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Megan Phillips

Mrs. Tallman

AP Calculus

27 February 2017

Solids of Revolution

Calculus is one section of mathematics that has a reputation for being complex and

difficult to understand; however, the concept really only has two dominating subconcepts:

derivatives and integrals. Integrals can easily be defined as the antiderivative. One interesting

unit learned in AP Calculus is called solids of revolution. In this topic, the integral is applied to

functions rotated around an axis or translation of an axis to calculate the volume of the solid that

is created.

Before a function is ever rotated around an axis, an integral can also simply be used to

find the area under the function. The integral can be used for this because it breaks the area

underneath the function into an extremely large amount of miniscule rectangles, or Riemann

sums, to find the area of. Once all of the areas of the rectangles are found, they are summed up to

result in the total area under the curve. This method is much more accurate than creating

trapezoids under the curve to find the area because an integral can account for the curves of the

function and has very little room for error since the rectangles created are so tiny.

f ( x) dx
a
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The lower limit of a definite integral b is where the miniscule rectangles stop being

created. The upper limit of a definite integral a is where the rectangles start being created.

Between a and b is the area being added up within the integral. The function f(x) is the equation

that is having its area under the curve calculated. The remaining part dx is often ignored by

students, but it is the width of the rectangles being created. The definition of a definite integral is

the limit of the Riemann sums as dx nears zero, or as the width of the rectangles gets smaller and

smaller.

Figure 1. Definite Integral Graph

Figure 1 portrays an illustration of the terms used in a definite integral. The four terms a,

b, f(x), and dx are labeled.

Because the definite integral can be used to find the area under one graph, it can also be

applied to finding the area between two graphs. To do this, the limits of integration would first be

set to the two points where the functions intersect. If the functions intersect at more than two

places, the limits of integration would be set to the two points in question, and the remaining

areas between the curves can be added in using separate integrals with the other intersection

points.
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Figure 2. Area Between the Curves

Figure 2 displays two functions f(x) and g(x) that intersect in two places within view. The

area between the two functions has limits of integration a and b.

b

(f (x )g(x )) dx
a

In order to find the area between the two curves, the function on the bottom of the area

between them is subtracted from the function on the top. This subtraction is placed within the

integral with the limits set to the limits of integration that were previously explained. The term

dx is also applied to the subtraction as a whole since the rectangles within the area between the

two curves all have the same width.

After being able to find the area under one curve or the area between two curves, the

function or functions can easily be rotated around the x- or y-axisor even a translation of one

of those, say the y = -2 line, for instancein order to create a solid of revolution. The volume of
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this solid can be calculated using integrals, as well. There are three different methods to go about

using integrals to find the volume of solids of revolution: disks, rings, and shells.

The first method is named the disk method. In this type of problem, there is only one

function involved. When the function is rotated around an axis, a figure with circular cross

sections is formed. With this information in mind, the technique to finding the volume of the

entire figure is to find the area of each one of the infinite number of disks within the volume of

the figure and sum them all up.

b
V = (f ( x))2 dx
a

The volume V is determined by multiplying by the integral of the function being

rotated squared from limits of integration a to b. The dx value is still included within the integral

because it accounts for the height of each of the tiny disks that make up the three-dimensional

figure. The function is squared and multiplied by because the equation of a circle is

multiplied by the radius squared, and as previously mentioned, the cross section of the solid

figure is a circle. The function acts as the radius in this case, and because dx is involved, the

function must be in terms of x to properly work with the particular integral.

The idea behind this method is similar to the idea behind an integral in that instead of

using tiny rectangles to break up a two-dimensional graph, tiny disks are being used to divide the

three-dimensional figure that is formed when the function is rotated around an axis. That is why

the integrand is involved because it adds the volumes of all of the tiny disks together to achieve

one single volume value.

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Figure 3. Disk Method

Figure 3 shows a solid of revolution that is formed when f(x) is rotated around the x-axis.

The disk illustrated in the figure above is just one example, but this method revolves around the

idea of an infinite amount of small disks being formed by cutting the solid into slices

perpendicular to the x-axis. The smaller the height of each of the disks (dx) created is, the more

accurate the answer will be. The reason for the cuts being made perpendicular to the x-axis is

because the radii of the circular cross sections must be in terms of x.

The disk method is ideal for problems where there is only one function involved, but the

ring method is a much better tool to use if two functions are being revolved.

When two functions are revolved around an axis, only the space between them becomes a

solid, meaning that there is a hole that remains within the center of the solid. Furthermore, the

cross sections of the solid created are rings. To find the volume of the entire figure, the volume

of each one of these rings that are created are added together to result in one volume value.

(f (x ))
( 2( g( x ))2)dx
b

V =
a
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The volume V is found by multiplying by the integral of the difference between

each of the functions squared separately from limits of integration a to b. The dx value is still

included within the integral and applied to every term within the integrand because it accounts

for the height of each of the tiny rings that make up the three-dimensional figure. The function is

multiplied by just like in the disk method, except instead of just one function being

squared, both of the functions involved are squared and the smaller function is subtracted from

the larger function to account for the hole in the middle of the rings created. The reason why the

functions are being squared is similar to the reason for why the function is squared in the disk

method, which is because the cross sections resemble a circle and follow the same pattern as a

circles area formula. The functions make up the radii, and they must be in terms of x in order to

achieve an answer with the particular integral.

This method is nearly identical to the disk method; however, there are two functions

involved. Only the difference between the two functions must be accounted for in the solid. The

volume of each of the rings created are all added up to find the total volume.

Figure 4. Ring Method

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Figure 4 shows a solid of revolution that is formed when f(x) and g(x) are rotated around

the x-axis. The rings illustrated in the figure above are just two examples, but this method

involves an infinite amount of small rings being formed by cutting the solid into slices

perpendicular to the x-axis. The smaller the height of each of the rings created is, the more

accurate the answer will be. The reason for the cuts being made perpendicular to the x-axis is

because the radii of the circular cross sections must be in terms of x in this case.

Within the explanations for both the disk and ring methods, it was mentioned to have the

equations in terms of x due to the integral involving the term dx and the function being revolved

around the x-axis. Sometimes, though, the function is not rotated around the x-axis but around

the y-axis instead, meaning the integral would contain dy instead of dx. This would then call for

the function to be in terms of y. It can be tedious to put some equations in terms of yfor

example, y = 7x - x2 would be too difficult to put in terms of y. To avoid this obstacle, another

method named the shell method can be utilized.

To find the volume of solid by using the shell method, an infinite number of skinny shells

are created within the solid. The shells resemble the lateral area of a cylinder. By using an

integral, the volumes of all of the small shells can be added together to end in one volume value

for the whole solid that was created by revolving a function.

b
V =2 x f (x) dx
a

The volume V is found by multiplying 2 by the integral of the radius of the shells

which is then multiplied by the height of the shells. The integral is integrated from limits of

integration a to b. The dx value is still included within the integral and applied to every term

because it accounts for the thickness of each of the tiny shells that make up the three-dimensional

figure. The function is multiplied by 2 and the height of each shell because the shells
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resemble the lateral surface area of a cylinder. The equation for the lateral surface area of a

cylinder is 2 multiplied by the radius and height. The function represents the height of the

shell while x represents the radius.

Figure 5. Shell Method

Figure 5 displays a solid of revolution that is formed when f(x) is rotated around the y-

axis. The two shells shown in the figure above are only two examples, but, as mentioned

previously, the solid is made up of an infinite amount of extremely thin shells in order to produce

the most accurate volume value. The shell method differs from both the disk and ring methods

because the slices made through the solids with the shells are not perpendicular to the axis the

function is being revolved around but rather are parallel to it. This is because the solid is not

being sliced into thin, flat parts. Instead, it is being cut into an infinite amount of circular, more

three-dimensional shells. By allowing the cuts to be parallel, this method also allows the function

to be in terms of x and dx even when it is being revolved around the y-axis.

The three methods to finding the volume of a solid made from a function that has been

revolved about an axis are not that difficult once they are broken down and explained in small

pieces. The basic idea behind all three methods is calculating the volume of a general cross

section and applying an integral to it. What about when the cross sections are not circular,
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though? Another method that can be used to calculate the volume of a solid is called the slabs

method.

The slabs method involves cross sections of a solid that are not circular; therefore, they

are not made up of a function being revolved around an axis. The slabs method is used when the

shape of a base of a solid is specified along with the type of cross section it has. The equation

used to find the volume of a solid with the slabs method can differ depending on these two

factors. In basic terms, the dimensions of the cross sections are determined by substituting in

variables from the base that the solid is on. An integral is still applied to help find the volume

because this method still uses the idea of slicing a solid into an infinite number of cross sections

of any shape and adding them all up to achieve an accurate volume value.

Figure 6. Slabs Method

Figure 6 portrays the graph of a circular base and one example of a square cross section.

The solid is made up of an infinite number of skinny square sections, and the circular base has a

radius of five units. With previous knowledge of the equation for a circle, it is known that
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x2 + y2 = 25. Based on the illustration in the figure above, the base of the square cross section

seems to be equal to y multiplied by two. Furthermore, the height of the cross section is also

equal to y multiplied by two since a square has equal sides.

5
V = (2 y)(2 y )dx
5

5
V = (4 y 2)dx
5
4 (25x2 )dx

5
V =
5
V =666.667 units 3
Figure 7. Slabs Method Equations

The volume V is achieved by calculating the integral of four multiplied by y squared from

negative five to five. The entire quantity of four multiplied by y squared is also multiplied by dx

as it acts as the thickness of each of the cross sections, similar to the three aforementioned

methods. The value of y squared is equal to 25 - x2 based on substitution done with the

dimensions of the circular base. The integral from negative five to five results in a volume of

666.667 cubic units.

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With all of the previous concepts explained, they can finally be applied to a mathematical

x
problem. For example, say the functions of y= and y= are plotted on the same
3

graph. The area between the two curves can be calculated using the definite integral concept.

Figure 7. Example Graph

Figure 7 shows the graph of both functions and their intersection points.

A=
0

A=4.5 units2
Figure 8. Area Between Two Example Graphs

Figure 8 shows the integral and solution of the area between the two functions given. The

lower limit of the integral was zero, and the upper limit was nine. These were the limits of

integration because they were the x-coordinates of the intersection points. The quotient function

was subtracted from the square root function because it is underneath it. The region between the

two graphs has an area of 4.5 square units.

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Figure 9. Volume of the Rotation of Two Example Graphs

Figure 9 displays the two previously-used graphs rotated about the line y = -2. A model

ring is also shown. In order to calculate the volume of the solid formed by the revolution, the

ring method can be utilized. This method is ideal for this problem because there are two

functions in terms of x that are being rotated around a translation of the x-axis, so the cuts made

in the solid are perpendicular to the axis of revolution.

V =
0

V =31.5 units 3
Figure 10. Volume Calculations with Ring Method

Figure 10 demonstrates the integral used to calculate the volume of the solid formed

when the two example functions were revolved around the y = -2 line. The integral follows the

pattern described in the ring method description previously explained; however, two is added to

both of the functions and then squared in order to account for the revolution around the y = -2
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line instead of just the x-axis. The functions are both two units farther from the normal axis of

revolution. The volume of the solid formed is equal to 31.5 cubic units.

Figure 11. Solid with Base Between Two Example Graphs

Figure 11 illustrates two model isosceles triangles with a leg perpendicular to the x-axis.

The length of the legs is the distance between the two example graphs, meaning that the base of

the entire solid is the area between the two graphs. In order to find the volume of the entire solid

formed, the slabs method can be applied.

9
1
V =
20

9
1
V =
20

3
V =1.35 units
Figure 12. Volume Calculations with Slabs Method

Figure 12 goes through the calculations to determine the volume of the solid formed

when the region between the two example graphs is the base and the cross sections are isosceles

right triangles that are perpendicular to the x-axis. The equation for the area of a triangle is one

half multiplied by the base and multiplied by the height. Since the cross sections are isosceles
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right triangles, the base and the height are the same length. The base and height each have a

length that is equal to the distance between the two example graphs. Since the cross sections are

perpendicular to the x-axis, the limits of integration are the x-coordinates of the intersection

points: zero and nine. The volume of the solid formed is 1.35 cubic units.

Conclusively, integrals are a crucial concept within calculus. They can be applied in four

different methods: disk method, ring method, shell method, or slabs method. Any of these

methods can be used in real life. For example, the disk method could be utilized in determining

the volume of a Hersheys kiss. The ring method can help calculate the volume of a vass to see

how much water it needs inside of it. The possibilities are endless with mathematics, and

integration is one handy tool to have in a math toolbox.