Important Point For Essay Ques PDF

BIOLOGYLOVE form 4(4551)
THIS IS A COMPILATION OF BIOLOGY ESSAYS AND NOTES
COLLECTED FROM VARIOUS OF SOURCES
I HOPE THIS COMPILATION OF ESSAYS AND NOTES CAN HELP YOU
TO ACHIEVE BETTER RESULT IN BIOLOGY FOR
SPM (SIJIL PELAJARAN MALAYSIA)
THIS IS A REVISED VERSION

of the collection of biology essays
MORE ATTRACTIVE
MORE NOTES
MORE ESSAYS
SMART EXAM TIPS
1 BIOLOGYLOVE second edition 2.0/2012

Chapter 2 : Cell Structure and Cell Organisation
Phagocytosis
The pseudopodia are also used for feeding.
Amoeba sp. engulfs food by phagocytosis.
Amoeba sp. is a holozoic organisms which feed on microscopic organisms such as bacteria.
The presence of food causes Amoeba sp.to advance by extending its pseudopodia.
The pseudopodia encloses the food which is then packaged in food vacoule.
The food vacoule fuses with lysosome and the food is digested by hydrolitic enzyme called lysozyme.
The resulting nutrients are absorbed into the cytoplasm.
Smart Exam Tips !
- Comparison include
similarities and differences
Comparison between the structure of animal and plant cell
Similarities
- Both have a nucleus, cytoplasm, a plasma membrane, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, endoplasmic
reticulum and ribosomes.
Smart Exam Tips !

- Use word BOTH
for similarities

Differences
Animal cells Plant cells
Do not have fixed shape Have fixed shape
Do not have cell wall Have cell wall
Do not have chloroplast Have chloroplast
Do not have vacoule (if have, But Mature plant cell have a large
vacoule is only small and central vacoule
Smart Exam Tips !
numerous) - Use word BUT for
Carbohydrate is stored in the form differences Carbohydrate stored as starch
of glycogen
Have centrioles Do not have centrioles
The density of organelles in specific cells

Type of cells Organelles found abundantly (high density)
Sperm cells Mitochondria
Muscle cells Smart Exam Tips !
- This question
Meristematic cells always been
Palisade mesophyll cells Chloroplast asked in Paper 1
and 2
Pancreatic glands Ribosome/RER/Golgi apparatus - SPM Question
Cell in salivary gland
Extra notes : please memorise all the cells ( shape and the function). Please know how to differentiate all the
cells based on the structure and function. SPM Questions

Chapter 3 : Movement of Substances Across the Plasma Membrane
Simple Diffusion
Net movement of molecules or ions from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration.
Going down concentration gradient until an equilibrium is achieved.
The particles are distibuted equally throughout the system.
Osmosis : Diffusion of water

Net movement of freely moving water from a region of lower solute concentration to a region of higher
solute concentration through a semi-permeable membrane.//
Net movement of water from region higher water concentration to a region of lower water concentration
through a semi-permeable membrane.//
Net movement of water from hypotonic region to hypertonic region through a semi-permeable
membrane.
**Choose any one

Facilitated Diffusion
For water soluble molecules//molecules which are not soluble in lipids (ions, nucleic acid, amino acids and glucose)
Carrier Protein
The carrier protein function by binding to the molecules to pass through the plasma membrane.
The molecules move to the carrier protein which is specific for the molecules.
Molecules bind with the carrier protein at the active site.
Carrier protein changes its shape and pass the molecules through the plasma membrane.
Active Transport
Movement of molecules or ions against the concentration gradient across the plasma membranes.
Requires both carrier proteins and expenditure of energy.
Energy from ATP (adenosine triphosphate) that is generated during respiration in the mitochondria.
Has active sites which bind to the ATP molecules.
The carrier protein changes shape when the phosphate group from the ATP molecule binds to it
Then the solute is moved across the plasma membrane.
Animal and plant cells in an isotonic solution
Solution in which the solute concentration is equal to that of the cytoplasmic fluid.
Water diffuse in and out of the cells at equal rate.
No net movement of water.
Cells retain its normal shape.

Hypotonic solution Hypertonic solution
Hypertonic solution
Concentration of solute outside a cell is lower than The concentration of solute in the
concentration of solute inside cell. solution is higher than the concentration
Animal cells of solutes within the cell sap.
Cell placed in hypotonic solution. Hypertonic to the cell sap of the cell.
Solution is hypotonic to the cell sap of the cell. Animal cells
Net movement of water into the cells via osmosis. Net movement of water from inside to
Cell swells up. the outside of the cell.
When extremely hypotonic, cells will eventually burst Cells shrink//shrivel, internal pressure
Cannot withstand the osmotic pressure because of thin plasma decrease.
membrane. Red blood cells immersed in hypertonic
E.g : red blood cells (haemolysis) solution , the cell shrink and the plasma
Plant cells membrane crinkles up.
Do not burst Cell undergone crenation.
Rigid cell wall. Plant cells
Water diffuse into vacoule of cell via osmosis through Water diffuse out via osmosis.
a semi-permeable membrane. Vacoule and cytoplasm shrink and
Cell swells up and becomes turgid plasma membrane pulls away from the
Tugor pressure in plant. cell wall.
Supporting the plant.
This process called plasmolysis.
Exam tips : To answer Question on Osmosis

1. Mention about the solution (whether HYPERTONIC or HYPOTINIC) to
the cell sap of the cell.
2. Water diffuse into/out of the cell via OSMOSIS
3. What happen to cell (plasmolysis, crenation, turgid, haemolysis)

Similarities between facilitated diffusion and active transport
S1- Both (ways of transportation)need carrier protein.
E1- To bind with molecules/ion/substrate/examples
S2- Both transport specific molecules only.
E2- Because the carrier protein have specific site to certain molecules.
S3- Both processes occur in living cell.
E3- Because carrier protein need/can change shape to allow substances to move across.
Sodium Potassium Pump
P1 The concentration of sodium ions is higher on the inside of the cell

P2 The sodium ions approach the carrier protein. The carrier protein has a site for the ions to bind with
P3 The carrier protein binds to the sodium ions. The ATP molecule is split into Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and
phosphate(P).
P4 The phosphate group the attach itself to the carrier protein. The splitting of ATP releases energy to the carrier
protein.
P5 Energy from the ATP changes the shape of carrier protein.
P6 This cause the carrier protein to release the sodium ions outside of the cell

Examples of transport of substances
Transport Examples Active transport - Ions intake by root hairs of a plant

process
Simple diffusion - Gaseous exchange in the alveoli and
blood capillaries
Facilitated - Absorption of digested food in the Example of question

diffusion villus
Explain how red blood cell burst

F1 the solution outside the cell is hypotonic to the cell sap
Osmosis - Absorption of water by root hair
E1 water molecules diffuse into the cell by osmosis
cell
E2 the plasma membrane is too thin to withstand the osmotic
pressure inside the cell
E3 So the cell burst/haemolysis occured

This how you answer the question
Flaccid cell
F1 : the cell sap is hypotonic to the solution
F2 : water diffuse out from the cell via osmosis
F3 : cytoplasm shrink//plasmolysis occured
F4 : cell becomes flaccid
Turgid cell
F1 : the cell sap is hypertonic to the solution
F2 : water diffuse into the cell via osmosis
F3 : the cell swells up//vacoule becomes bigger
F4 : the cell becomes turgid
Percent change in mass

ofpotato
25 At this stage, the sucrose solution is isotonic to At P
the cell sap of the potato - The solution is hypotonic to the cell
20 Water diffuse into and out of the cell via sap.
P
osmosis at equal rate - Water diffuse into the cell via osmosis.
15 - Cell becomes turgid.
- That is why the mass increased.
10
5 At Q
- The solution is hypertonic to the cell
0 sap.
Sucrose molarity (mol)
- Water diffuse out from the cell via
-5 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 osmosis.
Q - Cell plasmolysed.
-10
- That is why the mass decrease

Chapter 4 : Chemical Composition of the Cell
Phosphate group Nitrogenous base carbohydrate

Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C),
Thymine (T)
monosaccharides polysaccharides disaccharides
Complementary base pairing
A--------T
C--------G
Nitrogenous base G--------C glycogen cellulose
T--------A
SPM 2011
Pentose sugar
starch
Lock and key hypothesis

The substrate molecule fits into the active site of the enzyme
molecule.
The substrate is the key that fits into the enzyme lock.
Various types of bonds such as hydrogen and ionic bonds hold
the substrate
in the active site forming the enzyme-substrate complex.
Once the complex is formed, the enzyme changes the substrate
to its product.
The product leaves the active site.
The enzyme is not altered by the reaction and it can be reused.

2 types of nucleic acid LIPID
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Energy rich organic compound.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) Contains phosphorus and nitrogen.
DNA found in Insoluble in water.
Nucleus of a cell Includes fats, oil, waxes, phospholipids, steroids.
Chloroplast
Mitochondria
TRIGLYCERIDES
DNA contains genetic information about an organism
condensation
RNA found in
Cytoplasm
Ribosomes
Nucleus
hydrolysis
The importance of Nucleic acids
glycerol 3 molecules triglycerides
Store genetic information
of fatty acids
The stored genetic information can be duplicated/copied
for transmission
Stable in storing genetic information within the lifetime
of organism PROTEINS
Enable the transmission of genetic information from on Amino acid as the basic unit (monomer)
egeneration to next generation Build new cell for growth.
CARBOHYDRATES
Provide energy during respiration.
Build cell wall (cellulose) in plants.
External skeleton of insects.

Protein Structure Aspect Saturated fats Unsaturated fats
Type s of chemical All covalent bonds Existence of double
bonds between carbon covalent bonds
atoms single C - C between carbon
atoms C = C
Reactivity Less reactive More reactive

because of double
bond
State of matter at Solid (fats) Liquid (oil)

room temperature
Source Mainly from animal Mainly from plant :

products : red meat, Vegetable,
chicken fat, buuter palm/corm/olive
and coconut oil
Effects on blood Increase level of bad Contains less

cholestrol level cholestrol cholestrol
Contains more
Tertiary structure cholestrol
Enzymes
Hormones
Antibodies
Plasma proteins
Quartenary structure
Haemoglobin
Pore protein

General characteristics of enzymes
Alter or speed up the rates of chemical Effects of temperature on enzyme activity
reactions At low temperature, reaction takes place slowly.
Remain unchanged at the end of reaction. As temperature increases, movement of substrate
Do not destroyed by reactions they catalysed. increase.
Have specific sites called active site to bind Increase their chances of colliding with each other
with specific substrates. and with the active site of the enzymes.
Needed in small quantities. At optimum temperature, the reaction is at
Reaction are reversible maximum rate.
Can be slowed down or stopped by inhibitors. Beyond the optimum temperature, rate of reaction
E.g: lead and mercury will not increase.
Require helper molecules, called cofactors. Bonds that hold enzyme molecules begin to break.
Inorganic cofactor : ferum, copper Actives sites destroyed.
Organic cofactor: water soluble vitamins, B Enzyme denatured.
vitamins .
Extracellular enzyme
Extracellular enzyme is produced in a cell, then packed and secreted from the
cell.
It catalyses its reaction outside the cell. An example is amylase.
The nucleus contains DNA which carries the information for synthesis of
enzymes.
Protein that are synthesised at the ribosomes are transported through the
spaces within the rough ER.
Proteins that depart from the rough ER wrapped in vesicles then bud off from
the membrane of the rough ER.
These transport vesicle then fuse with the membranes of the golgi apparatus
and empty their contents into the membranous space.
The proteins are further modified during their transport in the Golgi apparatus.
For example, carboohydrates are added to protein to form glycoproteins.
Secretory vesicles containing these modified protein bud off from the Golgi
apparatus and travel to the plasma membrane.
Enzymes are released.

What is monosaccharides?
Glucose Exam tips :
Glucose + monosaccharides condensation disaccharides + water
Fructose
Galactose
What is disaccharides? Exam tips :

Addition of water is
Maltose
necessary. Must be
Sucrose written!! Enzymes for substrates
Lactose
condensation
Starch : amylase
Glucose + glucose maltose + water Sucrose : sucrase
condensation Lactose : lactase
Glucose + fructose sucrose + water Maltose : maltase
condensation
Glucose + galactose lactose + water
Reducing Sugar and Non-Reducing sugar
To test for reducing sugar, Benedicts test must be carried out.

If the colour of Benedicts solution changes from BLUE to BRICK-RED PRECIPITATE, thats mean the solution
contains Reducing sugar.
Sometime sucrose can show positive result. Why? Because sucrose can be
Reducing sugar is
hydrolysed into glucose and fructose.
All monosaccharides, maltose and lactose
Steps:
Non reducing sugar is 1. Add dilute hydrochloric acid and boil the solution.
All polysaccharides and sucrose 2. When the solution is cooled, put a spoon of calcium carbonate to
Give negative result on Benedicts test neutralise the solution.
3. Then test with benedicts solution.
(colour does not change)
4. Then the colour will change.

Chapter 5 : Cell Division
Where do mitosis occur?
In plants, mitosis occur in meristematic tissues. This is a chromosome
With sister
What is meristematic tissues?
chromatids
Roots tips 1 chromosome
Shoot tips
Bud tips
Terminal buds
Cambium
In animal?
All parts of the body except TESTES and OVARY
This also chromosome
But single chromatids
CHROMOSOMES AND CHROMOSOMAL NUMBER 1 chromosome also
n = haploid
2n = diploid
Human has diploid number (2n) of chromosomes which is 46

Sperm (n=23) + ovum (n=23) zygote (2n=46)

Stages in mitosis Pro Meta Ana Telo phase
Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase

Chromosomes in the Chromosomes align at the Two sister Chromosomes reach
nucleus condense. chromatids separate
metaphase the opposite poles of
Chromosomes appear at the centromere.
shorter and thicker. plate//equatorial plate. Sister chromatids the cell.
Consist of sister Mitotic spindle are fully pulled apart at Chromosomes uncoil
chromatid joined at the formed. opposite poles. and revert to their
centromere. Two sister chromatids are Chromatids are extended
Spindle fibres begin to still attached to one referred to as state(chromatin).
form. another at the daughter
Centrioles migrate at chromosomes.
centromere.
opposite poles.
At the end, nucleolus Ends when the centromere
disappears and the divides.
nuclear membrane
disintegrates. Exam Tips :
You can use this note to
answer question about
chromosome behaviour

Cleavage furrow
Cytokinesis in animal cell

Process of cytoplasmic division.
Begins before nuclear division is completed.
Actin filament formed contractile ring.
Contracts and constrict pull aring of plasma membrane inwards.
Groove of cleavage furrow pinches at the equator between two nuclei.
Cytokinesis in plant cell
Vesicles join to form a cell plate.
Cell plate grows until it edges fuse with the plasma membrane of the Uncontrolled mitosis
cell. Cell divides. Cell divides through mitosis repeatedly without control.
Cellulose are produced by the cell to strengthen the new cell walls. Produce cancerous cells.
Cancer is a genetic disease caused by uncontrolled mitosis.
Disruption of cell cycle.
Exam Tips : Cancerous cells divides freely and uncontrollably not according to
Chromosome : the cell cycle.
Gamete (ovum and sperm) contain half the number of These cells compete with surrounding normal cells for energy and
chromosome (n=haploid) nutrients.
Cancer cells formed tumour.
Tumour invade and destroy neighbouring cells.

Application of Mitosis
Advantages of cloning
Animal Cloning Biotechnologists to multiply copies of
1 useful genes or clones.
Clones can be produced in a shorter time
and in large numbers.
Cloned plants, however, can produced
4 flowers and fruits within a shorter period.
Clones are better quality.
Delayed ripening.
Does not need polinating agents.
3 Propagation can take place at any time.
2
Disadvantages of cloning
5 Long-term side effects are not yet known.
May undergo natural mutations. Disrupt
the natural equilibrium of an ecosystem.
Clones do not show any genetic
variations.
Has the same level of resistance towards
certain disease.
Certain transgenic crops contain genes
that are resistant to herbicides.
These genes may be transferred to weeds
6 through viruses. These weeds would then
become resistant to herbicides.
Cloned animals has shorter lifespan.
Example of Question :
Explain the technic used in animal cloning

Tissue culture
Meiosis
hormone Meiosis I
1. During prophase I, homologous
chromosomes pair up (synapsis) and
crossing over between non sister
Small pieces of chromatids occurs.
tissue is cut (e.g : 2. During Metaphase I, homologous
root/shoot) chromosomes align at the metaphase
plate (equator, middle) of the cell.
3. During Anaphase I, homologous
Plant cell divide by chromosomes separates and move to
mitosis to form callus opposite poles. Sister chromatids are still
an undifferentiate attached together and move as a unit.
4. At the end of Telophase I, two haploid
mass of tissue
daughter cells are formed. Each daughter
cell has only one of each type of
chromosomes, either the paternal or
maternal chromosomes.
Meiosis II
1. During Prophase II, synapsis of homologous
Cell in the callus develop chromosomes and crossing over between non-sister
into embryo chromatids do not take place.
Plantlet are then
2. During Metaphase II, chromosomes consisting of
transferred to soil two sister chromatids align at the metaphase plate
where they grow into (equator/middle) of cell.
adult plant 3. During Anaphase II, sister chromatids separate,
becoming daughter chromosomes that move to
opposite poles.
4. At the end of Telophase II, four haploid daughter
cells are formed. Each daughter cell has the same
number of chromosomes as the haploid cell
produced in Meiosis I, but each has only one of the
sister chromatids.

Stages in Meiosis I
PROPHASE I METAPHASE I ANAPHASE I TELOPHASE I

Stages in Meiosis II
PROPHASE II METAPHASE II ANAPHASE II TELOPHASE II

Synapsis, Crossing Over and Chiasmata(singular : chiasma)
Synapsis is the process where Exam tips :

the chromosomes pairing up If the question ask for the type of division, you must
answer whether
Crossing over is the process 1. Mitosis or
where non sister chromatids 2. Meiosis
exchange segment of genetic
If the question ask for stage, then you can answer
material (DNA)
1. Prophase//Prophase I//Prophase II
Chiasmata is the point where 2. Metaphase and so on.....
the crossing over process occur
Before you answer the question, look at the
diagram//question whether it is mitosis or meiosis!!!

Exam tips : Similarities between Meiosis I and Meiosis II Why Meiosis is needed?
- Process in Meiosis II is likely same as
Mitosis Both consist of four stages Meiosis is needed to produce haploid
- The term use for Meiosis I is Both involve nuclear division gamete
Homologous chromosome while in Both involve cytokinesis
Meiosis only occur in the GONAD (TESTES
Meiosis II, the term used is sister Both have chromatids
and OVARY)
Chromatids
Why gamete must be haploid?
Aspect Meiosis I Meiosis II If gamete is not haploid, the number of
Reduce 2n chromosome to n Divides the remaining chromosome in the organism will be double
set of chromosome in
from the real number!!
a mitosis like process
Prophase Chromosome already No replication
replicated No synapsis
Homologous chromosomes No chiasma and no
synapse crossing over
Chiasma forms and crossing
over takes place
Metaphase Paired homologous Sister chromatids 46
46 96
chromosomes align at the align at the equator
equator
Anaphase Separation of homologous Separation of sister
chromosomes to opposite chromatids to
poles opposite poles
Telophase Single cytokinesis Two cytokinesis
2 identical cell produced 4 identical cell
produced 23
23 46
Exam Tips :
You have to master all the Comparison between Meiosis I and Meiosis II
also between Mitosis and Meiosis

Chapter 6 : Nutrition
Energy value of food (kJ g-1)
Percentage of vitamin C in fruit juice =
( ) ( )
( )
x 0.1%
Test on food samples

Concentration of vitamin C in fruit juice =
Test for Reagent Observation Conclusion
Starch Iodine solution Colour change Food sample x 1.0 mg cm-3
from yellow to contains starch
blue-black
Reducing sugar Benedicts Change from Food contain
(refer chapter 4) solution blue to brick red reducing sugar Exam tips:
precipitate
Protein Biurets test Change from Food contain - The above formula always been used in the exam.
(20% of sodium blue to purple protein - So, you have to remember the formula.
hydroxide - No formula provided in the exam paper unless it is given in the
solution and 1% question.
copper(II)
sulphate
solution
Lipid Filter paper Translucent Food contain
mark lipid
Lipid Emulsion test Oily mixture on Food contain
the surface of lipid
water

Examples of essays
Digestion in mouth Digestion in stomach Digestion in small intestine

Secretion of saliva by three pairs of Epithelial lining of the stomach contains Duodenum received chyme from stomach
salivary glands gastric glands. and secretion from the gall bladder and
Saliva contains the enzyme salivary These glands secrete gastric juice. pancreas.
amylase Consists of mucus, HCL and enzyme Starch, protein and lipids are digested.
Begins the hydrolysis of starch to maltose. pepsin and renin. Bile which produced by the liver and
HCL make the pH around 2.0. stored in the gall bladder enter the
Salivary amylase High acidity destroy bacteria. duodenum via the bile duct.
Starch + water maltose Acidity stop the activity of salivary Bile helps neutralise the acidic chyme and
amylase enzyme. optimise the pH for enzyme action in
An additional digestive process occurs duodenum.
further along the alimentary canal to pepsin Bile salts imulsify lipids, breaking them
convert maltose to glucose. Protein + water polypeptides down into tiny droplets.
pH is maintained at 6.5-7.5 Providing high TSA for digestion.
Renin coagulate milk by converting the Pancreas secrete pancreatic juice into
soluble milk protein, caseinogen into duodenum via pancreatic duct.
soluble caesin. Pancreatic juice contains pancreatic
Stomach contents become a semi-fluid amylase, trypsin and lipase.
called chyme. Pancreatic amylase complete the
Chyme gradually enter the duodenum. digestion of starch to maltose.
Trypsin digests polypeptides into
peptides.
Lipase complete the digestion of lipid into
fatty acid and glycerol.
Glands in the ileum (small intestine)
secrete intestinal juice which contain
digestive enzyme needed to complete the
digestion of peptides and disaccharides.
Peptides digested by erepsin into amino
acids.
Maltose digested by maltase into glucose.
Disaccharides digested by its own enzyme
into monosaccharides and glucose.

Summary of the digestion
Ileum (small intestine) Mouth Stomach

Have intestinal gland which secrete intestinal juice Have salivary gland to secrete saliva Have gastric gland to secrete gastric juice
that contain enzymes : Saliva contain salivary amylase Gastric juice contain enzyme pepsin and renin
Salivary amylase will digest pH is acidic
maltase
Maltose + water glucose Salivary amylase pepsin
Starch + water maltose protein + water polypeptides
lactase
Lactose + water glucose + galactose renin
caseinogen + water casein
Exam tips :
sucrase
Sucrose + water glucose + fructose Please remember that enzyme trypsin always
erepsin
need alkaline medium (pH > 7) Digestion is a popular
Pepsin and renin need acidic medium (pH < 7)
Peptides + water amino acids
Acidic medium is in Stomach
question in SPM!!!
Alkaline medium is in Duodenum
Site of digestion : duodenum
Digestive organ Digestive juice enzyme pH Substrates and products

Liver Bile, bile salts None 7.6-8.6 Emulsification of fats
Pancreas Pancreatic juice Pancreatic amylase 7.1-8.2
Pancreatic amylase
Starch + water maltose
Trypsin 7.1-8.2
trypsin
Polypeptides + water peptides
Lipase 7.1-8.2
lipase
Lipid droplets + water fatty acid + glycerol

Digestion in Rodent and Ruminant (essay)
Digestion of cellulose by ruminant

F1 Partially chewed food is passed to the rumen (largest compartment of the stomach).
F2 Cellulose is broken down by cellulase produced by bacteria.
F3 Part of the breakdown products are absobed by bacteria, the rest by the host.
F4 Food enters the reticulum.
F5 Cellulose undergoes further hydrolysis.
F6 The content of the reticulum, called the cud, is then regurgitated bit by bit into the mouth
F7 to be thoroughly chewed.
F8 Helps soften and break down cellulose, making it more accessible to further microbial
action.
F9 The cud is reswallowed and moved to the omasum.
F10 Here, the large particles of food are broken down into smaller pieces by peristalsis.
F11 Water is removed from the cud.
F12 Food particles moved into obamasum, the true stomach of the ruminant. (e.g : cow).
F13 Gastric juice complete the digestion of protein and other food substances.
F14 The food then passes through the small intestine to be digested and absorbed in the
normal way.
Digestion of cellulose by rodent

F1 Caecum and appendix are enlarged to
store the cellulose-digesting bacteria.
F2 The breakdown products pass through the
alimentary canal twice.
F3 The faeces in the first batch are usually
produced at night.
F4 Faeces are then eaten again. To absorb
the products of bacterial breakdown.
F5 The second batch of the faeces are harder
and drier.
F6 Allows rodent (give example) to recover
the nutrients initially lost with the faeces.

Essays
Explain three structural adaptation of intestinal for effective absorption of food Similarities between the digestive system and digestion process
of rodent and ruminant
Exam tips Similarities

- When the question asked for S1 Both alimentary canal contain bacteria/protozoa
adaptation, your answer must be in the P1 To secrete extracellular enzyme//to digest
form of STRUCTURE + FUNCTION P2 To digest cellulose into glucose
- When the question asked for function, S2 Both have large surface area
start your answer with the word TO P3 To increase rate of diffusion
Differences
P1 The villi have microscopic projection in the epithelial cell called
D1 Ruminant has 4 stomach chamber but rodent has 1
microvilli stomach chamber
P2 Both the villi and microvilli increases the total surface area of the ileum P1 Because ruminant have to digest glucose//rodent dont
for the absorption of soluble end product of digestion have to digest cellulose
P3 A dense blood capillary network at each villus D2 Ruminant has a small/short caecum but rodent has a
P4 Enable the food substances absorbed to be carried away quickly big/long size caecum
P5 The epithelial lining of the villus is one-cell thick P2 Because ruminant do not digest cellulose
P6 Allows soluble food molecules to diffuse quickly into the villus D3 Most bacteria in reticulum but rodent most bacteria in
caecum
Explain what happen to the product of digestion after they are absorbed in the P3 To secrete cellulase enzyme
Small intestine D4 Ruminant, the food passes through the stomach
F1 Absorbed by blood capillaries at the villus chamber twice but for rodent, the food passes the
P1 Blood capillaries at the villus absorb galactose, amino acid, minerals, vitamin stomach chamber once
P2 by simple diffusion through the epithelium of the villus P4 To complete thedigestion//to absorb digested food
P3 These substances are carried by the hepatic portal vein to the liver and then D5 The food is regurgitated twice in mouth cavity(ruminant)
distributed to body cell by the circulatory system (CS) but the food is regurgitated once in mouth
F2 Absorbed by lacteal at the villus cavity(rodent)
P5 Food that enter in mouth cavity, oesophagus, rumen and
P4 The products of fats digestion such as glycerol and fatty acid as well as
reticulum are then regurgitated back in mouth cavity for
vitamins are absorbed into the lacteal of the villus
ruminant
P5 From the ileum, the thoracic duct carries the content of the lacteal into the
bloodstream via the left subclavian vein and is then distributed into body
cells by the CS.

Assimilation of digested food
In the Liver
F1 Amino acids is needed to synthesis new plasma protein Formation faeces
F2 When a short supply of glucose and glycogen occurs, the liver F1 Faeces which contain dead cells that are shed from intestinal linings.
converts amino acids into glucose F2 toxic substances and bile pigments enter the colon by action of
F3 Excess amino acid cannot be stored, so amino acids is broken peristalsis.
down in the liver through process of deamination F3 In colon, more water is absorbed.
F4 During deamination, urea is produced and transported to the F4 The undigested food residues harden to become faeces.
kidney to be excreted
F5 Faeces contain undigestible residues that remain after the process of
F5 Glucose in the liver is used for respiration
digestion and absorption of nutrients that take place in the small
F6 Excess glucose in body is converted into glycogen
intestine.
F7 by hormone insulin and stored in the liver
F8 Once the glycogen store in the liver is full, excess glucose is
converted into lipid by the liver
F9 Lipids which enter the subclavian vein are transported in the Exam tips
bloodstream to body cells There are only three types of food classes assimilated in the liver and
the body cell, AMINO ACID(MONOMER OF PROTEIN), GLUCOSE AND
In the cell LIPID.
F1 Amino acids which enter the cells are used for synthesis of
new protoplasm and the repair of damaged tissues
F2 Also important to synthesis of enzymes and hormones
F3 Also used in the synthesis of proteins of plasma membrane
F4 Glucose is oxidised to produce energy during cellular
respiration
F5 Energy is used for various chemical process
F6 Excess glucose is stored as glycogen in the muscle
F7 Lipids such as phospholipids and cholestrol are major
components of plasma membrane
F8 Fats are stored around organ and act as a cushion that protect
the organ
F9 Excess fats are stored in the adipose tissue underneath the
skin as reserve energy
F10 When the body lacks of glucose, fats is oxidised to release
energy

Photosynthesis Mechanism
Photosynthesis mechanism
P1 The formation of starch in plants is by the process ofphotosynthesis which occurs in chloroplasts.
P2 The two stages in photosynthesis are the light and dark reactions.
P3 Light reaction:
takes place in grana.
P4 Chlorophyll captures light energy which excites the electrons of chlorophyll molecules to higher
energy levels.
P5 In the excited state, the electrons can leave the chlorophyll molecules.
P6 Light energy is also used to split water molecules into hydrogen ion (H +) and hydroxyl ions (OH-)
(Photolysis of water).
P7 The hydrogen ions then combine with the electrons released by chlorophyll to form hydrogen
atoms.
P8 The energy from the excited electrons is used to form energy-rich molecules of adenosine
triphosphate /ATP.
Exam tips: P9 Hydroxyl ion loses an electron to form a hydroxyl group. This electron is then received by
- You have to memorise and chlorophyll.
understand the mechanism. P10 The hydroxyl groups then combine to form water and gaseous oxygen.
- You also have to know P11 Dark Reaction:
about the structure of take place in stroma.
chloroplast P12 Do not require light energy.
- Each of the structure of the P13 The hydrogen atoms are used to fix carbon dioxide in a series of reactions catalysed by
chloroplast plays important photosynthetic enzymes
role P14 and caused the reduction of carbon dioxide into glucose.
P15 The glucose monomers then undergo condensation to form starch which is temporarily stored as
starch grains in the chloroplasts.
Extra :
- In another words, carbon dioxide is reduced into glucose by the
hydrogen atom

More essays
Explain the diet for the following people
A lady athlete:
F1 An athlete is a very active person and has high rate of metabolism to produce energy. Exam tips:
E1 The diet should include more carbohydrates to supply enough energy to carry out the vigorous activity in - You must be able to
sports.// She needs to contract relate the diet with the
and relax her muscles frequently for her vigorous activities. //Energy is needed to contract the muscles. needs of the people.
E2 The diet should include more protein to build new tissues to replace tissues that are dead or damaged.
E3 She also needs calcium, sodium and potassium to strengthen the bones and to prevent muscular cramp.
A pregnant lady:
F2 A pregnant lady has a high rate of metabolism to provide energy for herself and the baby.
E4 The pregnant lady also needs more iron and calcium to build red blood cells to avoid anemia.
E5 She needs a high quantity of calcium and phosphate to form strong teeth and bones for the baby.
An old lady:
F3 An old lady has low rate of metabolism as she does not need energy to grow. (age)
E6 An old lady needs less carbohydrates and fats because she is less active and thus do not need much energy.
E7 she needs more proteins, vitamins and minerals to replace dead tissues and maintain her daily activities
E8 She needs calcium and phosphorus to prevent osteoporosis
E9 She should avoid food that contains a lot of fats, sugar and salt because excess fat can lead to heart diseases,
excess sugar can cause diabetes mellitus and excess salt can cause high blood pressure.

Chapter 7 : Respiration
Respiration is the process of oxidation of complex Anaerobic respiration in yeast
organic substances with the release of energy utilizes
oxygen an dremoving carbon dioxide in living cells Glucose ethanol + carbon dioxide + energy
also called as fermentation and is catalysed by the enzyme zymase

There are two types of respiration
Aerobic respiration (presence of oxygen)
Anaerobic respiration (absence of oxygen)
Essays
Compare the aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration
Aerobic Respiration
(complete breakdown of glucose)
Differences
Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy
Need oxygen No tion of need oxygen
Anaerobic respiration in human muscle Complete oxidation of glucose Not complete oxidation glucose
Produce water, carbon dioxide and But Animal : lactic acid and energy
When doing vigorous activities
E.g : running energy Plant/yeast : ethanol, carbon dioxide
Need more energy and energy
Produce 36 ATP (2898 kJ energy) Produce 2 ATP. Some of the energy
Glucose Lactic acid + energy (150 kJ//2 ATP) stored in lactic acid or ethanol
Occur in mitochondria Occur in cytoplasm
Oxygen debt is said to have been paid when all the lactic acid has been
Eliminated through increased breathing. Similarities
S1 Both involve cell respiration
S2 Both involve oxidation of glucose
S3 Both produce energy
S4 Both catalysed by enzyme

Respiratory structures and breathing mechanism in human and animals
Respiratory structue is the organ for respiration Adaptation of the filament
Respiratiry surface is the site where the exchange of gases occur F1 Have network of blood capillaries
Organisms Respiratory structure Respiratory surface E1 To transport respiratory gases effeiciently
Human Lungs Alveoli F2 One-cell thick wall
Grasshopper/insects Tracheal system Trachiole E2 To nesure diffusion of gases occured easily
Amoeba sp. No specific structure Plasma membrane F3 Has numerous lamella
Fish Gills Lamella/filament E3 To increase total surface area (TSA) for diffusion of gases
Frog Skin and lungs Skin/walled sac in the lungs F4 Has counter current exchange mechanism
E4 To allow the gaseous exchange efficiently
Four common characteristics(adaptation) of the respiratory surface
1) Large surface area to maximize the exchange of gases by diffusion Countercurrent exchange
2) Moist respiratory surface for gases to dissolve
3) Thin as one-cell thick for effective diffusion of gases
4) Network of blood capillaries for effective transportation of gases
Exam tips :
- Memorising the four common characteristics is important because
you can use it to answer question on adaptions of all organisms
Essays
Adaptation of tracheal system
F1 Have spiracle P1 Blood and water flow in opposite direction
E1 To allow oxygen and carbon dioxide to get in and out of the cell
P2 Maintains diffusion gradient
F2 The spiracle have valve P3 Maximizing oxygen transfer from water to blood
E2 To allow the opening and closing of the trachea so that air can go in and out P4 It is significant because ensure oxygen concentration is always higher
F3 The trachea are reinforced with chitin(made up of protein) in the water
E3 To prevent the trachea from collapsing P5 So that oxygen will always diffuse to the blood capillaries
F4 The trachea branched into finer tubes called tracheole which are in direct
contact to the cell and organ
E4 To transport the respiratory gases quickly Exam tips:
F5 The tips of the tracheole is one-cell thick wall and contain fluid(moist) - Respiratory gases is Oxygen and Carbon dioxide
E5 To allow the respiratory gases to dissolve - For fish, the adaptation of moist respiratory surface is
F6 The tracheal system has air sacs not suitable because fish is already in the water!!!
E6 To speed up the movement of gases to and from the insects tissues

The adaptation of respiratory structure of amphibians(frog)
Essays
Anaerobic respiration in human muscle
P1 During a vigorous exercise (running), the breathing rate is increased.
P2 This is to supply more oxygen to the muscles for rapid muscular contraction.
P3 However, the supply of oxygen to muscles is still insufficient.
P4 and the muscles have to carry out anaerobic respiration to release energy.
P5 The glucose is converted into lactic acid, with only a limited amount of energy
being produced.
P6 An oxygen debt builds up in the body, when no oxygen use in energy
production.
P7 High level of lactic acid in the muscles cause them to ache.
F1 The skin of the frog is thin P8 After running, the athlete breathes more rapidly and deeply than normal for
E1 highly permeable to respiratory gases twenty minutes.
F2 The skin/membrane of the lung is moist P9 There is recovery period after 10 minutes until it reaches 20 minutes when
E2 To dissolve respiratory gases oxygen is paid back during aerobic respiration.
F3 The skin has alrge number of blood capillaries under the P10 About 1/6 lactic acid is oxidized to carbon dioxide, water and energy.
skin/ lungs have network of blood capillaries
E3 For efficient transport of gases Anaerobic respiration in yeast
F4 The lungs consist of a pair of thin walled sacs connected to P1 Yeast normally respires aerobically.
the mouth through an opening called glottis P2 Under anaerobic condition, yeast carry out anaerobic respiration.
E4 To allow gases from mouth move to the lungs P3 Produces ethanol.
F5 The membrane of the lungs are thin P4 Process known as fermentation.
E5 To allow diffusion of gases to occur easily P5 Catalysed by the enzyme zymase.
P6 Ethanol produced can be used in making wine and beer.
P7 In bread making, the carbon dioxide released during fermentation of yeast
causes the dough to rise.

Breathing mechanisms in man
P1 Diaphragm is a muscular sheet in the body cavity separating the thorax from the abdomen.
P2 At the start of inhalation, the muscles of the diaphragm contract , making it less arched.
P3 This helps to increase the volume of the thoracic cavity and reduce the pressure of the thoracic cavity. Air rushes into the lungs.
P4 When the muscles of the diaphragm relax , it returns to its arched condition , reducing the volume of the thoracic cavity and increasing the
pressure of the thoracic cavity. Air is forced out of the lungs.
P5 The muscles between the ribs are known as intercostals muscles.
P6 During inhalation the external intercostals muscle contracts and raise the lower ribs.
P7 This helps to increase the volume of the thoracic cavity and reduce the pressure of the thoracic cavity. Air rushes into the lungs.
P8 During exhalation the external intercostals muscles contract , the ribs return to their original position , reduce the pressure of the thoracic
cavity.
P9 Air is forced out of the lungs.
P10 The alveoli are thin-walled air sacs with the lungs.
P11 These sacs are surrounded by a network of capillaries.
P12 During inhalation the alveoli are filled with air and gaseous exchange occurs between the alveoli and the capillaries.
P13 Oxygen from the alveoli diffuses into the capillaries while carbon dioxide diffuses from the capillaries into the alveoli.
Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the body

P1 Gaseous exchange across the alveolus occurs by diffusion.
P2 Diffusion of gas depends on differences in partial pressure between two regions.
P3 The partial pressure/ concentration of oxygen in the air of the alveoli is higher compared to the partial pressure/ concentration of
oxygen in the blood capillaries.
P4 Therefore, oxygen diffuse across the surface of the alveolus and blood capillaries into blood.
P5 The transport of oxygen is carried out by the blood circulatory system.
P6 Oxygen combines with respiratory pigment called haemoglobin in the red blood cells.
P7 To form oxyhaemoglobin.
P8 When the blood passed the tissue with low partial pressure of oxygen,
P9 Oxyhaemoglobin dissociates to release oxygen.
P10 Carbon dioxide released by repairing cells can be transported by dissolve carbon dioxide in the blood plasma.
P11 Bind to the haemoglobin.
P12 As carbaminohaemoglobin.
P13 In form of bicarbonate ions.
P14 Carbon dioxide is expelled with water vapour from the lung.

Essays
Describe how the change of oxygen and carbon dioxide content are
regulated by the body
F1 The higher level of carbon dioxide in the blood cause the drop of
the pH value
F2 The drop in pH is detected by central chemoreceptor in medulla
oblongata
F3 Then the central chemoreceptor send nerve impulses tto the
diaphgram and intercoastal muscle
F4 Causing (respiratory muscle) to contract and relax
F5 Finally, increases the breathing and ventilation rate
concentration of carbon dioxide
F6 And pH value of the blood return to normal level

Chapter 8 : Dynamic Ecosystem
Food chain
In food chain, the energy received by the organism in each trophic level is only 10%
Sequence of organism which energy is transferred/flow
from trophic level to another trophic level by eating from the previous organism. 90% energy lost as heat.
process.
Example : the producer get 25000J energy from the sun, then how much energy is
received by the secondary consumer?
1st consumer get : 10% from 25000J = 2500J

2nd consumer get : 10% from 2500J = 250J
Food web is the interconnection of many food chains
Why most food chain havenot more than 4/5 links?

- Because animals at the end of the food chain would not get
enough food/energy.
Interaction between biotic components

Parasitism (+ -)
Mutualism (+ +)
Commensalism (+ 0)
The organism which always get negative effect or did not get any effect
is always the host

Colonisation and succession in an ecosystem
The role of pioneer species :
Term Definition Modify the environment, creating conditions which are less
favourable to themselves.
Species A group of organisms that look alike and capable
Make the condition more conducive to other species that called
of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring
successor species.
Habitat The natural environment in which organism can (in other words, the pioneer will sacrifice themselves for the successor
get food, shelter, living space, nesting and species).
breeding sites
Niche 1. The function of an organism or the role it
play in an ecosystem Colonisation and succesion in mangrove swamp
2. And the space it occupies
Example : the grasshopper eats grass in the field Pioneer species :

Avicennia sp. (sea)
So the idea of an ecological niche is very simple. Sonneratia sp. (river)
You just need to know where the animal or plant
and what it does
Population A group of organism of the same species living in
the same habitat at the same time
Community All the plant and animals species living within a
defined area or habitat in an ecosystem
Ecosystem A community of living organism interacting whith
each other and with the non-living environment
Colonisation takes place in newly formed area where no life previously

existed.
The first colonizer is called pioneer species
Adaptation of pioneer species
Have dense root system to bind the sand particle, hold water
and humus.
Have root nodules containing nitrogen fixing bacteria to fix
Nitrogen from atmosphere to form nitrate as fertilizer.
Have short life cycle/colonize open space faster.
When they die, their remains add to the humus content of the soil

Essays
Explain the process of colonisation and succession in mangrove swamp

F1 The pioneer species of a mangrove swamp are the Sonneratia sp. and Avicennia sp.
F2 The presence of this species gradually changes the physical environment of the habitat.
F3 The extensive root systems of these plants trap and collect sediments, including organic matter from decaying plant parts.
F4 As time passes, the soil becomes more compact and firm. This condition favours the growth of Rhizophora sp
F5 Gradually the Rhizophora sp. replaces the pioneer species.
F6 The prop root system of the Rhizophora sp. traps silt and mud, creating a firmer soil structure over time.
F7 The ground becomes higher. As a result, the soil is drier because it is less submerged by sea water.
F8 The condition now becomes more suitable for the Bruguiera sp., which replaces the Rhizophora sp.
F9 The buttress root system of the Bruguiera sp. forms loops which extend from the soil to trap more silt and mud.
F10 As more sediments are deposited, the shore extends further to the sea.
F11 The old shore is now further away from the sea and is like terresterial ground.
F12 Over time, terrestrial plants like nipah palm and Pandanus sp. begin to replace the Bruguiera sp.
Adaptation of the pioneer mangrove species to survive and colonised their habitat
(to overcome problem during colonisation)
Problem faced by mangrove plant (Fact) Adaptive characteristics of pioneer mangrove plants
(explaination)
F1 Soft muddy soil/strong coastal wind P1 Highly branched root system to support themselves
F2 Waterlogged condition of the soil//very P2 (avicennia) have breathing roots/pneumatophore to absorb
little oxygen for root transpiration oxygen from the atmosphere
P3 Gaseous exchange occcurs through pores/lenticel
F3 The high content of salt makes the water P4 Cell sap of the root cells are hypertonic compared to the soil
soil hypertonic compared to the cell sap of water
the root cell(so water diffuse out from the P5 Excess salt in the plant is eliminated by the salt gland
plant and make the plant dehydrated) (hydathode)
F4 Excessive exposure to the sunlight//high P6 The leaves have a thick cuticle/sunken stomata to reduce
rate of transpiration transpiration
P7 The leaves are thick/succulent to store water
F5 High mortality rate//low survival rate of P8 Have vivaporous seedling//the seeds are able to germinate
seedlings while still attached to the mother plant

Colonisation and succession in pond Frequency :
Pioneer : Elodea sp. and Hydrilla sp. (submerged)
Successor 1 : Lemna sp. and Pistia sp. (floating) x 100%
Successor 2 : Sedges and cattails (emergent)
Density :
Essays
Explain how colonization and succession bring about the formation of primary
forest
P1 Activities of pioneer species (submerged plant) causes change in the
environment/ habitat, make it more suitable for other species Percentage coverage :
P2 The remains of plant/decayed bodies sinked/deposited in the pond
bed x 100%
P3 Water level in the pond decreases//pond becomes shallower
P4 Also add nutrients to pond water/soil//changes water/soil pH
P5 Favours the growth of floating plants(any example) to replace the
pioneer species The capture, mark, release and recapture technique
P6 Floating plants cover the water surface, preventing light from
penetrating the water/cause less rate of photosynthesis in the pond Population size :
P7 Results in greater rate of plant death which sink to the bottom/bed of
pond
P8 Raising the pond bed/making the pond shallower
P9 Floating plants are gradually replaced by emergent plants (example of
plant)
P10 The successor causes further changes to the habitat/pond make it Hierarchy in the classification of organisms
more favourable for emergent plants to grow
P11 Finally, emergent plant are replaced by land/terrestrial community
which dominates the area
Population ecology
Quadrat sampling technique

This technic can be used to determine
Frequency
Density
Percentage coverage
Essay
Nitrogen Cycle
P1 Nitrogen fixing bacteria/Rhizobium sp. in the root nodules of
legumes plant//Azotobacter sp/Nostoc
P2 Use nitrogen in the air to make nitrates/carries out nitrogen
fixation
P3 Nitrates produced by the bacteria are absorbed by plants to
make proteins
P4 When animal eats plants, the protein is transferred to
animals
P5 Excretory nitrogenous substances/urea/waste
material/faeces
P6 When plants/animal die
P7 The plants/animals are decomposed by decaying
bacteria/saprophytic bacteria/fungi
P8 Breaks them down to ammonia/ammonium compounds
P9 Nitrifying bacteria/Nitrosomonas converts ammonium
compound/nitrates into nitrites
P10 Nitrifying bacteria/Nitrobacter converts nitrites to nitrates
P11 Denitrifying bacteria converts nitrates into nitrogen, thus
nitrogen content in the atmosphere is maintained
What happen if there is no microorganism?

P1 No breakdown/decomposition of the dead organism
P2 Mineral ions, for example nitrates cannot be released/
Nitrogen cycle is stopped
P3 Soil become infertile/less nutrient in the soil
P4 Plants will die/photosynthesis cannot takes place

Chapter 9 : Endangered Ecosystem
Green house effects
F1 Ultra violet(uv) from solar radiation is absorbed by the earth
F2 and some of them is reflected back to the atmosphere in the
form of heat/infra red.
F3 Heat or infrared radiation cannot be reflected back to the
atmosphere.
F4 Because it is trapped by green house gases such as CO2,
nitrogen dioxide and methane.
F5 Heat/infrared warmed the surface of earth.
F6 Earth temperature increases.
Essays (negeri Perak 2010)

Eutrophication
P1 Excessive fertilizer/animal organic waste from agricultural land
/farming area flows into river nearby when it rains
P2 The presence of more minerals/organic substances
P3 Promotes algal growth /growth of aquatic plants in the river/ alga
bloom
P4 The surface of the river is covered up by the algae(which grow
extensively)
P5 The plants in the lower depths of the water cannot obtain sunlight
P6 They are unable to carry out photosynthesis
P7 Hence, the plant die
P8 The number of aerobic bacteria / decompose the dead plants also
increase
P9 They use more of the oxygen (in the water) during the composition
P10 This reduces the concentration of oxygen in the water

P11 Causes the death of more aquatic organisms
P12 The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) increases
Essays (SPM Trial Johor 2011)


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BIOLOGYLOVE form 4(4551)

THIS IS A COMPILATION OF BIOLOGY ESSAYS AND NOTES

COLLECTED FROM VARIOUS OF SOURCES

I HOPE THIS COMPILATION OF ESSAYS AND NOTES CAN HELP YOU

TO ACHIEVE BETTER RESULT IN BIOLOGY FOR

SPM (SIJIL PELAJARAN MALAYSIA)

THIS IS A REVISED VERSION

1 BIOLOGYLOVE second edition 2.0/2012

Smart Exam Tips !

2 BIOLOGYLOVE second edition 2.0/2012

The density of organelles in specific cells

3 BIOLOGYLOVE second edition 2.0/2012

Osmosis : Diffusion of water

4 BIOLOGYLOVE second edition 2.0/2012

5 BIOLOGYLOVE second edition 2.0/2012

Exam tips : To answer Question on Osmosis

6 BIOLOGYLOVE second edition 2.0/2012

Sodium Potassium Pump

P1 The concentration of sodium ions is higher on the inside of the cell

7 BIOLOGYLOVE second edition 2.0/2012

Transport Examples Active transport - Ions intake by root hairs of a plant

Facilitated - Absorption of digested food in the Example of question

Explain how red blood cell burst

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Percent change in mass

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Phosphate group Nitrogenous base carbohydrate

Lock and key hypothesis

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Reactivity Less reactive More reactive

State of matter at Solid (fats) Liquid (oil)

Source Mainly from animal Mainly from plant :

Effects on blood Increase level of bad Contains less

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What is disaccharides? Exam tips :

Reducing Sugar and Non-Reducing sugar

To test for reducing sugar, Benedicts test must be carried out.

14 BIOLOGYLOVE second edition 2.0/2012

Human has diploid number (2n) of chromosomes which is 46

15 BIOLOGYLOVE second edition 2.0/2012

Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase

16 BIOLOGYLOVE second edition 2.0/2012

Cytokinesis in animal cell

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19 BIOLOGYLOVE second edition 2.0/2012

PROPHASE I METAPHASE I ANAPHASE I TELOPHASE I

PROPHASE II METAPHASE II ANAPHASE II TELOPHASE II

20 BIOLOGYLOVE second edition 2.0/2012

Synapsis is the process where Exam tips :

21 BIOLOGYLOVE second edition 2.0/2012

22 BIOLOGYLOVE second edition 2.0/2012

Test on food samples

23 BIOLOGYLOVE second edition 2.0/2012

Digestion in mouth Digestion in stomach Digestion in small intestine

24 BIOLOGYLOVE second edition 2.0/2012

Ileum (small intestine) Mouth Stomach

Digestive organ Digestive juice enzyme pH Substrates and products

25 BIOLOGYLOVE second edition 2.0/2012

Digestion of cellulose by ruminant

Digestion of cellulose by rodent