigmans,

Rep. Prog. Phys. 52(1989)1519

CHERENKOV EFFECT PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 35/57
Charged particles traversing a medium emit photons by BELOW ABOVE

Cherenkov effect if their velocity exceeds the velocity of THRESHOLD: THRESHOLD:
light in the medium:
1
"# n: medium refraction index
n
Above threshold, photons are emitted at an angle given by:
1
! cos " =
n#
The maximum emission angle is:
1
! " c = ar cos
n
The number of photons emitted per unit energy:

! dN " INDEX OF REFRACTION:
= L sin 2 # = 370 L sin 2 # eV-1cm-1
dE hc
N = N 0 L sin 2 " Glass 1.4
Aerogel 1.022
L: radiator length Neopentane 1.00177
!
N0: figure of merit (~ 50-100 cm-1) Argon (1 bar) 1.000135
!

CHERENKOV RING IMAGING (RICH) PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 36/57
MIRROR FOCUSING Photon Detector

r
R= " Radiator
2
1
"=
# 2R & R
n cos% (
! $ r '
Focal length f=r/2
PROXIMITY FOCUSING
Photon Detector
Radiator

GASEOUS RICH DETECTORS PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 37/57
QUANTUM EFFICIENCY OF VAPORS AND CHOICE OF RADIATORS

WINDOW TRANSPARENCY
Quantum efficiency
or Transparency (%) Energy (eV)
10 9 8 7 6
Quartz
50
CaF2
C6H6
LiF TMAE
TEA
Acetone
0
100 150 200 Wavelength (nm)
TEA (Triethylamine, (C2H5)3N)

Ei=7.45 eV; P = 52 torr at 20 C
TMAE (Tetrakis-dimethyl amino
ethylene, [(CH3)2N]2C)
Ei=5.6 eV: P = 0.01 torr at 30C
E. Nappi and J. Seguinot, Riv. Nuovo Cimento28(2005)1

RICH RESOLUTION PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 38/57
MAIN FACTORS AFFECTING THE PARTICLE EXAMPLE OF PARTICLE

IDENTIFICATION RESOLUTION: IDENTIFICATION RESOLUTION OF A
RICH DETECTOR
Chromatic aberration: variation of the index of
refraction of the radiator over the detected photon
energy region E:
1 dn
"# = 2 "E
$n sin # dE
Single photon position measurement error x:

"x
! "# = f: focal length
f
Sphericity error of the mirror

Multiple scattering of tracks
....... !
T. Ypsilantis and J. Seguinot,


DELPHI RICH PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 39/57
DRIFT CHAMBERS WITH

PHOTOSENSITIVE VAPOR (TMAE) PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION
DOUBLE RADIATOR: GAS AND LIQUID

SOLID PHOTOCATHODES: CSI PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 40/57
THIN LAYER OF CAESIUM IODIDE DEPOSITED ON CATHODES OF MWPC
CsI QUANTUM EFFICIENCY AND

WINDOWS TRANSPARENCY:
QE RELATIVE TO VACUUM AS A
FUNCTION OF FIELD IN SEVERAL GASES:
A. Breskin et al, Nucl. Instrum. Methods A483(2001)670

COMPASS RICH PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 41/57
2 array of 8 MWPCs with CsI photocathodes, 5.8 m2 total active area, operating at CERN.
Window
MULTIRING EVENT:
MWPC
CsI-coated cathode pads
E. Albrecht et al, Nucl. Instr. and Meth. A502(2003)112

ALICE RICH PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 42/57
ALICE HIGH MOMENTUM PARTICLE IDENTIFIER (HMPID)

PROXIMITY FOCUSING RICH
Radiator: 15 mm liquid C6F14

Detectors: 7 modules 1.5x1.5 m2 each
42 MWPCs (64x40 cm2) in total (6 per module)
Largest area production of CsI photocathodes.
Requires strict quality control protocols.
PROTOTYPE TEST RESULTS

120 GeV protons
H. Hoedlmoser et al,

ALICE HMPD RICH PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 43/57
MODULE ASSEMBLY BEFORE INSTALLATION:

LHCb RICH PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 44/57
DOUBLE RADIATOR: GAS (C4F10) AND AEROGEL

HPD photon sensors

AEROGEL RADIATORS PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 45/57
SEMITRANSPARENT SPONGE OF SILICON OXYDE (SILICAGEL)

Manufactured by vacuum pumping of an emulsion of SiO2 powders and a solvant (alcohol)
Refraction index in the range 1.1 to 1.001, good transparency in the visible

GEM RICH PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 46/57
Upper GEM electrode coated with a CsI reflective photocathode; ejected photoelectrons enter the
holes and multiply. Further GEM electrodes amplify the charge in cascade to allow detection and
localization on a segmented anode.
Good time resolution
No photon feedback problems (inverted photocathode)
Direct ionization of particles eliminated by reverse or zero drift field
EDRIFT ~ 0
CsI LAYER
e
D. Mormann et al, Nucl. Instr. and Meth. A478(2002)230

PHENIX HADRON BLIND PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 47/57
Windowless Cherenkov gas counter with CF4

radiator. Photons emitted by electrons are detected
in a CsI-coated Triple-GEM end cap; the inverted 24 TGEM DETECTORS WITH PAD
drift field prevents the ionization to reach the READOUT:
detector.
Hadrons in the same momentum range are below
threshold and do not emit photons.
Hadrons
e+ e-
C. Aidala et al, Nucl. Instr. Methods A502(2003)200

A. Kozlov et al, Nucl. Instr. and Meth.A523(2004)344

HADRON BLIND DETECTOR PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 48/57
DETECTOR ASSEMBLY:
ELECTRON-HADRON DISCRIMINATION:
PULSE HEIGHT:
electrons
hadrons
C. Woody et al., 2006 IEEE Conf. Records

Z. Fraenkel et al, NIMA 546(2005) 466

LHCb RICH PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 49/57
HYBRID PHOTOMULTIPLIERS (HPD) READOUT
M. Adinolfi et al, Nucl. Instr. and Meth. A603(2009)287

RICH WITH SOLID STATE DETECTORS PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 50/57
SiPM ARRAYS FOR CHERENKOV

RING IMAGING
SPECTRAL RESPONSE:
TEST BEAM
S. Korpar et al,
Nucl. Instr. and Meth. In press (Dec. 2009)

TRANSITION RADIATION PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 51/57
Relativistic charged particles emit radiation in ENERGY SPECTRUM OF TR PHOTONS:

the forward direction when crossing a boundary
between different dielectrics.
The spectral distribution and intensity of the

radiation depend on the particle velocity; as it
has to emerge from the radiator layer, it is
mostly exploited in the X-ray domain.
Gas detectors (with Xe filling) are well

suited for efficient detection of X-rays in the
1 to 10 keV region.
B. Dolgoshein,
Nucl. Instrum. and Meth. A326(1993)434

TRANSITION RADIATION PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 52/57
MULTILAYER RADIATORS
To compensate for the low yield of the radiation, STACK OF THIN PLASTIC FOILS:
use hundred of interfaces. The radiator has to be
light not to self-absorb the photons.
RADIATOR DETECTOR (MWPC)
EXPANDED POLYETHILENE FOAM:

TRANSITION RADIATION SPECTRA PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 53/57
EXAMPLES OF PULSE HEIGHT SPECTRA IN VARIOUS TRDs:
B. Dolgoshein, Nucl. Instrum. and Meth. A326(1993)434

ATLAS TRANSITION RADIATION TRACKER (TRT) PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 54/57
STACK OF INDIVIDUAL PROPORTIONAL

COUNTERS (STRAWS) WITH RADIATOR FILLINGS
Barrel TRT: ~52,000 straws 144 cm long

End-cap TRT: ~160,000 straws 37 to 53 cm long
Gas filling (optimized after years of research on aging):

Xe(70%) - CO2 (27%) - O2 (3%)
T. Akesson et al, Nucl. Instr. and Meth. A522(2004)131

ATLAS TRANSITION RADIATION TRACKER PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 55/57
PROTOTYPE TESTS
PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION: Pion misidentification
probability as a function
of pseudorapidity:
SIMULATED EVENT
Each point represents a hit
within one LHC bunch
crossings:
T. Akesson et al, Nucl. Instr. and Meth. A522(2004)25

S. Haywood et al,
ATLAS TRT PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 56/57

ATLAS TRT PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 57/57
TRT BARREL, INSTALLED IN THE ATLAS PIT

PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 58/57

Particle Identification

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PARTICLE IDENTIFICATION 8 - 0/57

Fabio Sauli - CHIPP Winter School 2010

CMS SECTOR CROSS SECTION:

Fabio Sauli - CHIPP Winter School 2010

A particle is identified measuring at least two independent quantities:

Fabio Sauli - CHIPP Winter School 2010

The sagitta of the deflection provides the transverse

Fabio Sauli - CHIPP Winter School!2010

TIME OF FLIGHT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO PARTICLES

FOR RELATIVISTIC PARTICLES (E>>m0 c2)

The resolving power depends on the distance and

K. Grupen, Particle Detectors (Cambridge Univ. Press. 1996)

Fabio Sauli - CHIPP Winter School 2010