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Andrew Karmen Crime Victims An Introduction
Andrew Karmen Crime Victims An Introduction
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Crime Victims
An Introduction to Victimology
SEVENTH EDITION
ANDREW KARMEM
John Jay College of Criminal .lLstite
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Brief Contents
FOREWORD taxi
PREFACE (xiii
1
2
3
1D
11
What Is Victimology? l
The Redistouiery of Crime l.I it:tims 30
Sources of Information about Crime Victims: The
UCR and the MIPS 51
Violent Crimes: Murders and Robberies i0
Victims Contributions to the Crime Problem in?
Victims and the Criminal Justice System: Cooperation
and Conflict; Part 1: The Polioe lI l-Il
Victims and the CriminallustioeSystem: Cooperationiand Conflict:
Part2: Prosecutors. Defense Atton ieys. Judges. and Corrections
officials 163
Children as Victims 153
Victims of Violence by Lovers and Family Members 2.23
Victims of Rape: and Other Sexual Assaults 259
Additional Groups of Victim with Special Problems 29]"
vi
BRIEF CONTENTS
12 Repaying Victims 33613 Victims in the Twenty-First Century: Alte mative
Directions III
GLOSSARY 4D9
REFERENCES 1!
NAMEINDEX 32
SUElECTINDEJC Illa-1
*Contents
FCl-IIEWOIID Ill
PREFACE txlii
1 MI! I! MIND-gr? 1
The Flight ol t Irittie Victims 1
Studying Viclirrtizall rt Seienii eally 3
Win- OlljLLlNil V ls Desirable 4
lirl l-JIIJ or {wrinlrr -l
Cn amnnilr iu VI-(I I-PIII Ii
Vim-nu Versus "Fund Gary! .7"
Sonnets of Elias J
D I tdlJIII JIUILlT ! Urrd rmal Bail RePirIdIann T2
The Drigim oFVieu inoloEn- 1-1riclittualtigy Cotttpatied to Critttilliiltqry l
Parallels B werar Cri nimuiegy rrnd Vi i aiwi dgy in
.D errneer mad Hunradrm er IR
The iirtrgiiirr with Other D clllli l
i9
Diii l si drrs uuil rara rdll Disallmlmr l9
will].- Stu-if]: Vi i irwi dgy? 29
Wimt l-ietiniiiliigists lilo 2?!
STEP 1: liil erili ll yJ De ne, and Derrribr il lie P wln em 2]
Slip 2: Mom"! Ilrr Trrrr .Diinrrrri drrr larder Holder" 24
Step 3: liriasrtunlr How Victim: .liie Handled 25
Sreri -I.- Garlm Enident! iu Tm Hyjiwilauea 25
viii
CONTENTS
Sumnlary 3F!
Key TIME: 28
Questions Fm l J-iu isaiima and Debate 23
Critical Thinking Qumimm 28
Sugpmmd Research ijem 2 ]
2 The Radistmtyol Crlme Victlms all
The Din-own}- ut Ct-im: Vimiim St:
The- IJttuLim: nITCrime Victims. 31
The- ILediscmew m Crime Vchirns 32
Suttidl .Wuwm tb: Taking Up 116: lilrmur (any 52
Hard Wtialr: EMU-Fill le amm Nut-tied fl w
Vl l ms 35
TM Aim-S Media: Mmrt ng III! Vt aims PIT I! .16
Cmmmidf harm.- Sl l til
and 5mm an Vt m ms 38
Stalin-i]: MM
Dewfepmen: all"
Key Terms ER
Quertimtn J nr Disc-mini. and Debate 6R
Critical Thinking lQuestions 6R
Suggested Research Projects 69
I Violent Crimes: Murder: and Robberies Tl]
Focusing cm Murder-.1 m
lining the UCR tu Analyze Murder: Fl
Stdrfi lillg l lr Crime Wm.- Dtl l ll w Trends in
Interpenwml Violent: FJ
Ciadtluts m: Tt tme it: thtt-u tr Rm: T4
Charity: Mr Time in Allen-muted Muir Ram F5
[INNER-"g Vnhmt zmlt mt Parirrm 7W
Mating International mepdn m ili
Assersing Comparative Risks: Putting Crime into
Pmpective El]
Focusing on Robberies 85
Rainier: and Timr Vt cl t nt: 3.1
[Bing list NEW in Andria ROME?! li
Checking Out Hi im im Mun! Rum An: Tmnnucu
into .I i-fmdws 35
Digs-mt! Rails if er ug Re ned 941
Projecting Cumulative Risks 92
The Sen-ch fur Risk Factor: 35
TIJE Determinants
n
mlnni Lt yics 9n
Musing Ruth: Him- SdJl iF is 5.953 Emit? 93
Ainlur ml emc mburut Risk Talung 99
Fran! Crime Mull-mt Du Vt tlr mt cdl tun Hewnlr mr 3 9
Cnnlumtlr as Victims T91
thmcm rm-1r as Appiird w Victims HM
Summary 105
Key Terms 1.05
Queru mn for Discussion and Debate l
Critical Thinking Questions 106
Suggested Research PIDjMIR 1.an
CONTENTS
5 Uictlms Cortttibutinns tn the Crlme Problem 10?
The Questim: of hai-eti Responsibility 108
The Carin-users]- Mt Filmed Rnpdmtitl it ljl 110
Vitlim Fctttl it dl tm, MIPIIEIITI-GJIJ tutti P rm-umuicttt 2
Victim Mtrittuiun .atttt Mma utt 3
Tile Fieqmq- ell-Shani R puttsibti iif itt Vitaiirttl Cn mrs fit;
[tin-igniting Cutttpitle innutrtttte .dtltf Fat Re mnsiiuiary 1T5
tl ittitlt Blaming versus Victim Defending 11.7"
Vic-tint Facilitation and hunt Theft.- [1 [t the 1:111:12?
Who Wind Up Careless? 119
Stealing artful Fant cttlrttiI Pm l 11.9
Witnit tuttrttn tr Situuiai Er Mint (untamed Iii-Tarn Parka? 122
Staining tine Vin-inf Facilitating the Crime 1 25
Stolen Identities: Which Tiiefn an: Victim-Facilitated.
and. Which Precautions Are Reasonable? 121i
Tilt! tWI trtE tJritf Pmbitttt 123
Dtj nliml Fiji s uf ummqu d Victim ell-Idem!)- Theft 1 3
Lame: .ItNi Stt irittg Ut
Law and Law En lrtttttettl .132
abusing Vul tmrfw {Quorum Rt sic-an tn titm .idtsjrtptirs 1 33
Victim DefEnding; Ftttiit tall ult it A ur tier Hrcttr
grl itr Problem L16
Transcenditts Viicl tt tt bruins 311d \iitlilll ihfmditts 137
The Leila] littpmtance ul lIIeterniining Responsibility 13-9
Summary 112
Key Tea-rte} 1-12
Questions fun Discussitm and Debate 1-1-3
Critical Thinking Questions 1-1}
Suggested Research Tnpic 14.1
Uictlms and the Etlmhal Justice System: Cooperation
and Con ict: Part 1: The Police 144
r ictitttn versus The Criminal justice System 1-15
What Do Victims Want.- Punisiinmnt? Treatment?
Restitution? 145
tI ictitttn and tile Pniice 1-1-1;
chwtiug Emotions- 149
Rrspnmiitru Qm rln y 152
CONTENTS xi
Hwtci imu Wat-mi with Ctr! i55
Ciad enluilg tite Vttrittlt: Vet-sti e iiiEM 154
IItI rtrturttJ ng Ctttutlrtirttittl; uttnti .itti ttt ng Crimes 15::
:1 nesting 5wa and Resizing En d eme 152
Renaming Swim Property ItiJ
.I lri ettstitrtitg W3! l tJtM trd d Vittirtt-C riwtttrti
Polite Department i j
Summary 1613
Key Terms ltiti
Quenimtn for Disc-mien and Debate 16F:
Critical Thinking Questions 1151:
Suggested Research Projects in?
It lctlms and the Crimlnal lustlce System: Cooperation
and Contllct: Part 2: Prosecutors. Defence Atton teys.
Judges, and Cottectluns O irJals 168
Victims and Prosccunnrs 169
Assisting Victims will Daim- Witnesses w the State 1 30
Meeting Vidr ttt ! Me Same as [Minutes n tJ re
Mmuttitut TFZ
Dismiso ny
-fdrt- W
llet-naive
ndyg
at Sperm,
anard JI..ot.-.t|i:tt.t.n-}l Justice .585
Vtigatidrtl tljmrr Farrah-Er On ns 335
Vtigtt drtl icm t rrstrs Lgy l r mrrtr Lrir ttf FWt! m Stinglrt tU-r 53?
[iutll tl Victim: Er Benz: Wir 1 qu H!!! Ahmed? 3341
Till Dawn Luff! Dr i Bat-l} Tum RernlietrnI-y Vwiente 592
Thwart] Restorit we Justice 3 36
The Peacemaking .Pmess 35?
A Enigl l-litruqr uj Reswnm welnsrite ii?
HI JID Rewmiifmlt tm Pr grdms [Valid 40
Evaluating E hrtr 4r memiitttimr 402
PM! dtnd Catt-Sfr tn l hr Vttit nt; Paint all View 403
I! Farlsm all menriI-rjunite 405
sull l ly 4 06
Key Tea-ms 4M
Questitms fur Discussim: and Debate- 44]?
Critical Thinking Questions 40-?"
Summit-611mm]: htjects 4|]?
GLOSSARY 4D?
REFERENCES 419
NAMEINDEX 41"2
SUEJEETINDEX Iii-1
%
Boxes, Tables, and Figures
BOXES
5011.1
Boot 1.2
Ba! LII
Boot LII
50.111
5512.2
Boot-LI
Butt-ll
51115.1
Box 5.2
Ba! 5.]
Butt: ILI
Bax Ll
5917.2
51:th
What the Police Mean by the Term
Uictimolugy 11
Same Striking Examples of Uictimology
Bashing 12
Highlights in the Brief History of Victim olagy and
Victim Assistance 1?
A Sampling of the Ill tt ide Range of Studies
Uictimolctgists Undertake 26
Research on Controversies About Certain
Types of Victimization IIIThe Pmcess of FtetiisicotterttI Goes On and tin 48.
"Your Money.I at Your Life!" 50
{ariacited Drivers 93
Expressions of Support for Inquiries into the
Victim s Rule Il
Criticisms of The Motion of Shared
Responsibility 120l
Prof Calls for Crackdown on Crime Victims 1
Notable Criticisms of How the Criminal Justice
System Handles Victims 14E
Supreme Court Decisions Directly Affecting
II.l ictirrtrs lad.
Which Victims Get Better Treatment? 185
Highlights of the Rediscoeenr of the Missing
Children Problem 15?
trttii
:tt ttiii
BOXES. T ELES. AND FIGURES
Box 8.2
Box 111.1
Box 1a.:
Box 11.1
Bout 13.1
TABLES
Table 11
Table Ill
Table 12
Table It]
Table Inl-
Table 15
Table :15
Table 5.1
Table 5.2
Table 5.]
Table 5.1
Table 5.1
Table 6.2
Table 5.]
Table EllTable 5.5
How Often Are Children Kidnapped. and
What Happens to Them? .100
The Controversy Surrounding Widely Held
"Rape Myths" 268
The System s Shortcomings from a
Victims Ploint chiet-t Zilli
A limeline of Some of the Worst Campus
Shootings it]?
Dramatic Examples of lVictim Activism 3H
Estimated Victimization Rates from the UCR
and the NEWS. 2006 65
Murder Rates across the Globe:
Selected Countries Bl
Murder Rates across the Globe:
Selected Cities 33
Comparing le Rislts of Death Posed by Crime.
Accidents. and Certain Diseases. ZED-E Bull
Yearly Estimates of Murders Committed
During Robberies 90
Robbery Rates for Various Groups. 21106 91
Chances of Becoming a Victim over a Lifetime Bull
Which Vehicles Were Stolen Most Frequently
During 2005? I23.
Vehicle That-t Rates in US. Cities. 2116? 124
How Victims of Identity Theft Were Harmed.
Nationwide. 21106 129
States Where Residents Faced
le Highest
and Lowest Risks of |dentity Theft. 2005 iii]
Trends in Reporting Crimes to the Police.
Selected Years. 19132006 150
Trends in Police Response Times to Violent Crimes.
Selected Years. 19902006 15.2
Trends in Clearance Rates. Selected
Years. 19532006 159
Clearance Rates for Homicide Cases in Maior
US. Cities. 211032006 lEl
Trends in Stolen Property Recovery Rates
Selected Years. 19302006 164
Table 2.1
Table 9.1
Table 1D.1
Table 11.1
Table 11.2
Table 12.1
Table 12.2
Table 111
Table 111.2
Table 1].]
Table 11-1
FIGURES
Figure 3.1
Figure 1.1
Figure 1.1
Figure 1.3
Flgure 1.4
Figure 5.1
BOXES, TABLES,ANDFIGURES XII
Trends in Fear of Reprisal as a Cause of
Nonreporting, Selected Years, 19802005 172
Murders by Intimates. 19??2UDE- 243
Which Females Face the Gravest Risks of
Rape and Sexual Assault".I Selected Years.
19?} to 20116 ZillCrimes Committed on College Campuses.
Z l2CHJE 3.116
Incidents on School Property. Safety Concems.
and Security Measures. United States. 2005 30?
Percentages of Convicted Felons Sentenced to
Restitution as an hddi onal Penalty in the TS
largest Jurisdictions Nationwide. Selected Years,
1996-20-01 346
Percentage of Convicted Felons Placed
on Probation Who Have Restitution Obligations
in the 75 Largest Jurisdictions Nationwide.
Selected Years. 19942001 1-1?
Uictims Rights Gained at the Expense of
Suspects, Defendants, and Prisoners 3TB
Victims Right: Gained at the Expense of
Criminal .lustioe Agencies and Of cials 319
Iustifiable Homicides by Crime 1ll ictims and
Police Officers, 1938200? 39D
Comparing and Contrasting Retributiye
lustioe and Restorative Justice am
The FBIs Crime Clock. 2005 55
Trends in Homicide Rates in the
United States. 1900200? 74
Trends in Aggravated Assault Rates in the
United States, 1932005 1 6
Trends in Robbery Rates in the
United States, Nil2006 T9
Murder Rates in Maior US. Cities 2001" i9
Trends in Burglary Rates in the
United States. 1 9H2DOIS 113
BOXES. T ELES. AND FIGURES
Figure 5.2
Figure 10.1
Figure 11.1
Figure 112
Figure 11.3
Figure 11.4
Figure 11.5
Figure 12.1
Figure 12.2
Trends in Motor Vehicle Theft Rates in the
United States. 19232006 122
Trends in Rape Rates in the
United States. 19732336 222
Trends in Murders of Students at Middle Schools
and High Schools in the United States. School
Years, 1992 to 2005 310
Trends in Work-Related Murders
in the United States. 1992-260? 3231
Trends in Murders of Lain.I Enforcement Offioers
in the United States. 1923-201]? 32-1
Why Df ficers Were Murdered or Injured.
1992-20116 3.26
Casualties of Terrorism. 198432005 3.30
Opportunities for Restitution 3113
Case Attrition. Funneling or Shrinkage:
The Leaky Net 3-
*Foreword
"Wliar abovr die I-ittim?"
Thismay seem like a mundane quescion, but most ofthe time, when we hear it, we
are hearing a rhetorical way to advocaoc for a philosophy ofjusticc. one that ta
kes
account ol the problems. and costs suffered by victims ofcrime. 1While the pligh
t of
victims of crime is an old one, the philosophy that embraces. the plght as a_jus
tice
priority is. not. For most ofchc history ol our nation. viccims ol crime were la
rgely
invisible in the criminaljuscice process. The very way we referred to cruninal c
ases.
Wilton at. State, made clear an overriding idea that criminaljustice was concern
ed
with a. controversy hemeen a defendant and the stanc. Victbns, if they were
considered at all. were only important as. potential wioresses. in chat controversy
.
Beginning in the last third of the twenciech century. however. this isolation
of victims. from the Justice process began to change. 1With concern about the
rising crime rate in the 19sz and. FREE: came an increasing interest in the impa
ct
of crime and the criminal. juscice process on viceims. Perhaps this concern was
inevitable. as. rising rates. ol crime meant there were increasing numbers of cr
ime
victims, families with victims. and Friends or" victims. many of whom could re
count aIJ-too-l requent negative experiences with the way their cases were handled.
The conccrn about victims was. also a bit of a backlash ayinst that same e
ra
when tlte rights of criminal suspects were such a prominent issue in Supreme
Court holdings and public policy dehaacs. And it is also likely that as the LLS.
citizenry came to demand more services in general. it would only he nanJral that
one ol the corneitucncies calling For ltelp would he crime viccirns.
Whatever the causesand there are probably severalvictims of crime be
came an important comcicueney. They also became a significant policical force.
and their cii eco. could be seen in the new cornerstone ol almost every policici
ans
campaign promises: to get "tough on crime." Even people who had never been
victims ol serioLLs crime and knew no one in that category came to believe that
a
tough stance on crime was a vico ml riendly stance on crime. For more titan
Jud
FOREWORD
.HJ years. penalties For crime have become ever more seveHl ten with
the_jLLsticacion that a concern For victims required tougher measures aginst
offenders. But
this was not the only expression ofpro-victim sentiment in the political arena.
Numerous local victims advocacy organizations were fonned. the most notable
ofwhich might be Mothers itginst Drunk Driving. The federal government established
a national office on victims of crime in the L15. Department ofjlustice.
while
many states passed new legislation that enumerated. the rights of victims ofcrir
ne. in
many ways. the latest generation ofcriminal justice has been one dominated by th
e
voice of tlte victim. at least as a symbol of alarm and a call for change. No se
t of
ideas ltas had a more profbund impact on the criminalJustice system in the past
.11] years than has the institutionalized. public concern about the victims ofcr
ime.
its public sentiment about the predicament oE the victim grew. social scien
tists developed an interest in the victim as well. A new field, called victirnol
og y.
was established to investigate all aspects oE victims of crime. om prevalence an
d
demographics to needs and. perspectives. Lessons about the social signi cance of
crime gleaned through an active social science of the victim have reshaped our
understanding of crime and justice. From the time when it became popular to
ask. "What about the victim?" to the contemporary ease with which we embrace
concern about the victim in the justice system. much has changed and much has
been learned. Today, anyone who wishes to be informed in crime and justice
must understand what we know about victims of crime.
That is why I am delighted to announce the Seventh Edition or" Andrew
Karmen s superb. seminal tent: on the topic: Crime Victim: .r lni intnrdarriwr a
s
Homology. liroi essor Karmen was. one of the rst scholars to write about the
problems Eaced by victims, and his book remains one of the most authoritative
and accessible studies of victims available today. This new edition retains the
reliable data, even-handed analysis. and thought-provoking presentation of the
previous editions. It adds completely updated statistics. new discussions of rec
ent
developments in viecimology, and l resh perspectives on the future of the field.
No boolt currently available provides a more balanced, comprehensive. or
reliable discussion of the important oontroversies and. dilemmas in the crimina
l
justice policy and practice regarding victims. This book supports its positions
with data. provides statistics that question starire ol the typical myths about
vic
tims. and provoltes the reader to think. carefully about the importance of the
victims movement for criminal justice policy.
Professor [Carmen s e-arlier editions of this boolt were received with praise.
This new edition continues and strengthens its contribution to our knowledge.
[ commend the book no you. To read it is to have your thoughts and opinions
about crime victims become more informed and more e ective. You will be
changed by this book.
Todd ll. Clear
President oE the rnerican Society of Criminology
Distinguished Professor oE Criminal justice
_]ohn_Jay College of Criminal Justice
City University of New York
*Preface
I ntlte early JJ tls. ] became interested in the victims rights movement that was
campaigning to reform crirninal justice policies. [ wanted to develop a course
about victimology. but I found that no comprehensive and. uptodate textbook
existed. .I tccepo ng the challenge, [ decided to write one.
when ] began the rst edition. it was difficult to locate reliable social science
data or even wellinformed speculation about a number of crucial aspects of
criminal victimization. when I prepared the second edition in the late lJEi-iis.
I encountered the opposite problem. Instead ofa scarcity of material, there was
too much: massive amounts. of data and lengthy analyses. especially about rape.
spouse abuse, child abuse. and elder abuse. Liy the mid-L JJiJs. when ] prepared
the third edition. this "knowledge explosion" had become even more di icuh to
manage. Entire issues of scholarly Journals had been devoted to. and whole
books had been written about, the plight of these victims. When 1 wrote the
fourth edition. the most strilting change that I encountered was how the
Internet could provide readily available and continuously updated information
about a wide variety of victims. ts a result. I added an appendix of websites
that faculty and students could chedt out periodically to find out the latest st
atis
tics and the most recent development. concerning new laws, programs, and ser
vioes. (The appendix for this new edition can be found at www.cengageeomr"
criminaljustice]. The fifth edition introduced readers to the problems faced by
victims of identity theft, cyberstalking, sexual abuse by clergy. drughfacilita
ted
date rape. bias-driven hate crimes. and. unfortunately. terrorist attacks. It al
so
contained many more research ndings and statistics as a large number of studies
about victimization found their way onto the information highway. So many
new topics and controversial issues acciunulated over 2 years that I had to break
up seven long chapters into thirteen more manageable chapters in the sixth edition.
This repackaging of themes and issues should work out very well for
courses that run fourteen or fteen weeks.
:totiii
Jutiv
PREFACE
WHAT S NEW?
in revising this book once again, [have retained all the coverage oftlte previou
s
six editions. [ have changed the sequence of subjects in a few chapters. and I
have given greater attention to several topics. In response to reviewer feedback
.
this edition was revised with the aim ofnot only providing students with fresh
statistics and more discussions of theories. but also of humaniting the victims
themselves. This new. emotionally compelling material will promote students
engagement with the text.
The rrtost noteworthy changes for each ofthe thirteen chapters are described
below:
Chapter I. "What Is Victimology?" has been substantially rewritten. Up
todatc references and the most recent statistics available appear throughout
the chapter. it also contains new cases that dramatize the suffering of victims.
real-life incidents with college students as the targets. Another set of actual
cases illustrates how the reactions of victims under attack can often be
inspirational and. uplifting. This chapter also includes a new table that assembles
victimologybashingI quotes. This table shows how victimology is
often tonfused with victimism. giving the discipline an undeserved "bad
reputation.I .rrll of these additions will help your students connect with
the material.
Chapter 2. "The Rediscovery of Crime Victims," provides many new re
ferences that can be useful to students who want to take part in the redis
covery process by investigating the plights of particular groups that had been
overlooked. Also. a new box assembles the latest material about differing
estimates of the seriousness of these problems: road rage. violence among
prisoners. and human traf cking.
Chapter 3. "Sources ofJnformation about Crime Victims; The LICK and
the News." has been reorganized for clarity. as well as revised with a new
discussion of the changes in data gathering. uptodatc references and the
most recent statistics available.
Chapter 4. Violent Crimes: Murders and Robberies." includes an indepch
analysis of these two crimes, additional references and the most recent statistics
available concerning patterns, trends, differential risks. comparative
risks. murder rates for LIES. cities. and international comparisons. The peda
gogical tools. Murder Rates .I tcross the Globe: Selected vi lountries I and
"Murder Rates Across the Globe: Selected Cities." have been expanded to
reflect several new sources of data. More information about ganghrelated
murders was added.
Chapter 5. "Victims Contribution to the Crime Problem." presents all sides
of this controversial topic. There is considerably more material on automobile
theft. including which cars are stolen most often. and what cities are the
most dangerous for parked cars. which will be of great interest to many
students. [ have also extensively updated the section on identity theft. dis
FRE FACE I
cussing both the statistics. methods. and careless behaviors associated with
this crime. The expanded coverage of these timely topics provides a bridge
to an analysis of rislt reduction and. crime prevention strategies
Chapter G. Victims and the Criminal Justice System; Cooperation and
Conflict: Part 1.: The Police." contains updated material. including several
new cases. and the latest statistics about reporting. stolen property recovery.
and clearance rates (this table includes additional cities and covers ntore
years}. A section on the oode of the streets as it relates to "snitching" should
provoke a lively classroont discussion.
Chapter T". Victims and the Criminal Justice System: Cooperation and
Conflict: Part 2: Prosecutors, lkrense Attorneys. Judges, and Corrections
{J ieials." oontains updated statistics and sornc new. real-life caseL The section
on "recognizing second-class treatment" in vietims interactions with
law enforcement now includes a real-life case that compares ltow two
kidnappings were handled by the police.
Chapter 3. Children as Victims," contains expanded discussions and up
dated statistits. especially about missing children and sexually abused
youngsters. Several cases have been added along with new material about
scme abuse in religious communities. The dash between maxintalist and
minimalist perspectives has been expanded.
Chapter 3. "Victims of Violence by Lovers and Family Members" features a
new discussion ofthe dii l erences between criminal and non-criminal forms
of abuse. "Recognizing Wanting Signs" is now a distinct section; this information
has been expanded. A section on "The Legislative Response" to
abuse ltas been added. encouraging students to think about how provictint
movements can lead to policy change. The chapter also benefit. from new
cases. and. updated statistieL
Chapter 1.[|I. "Victints ofllapcs and Other Sexual Assaults." contains the
latest stat stics and sonte new. reallife cascs. Early in the chapter, students a
re
encouraged to think about the very language used to describe rapes and
scme assaults, and its implications for victims. The sections on acquaintance
rape, on rape underreporting. and on sexual violence among inmates have
been expanded. Finally. a box identifying rape myths" has been added.
Chapter 1]. "Additional {Zroups of Victints with Special Problents,I has
been reorganized for flow and clarity. The chapter now includes more information
about students harmed on campus. including a section on shootings on college
grounds {a new box presents a timeline of the worst campus
shootings. and the aftermath of the ZIJEITI and 2lKJH rampagcs is discussed).
The maxintalistminimalist debates surrounding date rapes and drug
facilitated sexual assault have been sharpened. Updated statistics and er:-
panded discussions are provided about terrorisnL ltatc crimes. stalking,
and lineofduty deaths of police o icers.
Chapter 12. "Repaying Victirrrs." contains new material about the costs of
crime. Strdents are encouraged to think about both the physical and
PREFACE
psychological effects ofcrime on a victim and his or her community. The
information on restitution programs has been expanded. and the benefits and
current limitations ofcompensation programs are discussed at greater length.
I Chapter I3, "Victims in the Twenty-First Cenuary: lternative Directions."
featunts new examples about arming for self-defense as well as vigilantism. .rr
new box. Dramatic Examples of Victim Activism," provides students with
inspirational accounts ofsurvivors who channeled their grieE into constructive
efforts to expand vittims rights.
its in the previous six editions. [ have highlighted the many controversies
that surround victims and their strained relations with offenders. criminal_just
ite
of cials and agencies. policy makers. the news media. social movements. and
pro t-oriented enterprises selling security products and services. [ continue to
strive For objectivity as I summarize botlt sides of issues that are emotionally
gripping, hotly debated. and. politically divisive. I do not necessarily endorse
the
points of view that I present or their implications for social policy. But I rmly
believe that a texdroolt ought to call attention whenever possible to sharp clas
hes
between well-meaning people with differing evidence-based views and divergent
interpretations of the same data.
it appears that the passions inllamed by the burning issues of the l JEsils and
early JJ J ils have abated, especially concerning the whereabouts of missing chil
dren. allegations about human sacrifices by satanic cults, claims about represse
d
memories of childhood sexual abuse. and estimates about the frequency of hus
band beating and marital rape. However. new conooversles have emerged. espe
cially between the advocates of restorative justice [which seeks to bring about
reconciliation between victims and their olfcnders] and the adherents ol retribu
tive Justine {which emphasizes punishment}, including staunch proponents of
anned self-defense against criminal attacks.
This edition accentuates the positive: the unanticipated but much-welcomed
trend that became evident by the late 1.J"J[is, namely. the impressive nationwide
drop in victimization rates. .rrcross the country. fewer people are being
murdered, robbed. raped. or assaulted, or are sulfering losses from burglaries and
car
thefts. This improvement in public safety is well docLunented in the many tables
and graphs throughout the text. This "crime crash," which was particularly dramatic
in New York City. was an unloreseen development that has not yet been
satisfactorily explained.
Of course. no one knows how much longer the ebbing of the crack- reled
crime wave ofthe late J JEI-ils and early IJ JIis will last because no consensus
exists
among criminologists and victimologists about why crime rates rise and fall. The
latest statistics from the Bureau of Justice Statistics Mariam! (.n me Victimiza
tion
Survey and the Flil s thrift-m Crime Report can be found on the Internet. Those
who are interested in monitoring these trends can compare the data as it becomes
available on the FBI and Ii-Jli websites to the EEJHIE : statistics [and in
a few
instances. for army that appear throughout this seventh edition.
FRE FACE
USING THIS TERTIOOK
This seventh edition is intended to meet several distinct needs. The optimal sit
uation is to use this text as the foundation for an undergraduate elective cours
e
on victimology that runs For an entire term. In. fact, more than enough material
is provided to sustain even a graduate-level course. If other topics must be cov
ered in either an advanced criminology or criminal justice course. certain victi
m
issues can be selected to address the major concerns of these two disciplines an
d
ofthe general public.
Many discussions are important in criminology. triminaljuscice. policy anal
ysis and research methods. For courses that require a term paper or class projec
t
this edition provides upto-date references. suggestions For short researclt proje
cts
at the end of eaclt chapter. plenty of statistics. and numerous observations abo
ut
problems ofmeasurement and interpretation. The extensive compilation of the
types of victimization that recently have been recognized or arejust waiting to
be "rediscovered" (see the listing at the end of Chapter 2} can serve as a launc
hing pad for exploratory research and term projects. For courses that incorporate
writing requirements via essay exams. several questions for discussion and debat
e
plus a few that stimulate critical thinking appear at the end ofeach chapter. An
in
structor s manual with short answer questions is also available. as are Microsof
t
IJDWELPOIII IED visual aids
HY GROWING CIIEDENIIALS"
AS A CRIME VICTIM
Each time ] revise this textbook. my credentials {un ortunately] broaden and
deepen. Direct experience often is the best teacher and a souree of sensitivity
and insight about life s problems and personal challenges. [n all the prel aces
of the previous editions. 1 listed my credentials not only as a criminologist an
d
vietimologist but also as a crime victim.
] know from personal eneounters what it is lilte to be a victim ofa range of
street and whitecoLIar crimes {tltanltl ully. none of them were really serious}.
In
fact my very first experience was something to laugh at. in retrospect. After [
graduated front college. I got my First car: a brand new 1964 : Mustang. ] drove
it around upstate New Yorlt. where] was attending graduate school. for about a
weelt before a thiefstole its gleaming wire wheel
single night! Amazingly enough, crime was not yet
minor truslortune actually appeared in the police
.
This incident contributed to my lifelong interest
and the search f orjustice.
What Is Victimology?
The Flight of Crime Victims
Studying Victimization Scierni caillyr
Why Objectivity l5 Dairdale
W s-rims or Offenders?
Cn mr nek as I- crirns
thims Versus "Good Guys"
Sources of Bias
W rrhrrniegfs tirade-served Ha-d
Reputation"
The Origin of rl is:l:irnolog_yI
victimology (unpaired
to Criminology
Parafiels Between Criminology
and lri crimalogjr
Difference: and Bomdaries
The inter-lace with Other
Disciplines
Divisions within the Discipline
Why Study Ir ictfmology?
What V Ktimologisls Do
Etep 1 ; identity. Define. and
Describe the Problem
Step 2: Measure the True
Dimensions of the Problem
Etep 3; Investigate How victims
Are Han-tiled
Step It; Gather Evidence to Test
Hypotheses
Seminary
THE FLIGHT OF CRIME VICTIMS
The concept or a "victim" can be traced [rack to ancient societies. [t was colt
nectod to the notion of sacri ce. in the original meaning; of the term. a victim
was a pelson or an animal put to death during a Ieligious ceremony in ordel to
appease some supernatural power or deity. Clver the centuries. the word has
picked up additional meanings. Now it commonly refers to individuals who suffer
injulies. losses. oI haldships :Iirr anyl reason. leopJe can become victims o
f
accidents. natulal disasters. diseases. or social problems such as warfare. disc
rimination. political witch hunts. and other injustices. Crime victims are ltarnted
lay
illegal acts.
2 error-ten I
Wetimizacion is an asymmetrical interpersonal relationship that is abusive.
painful. destnac
tive. parasitical. and unfair. While a crime is in
progress, offenders temporarily force their victims
to play roles (almost as if following a scrith that
mimic the dynamics between predator and. prey.
winner and. loser. victor and. vanquished, and. even
master and slave. Many types of victimization ltave
been oudawed over the centuriesspecific oppressive and exploitative acts. like
raping. robbing
and swindling. But not all types of humul relation
ships and deceit rl practices are forbidden by law. It
is permissible to overcharge a customer for an item
tltat can be purchased for less elsewhere; or to underpay a workerwho could receive
higher wages for the
same tasks at anotlter place of employment: or impose exorbitant interest rates and
hidden fees on borrowers who take out mortgages and use credit cards
and. to deny food and shelter to the hungry and the
homeless who cannot pay the required amount.
We mology is the scienti c study ofthe physical, emocional, and. financial harm
people suffer
because of illegal activities. Victimologisis first and
Foremost investigate the victims plight! the impact
of the injuries and losses inflicted by offendcrs on
tlte people they target. In addition, victimologists
carry out research into the public s political. social.
and economic reactions to the plight of victims.
Victimologists also study how victims are handled
by officials and agencies within the crirninaljustice
system. especially interactions with polite officers
detectives. prosecutors. defense attorneys, judges.
probation officers. and members ofparole hoards.
lrl ictimologists want to know whether and to
what degree crime victims experience physical
wounds. economic hardships. or emotional turmoil.
One aim, of course. is to devise ways to help them
recover. In the aftermath of the incident. are they
frightened. terrorized, depressed. traumatised. infuriated. or embittered? lso. v
rccimologists stunt to [ind
out how effectively the injured parties are being
assisted. served. aocorrunodated. relulailitated. and
educated to avoid further trouble. Viccimologists
are equally curious to determine the extem to
which their plight is being ignored, neglected, belittled. manipulated. and
commercially or politically
exploited. Some individuals who sustain terrible injuries and devastating losses mi
rt be memorialized.
honored. and even idolized. while others might be
mocked. discredited. defamed. demeancd. socially
stigmatized. and. even condemned for bringing about
their own misfortunes. Why is this so?
Victimologists also want to examine why some
injured parties nd their ordeals lifetransfonning.
Some become deeply alienated and withdraw
om social relationships. Thcy may become burdened by bouts of depression. sleep
disorders. panic
attacks. and stressrelated illnesses. Their healing
process may require overcoming feelings of helplessness, frustration. and self-
blame. Others might
react to their fear and fury by seeking out fellow
sufferers, building alliances. and discovering ways to
exercise their "agency"to assess their options and
make wise decisions. take advantage of opportunities. regain control of their
lives. rebuild their
selfconfidence, and restore a sense of trust and
security. Why do people experienoe such a wide
range of responses and what personality and social
factors determine how a person reacts?
Direct or primary victims experience the
criminal act and its consequcnces firsthand. Perhaps
the term "survivors" is preferable to "victims" be
cause it is more upbeat and empower , emphasizing the prospect ofovercoming
adversity. However.
the established usage of the term "survivor!" is
to rcfcr to the close relatives of people ltilled by
murderers Survivors or indirect or seeondary
victims [such as family members and lovers} are
not immediawa involved or physically injured in
confrontations. But they might be burdened even
devastated. as the following example illustrates.
rr teenager who shot and killed a high school
athlete is about to be sentenced to prison. The
distraught father of the murdered boy tells. the
judge "We always hope our little guy will
come through the door. and it will never be.
We dont have lives. We stay in cvcry day.
We can t function." (MacCowan. ZiJEIITJ
19-11
19-17
195?
1955
19E
1965
1966
1967
Early
1930!
MI!!19305
1972
1973
197-1
1976
1977
1979
Even.
Hans iron Hentlg publ nhc-r an article focusing on
the inc-ration between victims and criminals.
Renjemln Mendelscrhn coins the term victimology is an article written in French.
In Great Britain. Margery Fry proposes legislation that would authorize the
gpuemment to
reimburse victims for their losses.
Mtrvinrrplfgeng studies thecircumstancs
surrounding the deaths ofmurder victims. and
discovers thatseme centriruted tt theironn
demise.
The u_S. Congress holds hearings on the plight
of crime victims but rejects legislative proposals
to cover their lasso.
California become-s the first u..ste1.e to set up a
special fund to repay victins for crime inflicted
expenses.
A research tetmcarric-r but a natlpnwldesune;
to flndoui. about crimes that were not reported
to the police.
A presidential commissitn recommends that
crImInoltgisis Study victims.
Stephen Schtfc-r Invites the first textbook ebput
victims.
The firstseitcrime squedsarnd rape cr eis centers
are organized.
Prosecutors initiate ulctim-wilnus assistance
prpgrems.
The federal government initiates a yearly
National Crime it iclirlllilaliun Survey of the
gene-rel public to uncover fistharnd information
about street crimes.
The first international conference of victimolry
glsts is convened in Jerusalem.
The fist sheltm for battered women is set up in
Minnesota.
Thefirstscholarly-journaldevotediovlctimolngy
begins publication.
New York State enacts the fist "Sun of Sem
law tn prevent offenders frem profiting from
telling about their exploits.
The World Society of Uictimolegy- is founded.
Year
1981
1982
1955
1935
19!}
I 99d.
2W3
2DD|1
Mill.
President Reagan proclaims iriclims
week every April.
Rights
1! crtAPtEit l
Criminolog rsis apply their findings to devise local.
regional, and. national crime-prevention strategies.
1rictirniologists scrutinize tlte patterns and trends
tltey detect to develop persmaalited victimization
prevention strategies and risk reduction tactics.
Both criminologists and viccimologists study
how the criminal justice system actually works. in
contrast to the way the system is supposed to work
according to agency regulations. official roles. fed
eral and state legislation, court decisions. and politicians promises.
Criminological research reveals
ho tIt.r suspects. defendants. and convicts are mally
handled. while victimological studies examine the
way injured parties are actually treated by police
officers. prosecutors. defense atmrnc ys. andjudgcs.
Criminologisis assets the needs of oll endcrs for
counseling. psychotherapy. additional education.
job training, and dnag treatment. In addition. criminologists evaluate tlte
effectiveness ofvarious reha
bilitacion programs offered behind bars or available
to probationers or parolees tltat are intended to
reduce recidivism rates. Similarly, victimologists
want to diagnose the emotional problems that beset
people after they have been harmed by oll enders.
and to test out the usefulness of programs designed
to facilitate their recovery [see Roberts. l J9ll. and
Lurigio. 1994]). Criminologjsts try to calculate the
social and economic costs that criminal activity
imposes on a community or on society as a whole.
1rictirniologists estimate the losses and expenses that
individuals and businesses incur due to acts of violence. theft. or fraud.
Differences arid Boundaries
Criminology and victimology differ in several important ways. Criminology is
several hundred years
old. whereas victimology did not emerge until the
second half of the EEJth century. (Iriminologists
agree among themselves that they should limit their
studies to illegal activities {and not those expressions
of social deviance that do not violate any laws).
1rictirniologists cannot reach a consensus about the
appropriate boundaries of their field. Some victi
mologists argue that their scientific studies should
not be restricted to criminal victimization. They
believe that additional sources ofsul lering are worthy of systematic analysis:
harm caused by oppressive policieal regimes man-made disasters (such as
wars and. genocide). natural disasters (such as floods
and earthquakes). and. sheer accidents. The coinrnon goals would be to develop
effective strategies
for shortrun relief. as well as govcrruncnt programs
and long-term solutions to alleviate suffering from
all kinds of calamities. However, the majority of
victimologists believe that their studies should
remain focused on criminal victimimdon so that
there are precise, readily identifiable Iirniis. and clear
directions for further research and theorizing.
Criminal victimization may not he more serious
{Financially). more injurious (medically). or rttorc
traumatic and longer lasting {emotionally) titan
other types of harm and sources of suffering.
llut it is necessary to rein in the boundaries of the
field in order to malice it manageable for the practi
cal purposes of holding conferences. publishing
journals, lwriting textbooks. and teaching college
courses. {For the pros and cons ofthese alternative
visions of what the scope of victimology ought
to he, see Schaler. 1968: 1il"iaino. MTG. 191i}. and
i J9lla , Galaway and Hudson. 191i]: Flynn. 10$].Scherer. [[18].- Schneider, 1.932:
Friedrich; luff-3.Elias. IJtlt a , and Fattab. 1.991}.
The boundary between victimology and mainstream criminology rs not always clear-
cingsomctimes
the mo overlap. Historically, muelt of criminology
can be characterized as "ol l cnderology I because
of its preoccupation with the question of etiology;
the wrongdoers motives and the underlying causes
of criminal behavior. Lawbrcalccrs always have
been under a spotlight while the people they
harmed ntmained shadowy Figures on tlte fringes.
But now victimology enriches criminology by
yielding a more balanced and comprehensive approach tltac sheds light on both
parcies and their
interactions.
To illustrate the central concerns of each field
and their areas of common interest. consider the
problem ofseatual predators preying on youngsters.
Uncovering the kinds of emotional disorders and
cultural themes about dominacion and. exploitation
that drive adults to molest and rape children are
obviously subjects for criminological research. as is
the controversy surrounding tlte alleged inelieccive
ness of various "cures" For pedopltilia. Whether
threats or harsher punishments actually deuer future
attacks and whetlter satellite ctaclcing ol formerly
incarceraued offenders is a worthwhile investment
of government l unds also l alls squarely witltin the
realm of criminology. (Iriminologists m.ight launch
their inquiries by examining the flies maintained
by police departments to draw a profile ofthe typical offender. 1siictimologists
l|.I.rr iuld use the same
records no derive a statistical portrait ofthe children
most at risk (in uerrth of age ranges. gender. class.
race, and ethnicity. for example). Victimologists
would l ocus their inquiries on which cteaunents
best speed the recovery of molested children. and
whether reforms in the way their cases are handled
in court are minimizing the stress endured hy tltese
young witnesses who testify for the prosecution.
Whether the relatively reoent and rapidly spreading
community noti cation policies (such as "Megans
Law") about the arrival of a new resident with a
past hisuory of sexual predation cases or intensifies
parental fears for their children s safety is a subject
for crirtiinological research (because it explores the
reactions ol the general public to the threat or
crime). Whether this liind of advanced warning
about potentially dangerous strangers in the neighborhood who should be avoided
makes previously
molested chinren l eel more or less anxious is a
Dopic for victimologists Do investigaue. Whether
these community noti cation requirements actually
lead to fewer incidents is a research Dopic that strad
dles the line between criminology and victimology
(because it leads to the calquation of crime rates
which are simultaneously victimization rates).
The Interface with Other Disciplines
A number oi academic orientations enrich victimology. Victimologists who pursue a
rrtental health.Ir
forensic psychology orientation might explore
how victims react to their misfortunes. They aslt
why some people experience post-traumatic
stress disorder (FISH) while others who suffer
through comparable calamities do not. Members
WHATISVI ETIMULDGH 19
or the helping professions also want to know what
personality traits. coping skills inner resources and
beliersystems {perhaps based on spirituality and religiosity) enalrle individuals
who have endured shat
Dcring experiences to get through their period of
bereavement. recover From depression, reconsider
their priorities. and reorient their lives (see Psi and
Park. 2ll ]. Professionals engaged in therapeutic
relationships with survivors of vicious violence
need to discover which crisis intervention uecltniques work best {see Roberts,
2(H15}. Victbnologists
who talte an thuorical perspective trace develop
ments Foam the past to better understand the
present. while those who adopt an economic per-
spective try to measure individual and collective
costs. losses. and eatpenses that resuh From criminal
activities. The anthropological orientation compares
victimization in other societies :Far away and. long
ago in order to cranscend the limitations olfanalyses
mired in the here and now. lr iccimologists who
adopt a sociological perspective develop victim pro
les (statistical portraits]. analyze the interactions
within the vicdm-o ender relationship. examine
the way other people and social institutions (such as
the public welfare and health care sysnerns] dealwitlt
in_j ured parties. and seek. no evaluate the eli ectiveness
ol new policies and programs. Victimologists who
apply a legalistiefcriminaljustice orientation explore
how victims are supposed Do be handled by the
police. prosec umrs. defense attorneys._judges probacion of cers. and parole
boards. and they scrutinize
the provisions of recently enacted laws designed to
empower victims as the adversary sysuem resolves
their" cases.
Divisions within the Discipline
Vietirnology does not have the distinct schools of
thought that divide criminologists into opposing
camps. probably because this new subdiscipline
lacks its own well-developed theories ol human
behavior. However. in both criminology and victimology. political ideologies
conservative. liberal.
and radical leitfcriticalrconllictcan play a signi
cant role in in uencing the choice ol research topics
and in shaping policy reoommendacions.
21D crIAPtER r
The conservative tendency within victimology
Focuses primarily upon scteet crimes. is basic tenet of
conservative thought is that everyoneboth victims
and. offenderstransit be held strictly accountable for
their decisions and actions. This translates into an
emphasis on self-reliance rather than governmental
assistance. individuals should strive to take personal
responsibility for preventing. avoiding. resisting, and
reoovering from criminal acts and for defending
themselves. theirfamiiies. and their homes from outside attaclt. In accordanoe with
the crime control
model ofcrirninalJustice. lawbreakersmustbe strictly
punished on behalf of their victims (retribution. or
just deserts]. in icting sud ering on lawbrealters
should lurther general deterrence [to make a negative
example of drem. to serve as a waming to other
would-be ol lendcrs that they should think twice
and decide not to break the law), and speci c deterrence (to teach them a lesson
not to commit any
harmfui acts in the future). incapacitating predators
behind bars keeps them away frcen the targets they
would like to prey upon.
The liberal tendency sees the scope of the lield
as stretching beyond street crime to include crimi
nal harm in icted on persons by reckless corporate
executives and corrupt o tials. .r r basic theme
within liberal thought is to endorse governmental
intervention to cry to ensure fair treatment and to
alleviate needless suffering. This position leads to
e orts to extend the "safety net" mechanisms of
the welfare state to cushion shocks and losses due
to all lsinds of misfortunes. including crime. To
make the victim whole again." aid must be avail
able frorn such programs as state compensation
funds. subsidized crime insurance plans. rape crisis
centers, and shelters for battered women. Home
liberals are enthusiastic about restorative Justice
experiments that. instead of punishing offenders
by imprisoning them. attempt to make wrongdoers
pay restitution to their victims so that reconciliation
between the two estranged parties might become
possible.
The radical lel tfcridcalfeonflict tendency seeks
to dernonstrate that the problem of victimization
arises from the exploitative and oppressive relations
that are pervasive throughout the social system.
Therefore. the scope ofthe eld should not be limited simply to the casualties of
criminal activity in
the streets. inquiries must be extended to cover
the harm in icted by industrial polluters. owners
and managers of hamrdous workplaces. fraudulent
advertisers. predatory lenders {for example, ofmort
gages with deceptive provisions for repayment
of the loan). brutally violent law enforcement
agencies. and distrirninatory institutions. Victims
might not be particular individuals but whole
groups of people, such as factory workers. minority
groups, customers. or neighborhood residents.
From the radicalfcricicalfcon ict perspective, victimology can be faulted for
preferring to study the
more obvious. less controversial kinds of harmful
behaviors. mostly acts of personal violence and
crude theft by desperate individuals. instead of the
more fundamental injustioes that mar everyday life:
the inequitable distribution of wealth and. power
that results in poverty. malnutrition. homelessness.
family dysfunction. chronic structural unernploy
ment substance abuse. and other social problems.
The legal system and the criminal justice apparatus
are oonsidered part of the problem by criminologists as well as victimologists
working within this
tradition because these institutions primarily sai e
guard the interests of influential groups and privileged classes {see liirkbeck.
IJHIi , Friedrichs. [983.Viano. IJHiI , Bias. 1.936. 1.993: Fattah. l Jf-Ifl. l
JJll.
l JJZSI. l JJZlD. Mien, l illJ , JLeiman. l JJU ,Walltl1lL.
i J Jl , and Mawby and Walklate. I993).
Why
One
ogy
ogy
Study Vlttlmalng yl
last parallel between criminology and lvictimol
merits. highlighting. Criminology and victimolare not well-paying fields ripe with
opportunities
for employment and advanoement. Becoming a
criminologist or a victimologist rarely leads to
fame and fortune, and certainly doesn t malce a
person invincible to physicai attacks. thefts or
swindles. Yet for several reasons a growing number
of people are investing time. energy. and money
to study victimology.
First of all. victimologists benefit intellectually.
as do all social scientists. by gaining insights into
everyday life. solving putding and troubling issues.
better appreciating life s subtieties. seeing phenom
ena more clearly, and. understanding complex situations more profoundly. Second,
individuaJs profit
from pursuits. that expand their horizons, transcend
the limits oftheir own experiences. free than from
irrational fears and unfounded concerns. and enable
them to overeome gut reactions offatalism. cynicism.
emotionalism. and deepseatedprejudices. Third. the
findings generated from theorizing and applied re
search have practical applications that simultaneously
ease the suffering ofothers and give the victimologist
a sense of purpose. worth. accomplishment. and
satisfaction.
[c is true that criminologists and victimologists
may appear to be guilty ol impersonai detachment
when. for example. they study murder victims by
counting corpses and noting the circumstances of
death. liut the dilerruna of treating real ilesh
and-blood casualties as mere "cases" or "abstract
statistics" is largely unavoidable and arises just as
sharply in other elds. such as medicine. military his.
tory. police scicnoe. and suicidology. The redec
ming value of victimology lies in its potential
for human betterment. Irictimologys allegiance to
the principle of striving for objectivity when
conducting research doesnt detract from the disciplines overalJ commitment to
aLleviate needless
suffering.
Victimology is not the cold or dismal discipline
it might appear to be at rst glance. Victimologists
are not morbidly curious about or preoccupied
with misfortune. loss, tragedy. pain. grief. death.
and mourning. Of course. because of its negative
subject matter. the discipline is problem-oriented
by nature. However. victimologists also take part
in furthering positive developments and constructive activities when they seek to
discover effective
ways of coping with hardships. transcending the
vicissitudes of life, reimbursing financial damages.
speeding up recovery. promoting reconciliation between parties enmeshed in
conflicts, and restoring
harmony to a strifetorn corrununity.
wrtnrisvrt tlmtuoavr 11
On occasion, victimologistsand the general
publiccan find d.1.e attitudes and actions of individuals
who have su ered terrible ordealstobe uplifting, exemplary. even inspiring.
{Imasider what can be learned
front these cases:
A young man returns home to discover that a
burglar has spirited off his television. an old
laptop, and his Kbox Sit-i]. He contacts a locai
pawn shop and sure enough, someone tried to
sell his computer and. the stores camera contains
an image ofthe thief. He alerts the police. but
they never contact him. However. the burglar
leaves him a message, demanding money for the
return ofthe stolen property. The young man
calls the polite again. but they take no action.
So he traces the message baclt to its sender and
identiiies the thief. his address. even the high
school he attends. The victim circulates this information about the thiel via
internet websites,
and when the bombardment through instant
messaging becomes unbearable. the burglar re
turns all the stolen property. ((Irecente. 2llUH]
9-4 foot,: r inch,.lllpoundETyearoldwoman is
beltind the counter of her family s suburban
convenience store when a fufoottaLl man
wearing a mask pulls a gun and brandishes it in
her face. The angry gunman screams "Hurry up!
Give me the money !" but she stalls and makes
believe she cant open the cash register. When
the robber turns to see ifanyone is looking. she
grabs a 3 foot ax hidden behind the counter and
starts swinging it wildly. yelling Get out of
here!" He flees, and then she confides to
detectives and a reporter that "I was scared.
[was shaking. I didnt want to hit him. ljust
wanted him to get out. " [(Imtvley. 20?)
9-"gentleman I holds a lobby door open for a
llli-yearold woman who is on her way to
church. But then he hits her so hard that blood
spurts out her mouth and nose. A surveillance
camera in the hallway shows the robber
CHAPTER I
striking her over and over until she finally relinquishes her grip on her handbag
containing
:13. Her face bleeds for two weeks and her
right arm never heals properly. ll-ut rtcarly a
year later. she ltobbles into a oourtro-om to
identify the 45year-old defendant as the man
who mugged her. Her testimony at this special
evidentiary hearing is preserved on videotape
just in case she is unable to appear as a witness
for the prosecution at the trial, which is
anticipated to begin a year later. [Farmer. 2(th
999
A 35-year-old woman is beaten. robbed.
and repeatedly raped for two hours in a dingy
garage. In court. the courageous single mother
testi es that while the gunman kept sexually
assaulting her, I had to keep myself from
going crazy. [Just hummed to myself."
Realizing that the humming also calmed the
rapist, she begins to give him a massage and to
tall; soothingly to him. As they converse. the
15yearold assailant apologizes, and. then dis
closes his name and even his date of birth.
which later leads to his arrest. {ShifreL 2ii ra)
#6.
A. 45yearold teacher is kidnapped in asltopping
null parking lot by a guntoting teenage
carjaeker. She secretly turns on a micro-cassette
recorder to gather evideneejust irt case she can t
convince the youth to let her go. During her final
46 minutes. she persuades the carjacker to discuss
his childhood and his experiences in the rrtiliury.
descriptions which later provide investigttors
withvaluable clues. Shealso reads passages to him
El orn a psychology teatdaook , urges him to live a
meartingl ullife and to Eind God: promises to help
him land ajola. andsobs as she describes how she
treasures being a mother to her young son. But it
is all to no avail. He doesn t sltoot her but
smothers her with her owrt ooat, wltich contains
the cassette in a pocket. ones. EENJ J]
999
A 31yearold social worker is about to go to
dinneraftera longdayort a cold niglttwhert he is
suddenly confronted by a teenager wielding a
knife. He hands over his wallet to the young
robber and. then offers him his coat too. surrnis
ing "1 E you are willingto risk your freedom E ora
few dollars, then I guess you must really need the
money." Then he takes the emotionally confused adolescent to a restaurant When it
is time
to pay For the meal, the teenager gives back his
wallet, artd even ltands over his knife. The social
worker sums up their encounter to an interviewer: "lfyou treat people right, you
can
only hope that they treat you right. That s as
simple as it gets in this complicated vvorld.I
mint. artist:
9 99
A mentally deranged Enliyearold woman
shoots a member ofa sheriffs department
SWAT teartt in the neck. Formerly known as
the most in sltape" deputy by his fellow ofli
ccrs. he wakes up paralyzed as a quadriplegic
confined to a wheel chair. But with great determination he remains foeused on his
goal of
returning to work at a desk job irt the nareoties
squad. obseran "Your future is kind of blealt
when you ve got tubes coming out ofyou artd
everyone is saying you ll never walk again...
But ifyou stay mad about it all the time. you re
rtot doing anything good for you I-self.I
Supported by his family and colleagues, he
optimistically reports. signs of progress. "There
ltave been a lot of litrle instances, like being
able to pick up a potato chip artd eat it with
my hands" {Young, ZiiUH]
Evidently. studying howinjured parties respond
to their plight eait yield some unanticipated benefits
1ia ictimtologists can gain a more complete understanding and appreciation of the
full range of possible reactions to attacks. !iome victims respond to
their misfortunes in ways that are clever. bold. even
courageous. and demonstrate a determination to be
have with dignity and to pursue a corttmitment to
justice. These individuals can serve as positive role
models for overcoming adversity. Uictimology is
not hopelessly mired in suffering and negativity.
WHAT VICTIMOLDGISTS I J D
The current parameters of the field are evident in
the kinds ofquestions victimologists try to answer.
in general. these questions transcend the basics
about "who, how. wlterc, and when." and tardtle
the questions of "why" and. what can be done."
Victimologisrs explore the interactions between
victims and offenders. victims and the criminal juscice system. and victims and the
larger society.
in the process. victimologists. like all social scien
tists. gather data to test hypotheses and refine the
ories. In the face of bold claims for credit {for
example. about a financial records rttonitoring service that prevents customers
iderttities from being
stolen) or accusations about blame {about why
iderttity theft strikes certain individuals). victimolo
gists rttust adopt a critical spirit and a skeptical
stance to see where the trail of evidence leads.
in the search for truth. myths must be exposed.
unfounded charges dismissed. and commonsense
notions put to the test. The following guidelines
outline the stepbystep reasoning process that
victimologists follow when carrying out their re
search tsee Parsonage. lEilT-Ei , Birkbeck. [0811.- and
Burt, lEiIHSiJ.
Strap 1: Identify. Define.
and Dascrht the Problem
The most basic task for victimologists is to deter-
mine all the di ierent ways that a violation of the
law can inflict immediate and longterm harm: the
extent of arty physical injuries. emotional damage.
and economic costs. plus any social consequences
{such as loss ofstatusjr. For example. severely abused
children might suffer front posttraumatic stress
disorder. dys rnctional interpersonal relationships.
personality problertts. and self-destructive impulses
{see Driere. 1.992}.
Sometimes a group is diiiicuh to study because
there isn t an adequate expression to describe their
common rttisfortune or to capture the nature of
their plight. Now that terms like date rape. stalking.
cyberstalking. carjacking, battering. elder abuse.
WHAtrsvrtrIMtrLont 3
road rage. identity theft. and bias crime have
entered everyday speech. governrrrent agencies and
researchers are exploring in what manner and how
frequently people are harmed by these offenses.
Sometimes a familiar problem. such as bullying
among juveniles receives renewed attention {see
Unnever and Cornell, 2MB]. especially in the after
math ofa massacre on the grounds ofa high school
by a teenager deeply resentful ofthe cruel teasing of
other students (see IJe ette. _| enson. and Colomy,
Elm-iii. On occasion, victimologists help to break the
silence about situations that long have been consid
ered taboo topics, by studying acti icies such as
sibling abuse, incestuous sexual ilttposicions in step
faJttilies, and marital rape {see Hines and Malley
Morrison. EEJHSJ.
Victilttologists analyze how the status of being
a "legitimate victim" is socially defined. They
explore why only sorrte people who suffer physical.
emotional. or economic harm are designated and
treated as fillfledged, bona fide. and o icially re
cognized victims artd as such. are eligible for aid and
encouraged to exercise rigltts within the criminal
justice process. But why are other injured parties
left to fend for themselves? One key question is,
"is the social standing of each of the two parties
taken into account when government ollicials and
members of the general public evaluate whether
one person should get into legal trouble for what
happened and the other should be granted assistance?" Another important query is.
"Who decides
what is unacceptable and illegal?" For example,
what official action should be taken when workers
are killed in onthejob incidents? Are they victims
of criminal negligence? When customers claim
they were deceived by exaggerated clairtts in
advertisement; are they victims offraud. artd therefore entitled to certain legal
remedies? 1n what
situations should elementary school students who
are subjected to corporal punishment by headmasters, dearts, and teachers [even
with parental
permission) be considered victims of a physical
assault?
Clearly. the status of being an officially recog
nized victim of a crime is "socially constructed."
The determinatioit of who is included and who is
24 cunt-rte t
excluded from this privileged category is carried out
by actors within the criminal justice process (police
officers and detectives. prosecutors. judges, even
juries) and is heavily influenced by legislators (who
formulate criminal laws] and. the media that shapes
public opinion aboutspecifie incidents.
Step 2: Measure the True
Dhrenslorrs of the Problem
Because policy makers and the general public want
to know ltowserious variouskinds ofillegalactivities
are. victimologists. must devise ways to keep track
of the frequency and consequences of prohibited
acts. The accuracy ofstatistics kept by government
bureaus artd private agencies :rnust be critically ex
amined to ferret out any biases that might inflate
or de ate these estimates to the advantage of those
who. for some self-serving reason, wish to either
exaggerate or downplay the real extent of the
problem.
In order to make rtteasurements. victimologists
have to operationalirte their concepts by develop
ing working definitions that specify essential cltar
acteristics and also mark boundaries. clarifying
which cases should be included and which should
be exrduded. For exarttple. when trying to deter
rttinc how many students. ltave been victims of
stltool violence. should youngsters who were
threatened with a beating be counted. even if
they were rtot actually physically attacked? Once
victirttologists measure the frequency of some
unwanted event per year. they can begin to search
for changes over time to see if a particular type of
crirrtirtal activity is marring the lives of a greater
number or fewer people as time passes. To grasp
the importance of making accurate mcasurerttents.
consider the problem ofchild abuse. Statistics gatlt
ered by child protection agencies may irtdicate a
huge increase in the nurttbcr of reported instances
ofsuspected abuse. How can this upsurge be ex
plained? One possibility is that parents are neglect
ing. beating. and molesting their children tltese
days like never before. But another explanation
could be that new compulsory reporting require
ments recently imposed on physicians. school
nurses. and teachers are bringing many more cases
to the attention of the authorities. Thus. a sharp
rise in reports might not reflect a genuine crime
wave directed at children by tltcir caretakers but
merely a surge in official reports because of im
provements in detecting and keeping records of
maltreaonent. Victimologists can make a real con
tribution toward resolving this controversy by de
vising ways to estimate with greater precision the
actual dimensions of the child abuse problem.
Other pressing questions that can be answered by
careful measurements and accurate statistics include
the following: Are huge numbers ofcltildren being
snatched up by kidnappers demanding ransoms? Dr
are abductions by strangers rare? Are husbands assaulted by their wives about as
often as wives are
battered by their husbands? Ur is ferttale aggression
of rrtirtor concert: when compared to male vio
lence? [s forced sex a conutton outcome at the
end of an evening. or is date rape less ofa danger
than some people believe (see Loseke. tielles. artd
(Iavanaugh. Eliil )?
After determining incidence rates (how often
a type of victimization takes place during a given
time period. usually one year]. prevalence rates
{the fraction ofthe population that ltas ever experienced this type ofrttisfortune)
can also be estimated.
Using various assumptions it then becomes possible
to project lifetime likelihoods [the proportion of
the population that wiLl someday stiffer in this may.
if current rates prevail]. Additionally, researchers
cart discern which categories of people are preyed
upon the most and the least. That information can
be used to draw a pro le (statistical portrait] of the
characteristics of typical victims (people who fall
into high-risk groupings].
Once injured parties have been identified artd
located, researchers can carry out a needs assassnatnt through interviews or via a
survey to discover
what kirtds of assistance and support they require
to resolve their problems and return to the lives
they were leading before the crime occurred. Such
studies of help-seeking behaviors might reveal
unmet material and emotional needs. weaknesses in
existing programs and policies. and the significant
contributions of informal support systems (primarily
family and friends].
Step 3: Investigate How Victims
Are Handled
Victimologists scrutinize how victims actually are
created by the criminaljustice and social servioe systems that are ostensibly
designed to help them.
Researchers carry out needs assessments to identify
just what the injured parties want, require. and get.
Studies pinpoint the sources of tension. conflict
miscreannent. and dissatisfaction that alienate viccims from the agencies that are
supposed to serve
them. Program evaluations determine whether
stated goals are being met. For instance. victiinolo
gists want to know how well or ltow poorly the
polioe. prosecutors. judges. and family tlterapists are
responding to the plight of abused children and
battered women (see Hilton. lEil JIi , Roberts. 2ll[12.
Hines and [Halley-Morrison, ZliUE. and Barnett.
Miller-ierrin. and Perrin. 21105]. Similarly. victimologists explore whether
prorriises are being
ltept. and if reforms granting new rights are having
any impact on business as usual within the legal
sysozm. .irre most victims wasting their time if
they appear before parole boards to argue that the
prisoners who harmed them should not receive
early release. or are victims arguments taken seri
ously? Additionally. victimologisis. monitor the way
the public, the news media. elected officials, non
profit organirations. and profitoriented enterprises
react to the plight ofpcople who are robbed. raped.
beaten. or murdered.
Step 4: Gather Evidence to Test
l-lypothues
Victimologists investigate claims, suspicions. hunchcs. and predictions. They
collect data to see if there
is any basis for widely held hypotheses. suelt as that
wuatiswetimmoav? H
wives beaten mercilessly by their husbands often
don t flee their unhappy homes because they are
too frightened of being hunted down and killed.
Similarly, researchers want to determine the red
ags" or warning signs that indicate trouble ahead
in a stormy relationship. Should women who have
siu ered beatings during eourohip or cohabitation
quickly breakup with their abusive boyfriends. or
can these turbulent relan onships be salvaged? (See
Roberts and Roberts, aims.) .i lre most women
who were raped angry or relieved if their cases are
resolved througli plea negotiations (in which the
assailants admit theirguilt in return forsome concession] rather than by highly
publicized trials in
which they would be a lte y prosecution witness?
Are asignificant proportion ofsurviviors ofhornicides
opposed to the execution of the murderers oftheir
loved ones? re the practical suggestions offered on
1Web sites for women who are being stalked by er:
lovers likely to reduoe the risks of violent outbursts,
or does following this advice actually heighten dan
gers .J Testing hypotheses yields interesting findings.
especially discoveries that cast doubt on common
sense notions (challenging what everyone "knows"
to be true]. Victimologists try to sort out myths from
realities.
All research findings serve to build victimology s knowledge base. and some have
obvious
practical applications. For eatample. how often do
people who were robbed fail to recognize the sus-
pect and pick out an innocent person at a station
house lineup (how accurate are eyewitness identifi
cations]? Alter elderly persons are robbed and
injured, are they more likely than victims of other
ages to adopt extreme precautions, such as staying
home at night? If police departments become more
user-friendly, will many more victims be willing to
come forward and lodge charges against assailants,
robbers. and rapists? [rernically, does the public get
the impression that a crime wave is taking place
and that their local law enforcement officials are
incompetent?
selection ofsome intriguing and imaginative
studies that illustrate the kindsofissues addressed by
victimologists over the years appears in Box 1.1.
25 CHAPTER I
SUMMARY
Victimization is an asyminetiital relationship that
is abusive. parasitical. destructive. unfair. and illegal.
Offenders haim their victims physically. financially.
and emotionally. Laws that recognized that injured
pai ijesdeseivd governiiienulsupportand economic
aid were passed centuries ago. but until the middle
of the twentieth century the plight of crime lvictims
was largely overlooked. even by most eiiminolo
gists. When some researchers began to study victims. their initial interest
betrayed an anti-victim
WHATISVICTIMDLDGTT 1 ."
bias They sought et idenoe that the Irictinis behavior before and during the
incidents contributed to
their own downfall. Since the l Jt mlls. the majority of
the social scientists attracoed to this new discipline
have Iahomd to find ways to ease the suffering of"
victims and to prevent ature incidents. Lint a colitmitment to strive for
objectivity rather than no he
reflexively "provictim" is the best stance to adopt
when carrying out research or evaluating the effectiveness ofpolicies.
Victimoiogy is best viewed as an area of
specialization within criminology. lloth criminologists and victimologists seek to
be impartial in
their roles as social scientists when investigating
1.! CHAPIER I
Jawbrealeing, itssocial consequences. and the ollrcial
responses lay the justice system. But much or
criminology in tlte past can he eharacterized as
"ofl enderology." so tlte new focus on those who
suffer provides some balance and rounds out any
analysis of problems arising from lawhreaking
behavior.
Victimologists carry out studies that seek to
identify, deline. and describe all the ways that illegal
activities harm targeted individuals: to measure the
seriousness ofthe problem: Do discover how vieein rs
cases are actually handled lay the legal sysuem. and
to uest researeh hypotheses to see if they are sup-
ported by the available evidence.
IIEIII IEIIMS
victim. I subjective approach. 3
objectivity. 3
ideal type. 4
sensationalism. II
victimization. 2
victimology. 2
direct or primary
vLctImL 2 ui uni . 14
umim 3 ideology. 14
indirect or secondary
criminology. 16
victims 2
lifetime likelihoods, 2-1
pro le. 24
needs assessment. 24
muggahility ratings. 26
plea negotiations, 7.5
post-traumatic scress
disorder. [9
erime oontrol, 2
just deserts. 20
operationalization. 24
incidence "E- 24 Stockholm Syndrome.
prevalence races. 2-1- 23
QUESTI DNS Fall DISCUSSION AND DEBATE
1.. Why should victimologists strive for objectivity
rather than automatically adopt a pro-victim
bias?
2. Give several examples of the kinds of research
questions that victimologisis. nd interesting
and the kinds oE studies they carry out.
3. In what ways are victimology and cririiinolo-gy
similar. and in what ways do they diii er?
4. What are some of the important milestones. in
the history or victimology and victim
assistance?
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS
1.. How should the police and the publie react
when hard-eon: criminals. such as mobsters.
drug dealers. and street gang members hecome
victims of violence?
2. Generate a list of questions about Foreihle tapes
that would be of great interest to a victimologist working within [a] an
anthropological
I mne work; [h] an hisnorical approach: and
lit} an economic perspective.
quTisvrttiMULon? 19
SUGGESTED RESEARCH PROJECTS
Perform a keyword search of a comprehensive
database ofmagazines and newspaper articles to
discover whether the term victimology is still
being misused and confused with the ideology
of victimism.
Use a comprehensive database of magazines
and newspaper articles to denermine whether
any cases currently in the news illustraue the
difficulty of identifying which party clearly is
the criminal and which is the victim.
$~
The Rediscovery of
Crime Victims
The Discovery of Crime IIr ir:i.im5 Stage I: Calling Attention to an
Overlooked Problem
Stage 2: Winning Victories.
The Dedine of Crine Victims
The Rediscover;r of Crime Victims Implementing Reforms
Social Movements: Taking Up Stage 3_. EWFEE I NIE of an
the W mf Cause Opposition and Development
Elected Of cial: Enactfng of Resistance to Ftrrl nrer
legislation Named Alter Victims Changes
The News Media: Portraying the Stage A: Research and Temporary
Victims Plight Resolution of Disputes
Comer-cial intereso. EEHIHQ Bedisouvering Additional Groups
Security Products and Services f Victins
to Lictirm
StlnmaryI
VietimoIo-gy Contributes to the
Rediscover]; Process
THE IIHSCIIl Il Elt lr OF CRIME VICTIHS
Each law that prohibits a certain act as being hartriful derincs the wmngdoer as
a
criminal subject to punishment. and at the same time specifies that tlte injured
parnl h a victim deserving some sort of redress. The Lrws forbidding what an.now
called street crimesmurder. rape. robbery. assault. burglary. and theFt
can be traced back to biblical times. 1III- Iren the thirteen American colonies
were
settled by immigrants From Great Britain. the earliest penal codes were based on
religious vaIUes as well as English consumers. law. Hence. victims oF interperso
nal
3D
violence and thef t were "discovered" ages ago. in
the sense that they were formally identilied and ofcially recognized.
THE DECLINE OF CRIME
VICTIMS
Scholars ol the hisoory of the legal system report
that in past oenturies viccims played a leading role
in the resolution ofcrirrrinal matocrs. To discourage
retaliation by victims and their familiesacts that
could lead Do endless feuding if ofl enders and their
kin counteraoadtcdsoeieties in simpler times
established direct repayment schemes. Legal codes
around the world enabled injured parties to receive
money or valuath from wrongdoers to compen
sate for the pain. suffering. and losses they endured.
This process of victim-oriented justice pre
vailed mostly in small villages engaged in fanning.
where social relations were based on personal
obligations, clear-cut family ties, strong religious
beliel s. and sacred ctaditions. But the injured party s
role diminished as induscrialization and urbanizacion brought about business
relations that were
voluntary. secular. impersonaL rationalized. and
contractual.
(liver the centuries, victims lost control over the
process of dcncrmining the lane of the offenders who
harmed them. Instead. the Local governmental sout
orre dominated judicial proceedings and catctacocd
lines from convicts. physically punished them. or
even executed them. The seriousness ofthe wounds
and losses in icted upon victims were ofimportance
only For determining the charges and penalties
wrongdoers l aced upon conviccion. Restoring injured parties to the condition they
were in before
the crimes occurred was no longer the main
concern. In fact. the recovery ofdamagcs became a
separate matter that was handled in another arena
(civil court) according to a different set of rules
(tort law) aFter criminal proceedings were con
cluded (Si-chafcr. IJ SJ.
Historically. in the United States and in other
parts ofthe world. the situations ofvictin rs followed
THE I lEEIISC-DVER F or crtrrae vrt trras 31
the sarrre evolutionary path From being at the center
of the legal process to being relegated to the sidelines. During the colonial era.
police Forces and
public prosecueors had not yet been established.
1slictimrs were the key decision makers within the
rudimentary criminal justice system and were its
direct bene ciaries. They conducocd their own
investigations. paid for warrants to have sheri s
make arrests, and ltircd private attorneys no indict
and prosecute their alleged attackers. Convicts were
forced to repay those they harmed up to three times
the value of the goods they had damaged or stolen
(Schaf er. IJtriiJ.
Llut after the American Revolution and the
adoption ol the Consideration and the Bill of Rights.
crimes were reoonceptualiacd as hostile aco. directed
against the authority of the government. which
was de ned as the representative of the people.
Addressing the sul l ering imposed upon individuals
was deemed no he less important than dealing with
the symbolic threat to the social order posed by lawbrcaltcrs. Public prosecutors.
acting on hehall of
the staoc and in the name ofthe entire society. tools
over the powers and responsibilities Formerly exercised lay victims. Federal.
state. and oounty ldistrict}
attorneys were granted the discretion to decide
whether no press cltargcs against deiendano. and
what sanctions to aslc judges no impose upon
com-ices.
The goals of deter-ting crime through punish
ment. prorteco ng society by incapacitao ng danger
ous people in prisons or through executions. and
rehabilitating transgressors through treatment came
Do overshadow victims demands to bc restored to
nancial. emotional. and physical health.
Over the last two centuries. the government
increasingly has assumed the obligation ofproviding
jail detainees and prison irurraocs with Food. dothing. housing. supervision.
medical care. recreational
opportunities. schooling.job training. psychological
counseling. and legal representationwhile leaving
victims to fend for themselves. As they lost oontrol
over their" cases. their role dwindled to just two
contributions: ling a complaint with the police
that initiated an investigation and. it" necessary,
ocstilying for the prosecution as another piece of
32 CHAPTER 2
evidence in the state s presentation of danuring facts
against the accused.
When plea negotiations replaced trials as the
means of resolving most cases. victiins lost their last
opporounity to actively participate in the process
by presenting their rsthand experiences on the
witness stand to ajury. il iotims rarely were included
and oonsulted when the police and prosecution ream
decided upon their soaoegies and goals. To add insult
to injury. often they were not even informed oftlre
outcomes of"their" cases Thoroughlymarginaliaed.
victims oFten sensed that they had been taken
advantage of twice: rst by the offender and then by
a system drac ostensibly was set up to help them but
in reality seemed more intent on satisfying the needs
ofio. core agencies and leey officials (see Sehafer. 19nd:
MclJionald, l JTII; and Davis Kiurreuther, and
Connidt. I984).
THE REDISCO IIEIIY OF CIIIME
VICTIMS
After centuries of neglect. those on the receiving
end of violence and theft were given renewed
aorention and. in effect. were rediscovered during
the late L95E1s and early l JGEIs. A small number of
self-help advocates. social scientists. crusading
journalists. enlightened criminal justice officials.
and responsive lawmakers helped to direct public
concern to a serious problem; the total disregard
of the needs and wants of victims. Through
publications. meetings. rallies. and petition drives.
these activists promoted their message! that victims
were forgotten figures in the criminal justice pro
cess whose best interests had been systematically
overlooked but merited attention. Discussion and
debate emerged during the late IJE-ils and has
intensified throughout the following decades
over why this injustice existed. and what could
be done about it. Various groups with their own
distinct agendas formed coalitions and mobilized
to campaign for reforms. As a result. new laws
favorable to victims are being passed and criminal
justice policies are being overhauled.
Social Movements: Taking lip
the \r lttlrns {arse
Aside from suffering harm at the hands ofcriminals.
victims as a group may have very little else in corrimon. They diifer in Derms
ofage. sex, raoer e thnieity.
religion. social class. political orientation. and many
other important characteristics. Therefore, it has
been difficult to organize them into selflrelp groups
and to harness their energies into a political Force
for change. Despite these obstacles. a crime victims
movement emerged during the lJ J ils. [c has developed into a broad allianoe of
activists support
groups, and advocacy organi eions that lobbies for
increased rights and. expanded services. deinonscrates
at trials. maintains a variety ofWeb sites. educates
the public. trains criminal justice professionals and
caregivers. sets up research institutes and. information
clearinghouses. designs and evaluates experimental
policies. and holds conferences to share experiences
and develop innovative programs.
The guiding principle holding this diverse
coalition together is the belief that victims who
otherwise would feel powerless and enraged can
attain a sense of empowerment and regain control
over their lives through practical assistance. mutual
support. and involvement in the criminal justice
process {see Friedman. 1.935: Smith. 1.935: Smith.
Sloan. and Ward, l JJl]. and Weed. 135].
Majocr Sources of Inspiration. Guidance and
Support Several older and broader social move
meno. have greatly influenced the growth and
orientation of the victims movement. The most
important contributions have been made by the
Iaw-and-order movement the warnenl mottomont. and the civil rights movement.
The law-allel-order movement of the Iinils
raised concerns about the plight of victims of
street crimes of violence and theft. Alarmed by
surging crime rates. conservative advocates of the
crime control" perspective adopted a hardline.
get-tough stance. They insisted that the criminal
justice system was society s first line of defense
against internal enemies who threatened chaos and
destruction. The thin blue line I of law enforce
ment needed to be strengthened. A willingness to
tolerate too rnuclt misbehavior was the problem
and a crackdown on social and political deviants
who disobeycd societyh rules and disrupted the lives
of conventional people was the solution. To win
over people who might have been reluctant to grant
more power to government agenciespolice. pro
secutors, and prison authoritiesthey argued that
the average American should be more worried about
becoming a victim than about being falsely accused.
mistakenly convicted. and unjustly punished [Hoole
193?]. Crime control advocates pictured thescales of
justice asbeingunfairlycilted in favoroftlte "bad guys"
at the expense of the "good guys"tlre innocent.
law-abidingcitieens andtlreir allies on the police force
and in the prosecutors oiiioe. In rlresmooth-running
justice systemtlratthese crime control advocates envisioned. punishment would be
swift and sure.
Attorneys for defendants would no longer be able to
talte advantage of practices that were dismissed as
"IoopholesI and technicalities" that undermined
the governments efforts to arrest detain. convict
deter. incapacitate. and impose retribution on
wrongdoers.
"Permissiveness" [unwarranted leniency] and
any "coddling ofcriminalsH would end: more oii en-
ders would be locked up for longer periods ofcime.
and fewer would be granted bail. probation. or parole. Liberals and civil
libertarians who opposed
these policies as politically repressive and. overly punitive were branded as "pro
criminal I and "anti
victim I {see Miller, WT]; and Harrington. [UTE].
Since the late liriils, sortie liberal activists in the
women s naovoanent have focused Il lCIt energies
on aiding one group of victims in particular! females
who were harmed by males and then failed to reoeive
the support they deserved from the male-dominated
criminal justice system. Feminists launched both an
anti-rape and an anti-battering movement. The
anti-rape movement set up the first rape crisis centers
in Berkeley. California. and Washington. IJ.(I.. in
liT-Z. These centers were not just places of aid and
comfort in a time ofpain and con ision. They also
were rallying sites for outreach e orrs to those who
THE tttiscovttr or CRIME vittius 33
were sud ering in isolation. meeting places for
consciousness-raising groups exploring the patriarchal
cultural traditions that encouraged males to subjugate
ferrules. and hubs for political organizing to change
laws and policies {see Rose. [UT- 3 : Largcn, IJ l: and
Scheehter. JJHZ}.
Some antirape activists went on to protest street
harassment. uniting behind the slogan "Take back
the night" (see Ledeter, lJEi-U]. Dther activists helped
to organize battered women s shelters. They estab
lished the first "safe house" in St. Paul. Minnesota. in
JJ H. Campaigns to end battering paralleled activi
ties to combat rape in a number of ways Both
projects were initiated for the most part by former
victims who viewed their plight as an outgrowtlt of
larger societal problems and institutional arrangements rather than personal
troubles and individual
shortcomings. Lioth sought to empower women by
confronting established male authority. challenging
existing procedures. providing peer support and ad
vocacy. and devising alternative places to turn to
for help in a time of need. The overall analysis that
originally guided these provictim efforts. was that
male versus female offenses (such as rape. wife heat
ing. sexual harassment in the streets and at work, and
incest at home] pose a threat to all women. and that
this liind of illegal sexual oppression slows progress
o iward equality between the sexes. The gravest dangers are faced by women who are
socially disadvantaged because of raeial discrimination and economic
insecurity. According to this philosophy. girls and
women victimized by boys and. men cannot count
on the men atthe helm ofthe criminal justice system
to lead the struggle to effectively protect or assist
theminstead. women must empower each other
(see Iirownmiller. [UTE].
Similarly. some liberal activists in the civil
rights movement of the i Jl riis focused their energies on opposing entrenched
racist beliefs and discriminatory practices that encouraged members of
the white majority to intimidate. harass. and. attaclr
people of color. Over the decades. this movement
has brought together organizations representing the
interests ofa wide range of minority groups in order
to direct attention to the special threats posed by
34 crIAPrER 2
racist violence. front lynch mobs to Ku Klut Klan
bombings and assassinations.
In recent years, one of the movement s major
concerns has been convincing the government to
provide enhanced protection to individuals who
are the targets ofbias-motivatcd hate crimes. which
can range from harassment and vandalism to arson.
bearings. and slayings. tiivil rights groups have been
instrumental in lobbying state legislatures to impose
stiifer penalties on attackers whose behavior is fireled
by bigotry and in establislting specialized police
squads to deter or solve these divisive and inflammatory violations of the law that
would otherwise
polaritc communities along racial and ethnic lines
[see Levin and MclJeviDL EUIJS].
(Iivil ri its organimtions cry to mobilize public
support to demand evenhandedness in the administration ofjuscioe. A double
standard. although more
subtle today than in the past. may still infect the
operations of the criminal justice system. Crirrtes by
black perpetrators against white victims always
have been talten very seriouslythoroughly investigated. quickly solved. vigorously
prosecuted. and
severrdy punished. However. crimes by white
offenders against black victims, as well as by blacks
ayinst other blacks {see Ebony. l JT-"JJ have rarely
evoked the same goverrunental response and public
outrage. The more irequent imposition ofthe death
penalty on those who kill whites. especially bhcks
who ltill whites. is the clearest example ofa discriminatory double stanthrd (see
lialdus. 2mm. Civil rights
activists. also point out that members of minority
groups still Face graver risks of becoming victims of
of cial misoonduet in the form ofpolice bnatality
or even worse, the unjusti ed use ofdcadly forteas
well as False accusations. frameups. wrongful convic
tions, and other miscarriages ofj ustice.
Additional Contributions by Other Social
Movements Social movements tltat cltampion
the causes of civil liberties, children s rights. senior
cititcns rigltts. homosexual riyrts. and self-help also
have rriade significant contributions to bcttering the
situation of victims.
The civil liberties mmreroantsprimaryfocusis
to preserve constitutional safeguards and due-process
guarantees that protect suspects. defendants, and
prisoners from abuses of governmental power by
overzealous criminal justice oflicials. However.
civil liberties organizations have won courtvictories
that have benefited victims of street crime in two
ways; by furthering police professionalism and by
extending the doctrine of eejual protection under
tltelaw."
In professionaliaed police departments. officers
must meet higher educational and training require
ments and must abide by more demandingstandards.
As a result. victims are more likely to receive prompt
responses, effective service. and sensitive treaunent.
[fthey don t, channels exist through which they can
redress their grievances. Guarantees ofequal protection enable minority
cornmunicics to gain access to
the police and prosecutorial assistance to which
they are entitled, and to insist upon their right to
improved, more professional law enforcement in
contrast to the under-policing they endured until
recently. This improves the prospects for sensitive
and responsive handling for-complainants whose calls
for help were given sltort shrii t in the past when
officials discriminated against them due to their
race. ethnicity. sex. age, social class. disability. or
some other disadvantage Walker, IJHZ , Stark and
Goldstcin, 191:5}.
Children s rights groups campaign against sexual abuse,physicalabuse. severe
corporal punishment.
gross ne ect. and other forms of maltreatment of
youngsters. Their successes indude stricter reporting
requirements of cases of suspeeozd abuse: improved
procedures for arrest. prosecution. and conviction of
offenders: greater sensitivity to the needs ofvietim
ited children as complaining witnesses; enhanoed
protection and prevention services; and more effec
tive parenting instruction programs. Activists in
senior citizens groups have pressured sonm police
departments to establish special squads to protect
older people born younger robbers and swindlers.
and have brought aboin greater awareness of the
problem oi oldot obnsoiinanciaL emotional. and
physical mistreatment by family members or caretakers [sce Smith and Freinkel, [UH-
1i).
The gay rights movement originally called
attention to the vulnerability of male homosexuals
and lesbians to blackmail. exploitation by organized
crime syndicates that ran bars and clubs. and police
harassment of those who needed protection [see
Maghan and Eiagarin. [983]. The movement now
focuses on preventing scteet assaults [gay-bashing"}
against suspected homosexuals and lesbiansbias
crimes that are motivated by the offenders hatred
for the victims presumed sexual orientation.
Groupsthat are partofthc self-help mot-errata
have set up dependable support systems for injured
parties by combining the participatory spirit of the
grassroots protest rrtovements ofthe l ifrils with the
selflimpiovement ideals of the human potential
movement oftlre 1971b. The ideology of self-help
is based upon a fundamental organ uing principle
that people who have direcdy experienced the
pain and suifering of being harmed and are still
struggling to overoomc these hardships themselves
can foster a sense of solidarity and mutual support
that is more comfortingand effective than the services
offered by impersonal bureaucracies and emotionally
detached professional caregivers {{iartner and
itiessman, J FHUJ.
Even the prisoners rights movement oftlte late
[Grills and early l ils may have inspired viccirn atcivism. [nrrlates rebelled at
a niunber ofcorrectional
insciortiona often in vicious and counterproductive ways. They protested
overerowded conditions.
demanded deoent living standards: insisted on
greater ways of communicating with the outside
world [via uncensored mail. access to thc mass media. rrtorc family visits. and
meetings with lawycrsl.
asked for freedom of religion: called for more
opportunities for rehabilitation. education. and
job training , and complained about mistreatment
and brutality by guards {see ACLU, ZIIUH]. Many
people harmed by these incarcerated offenders
surely asked, if convicts deserve better treatment.
don t we. too?
Tire task for victimologists is to assess the impact these social movements have
had on shaping
the course oftlte victims movement over the decades as well as on easing the
plight oftoday s crime
victims. How e iective and influential have they
really been?
THE REDISCDVER F or CRIME VICTIMS 35
Elected D leials: Enatting Leglsla lion
Haired After ii ictlms
During the lJHEls. elected officials engaged in the
political process of enacting new laws helped to
rediscovcr and publicize the plight of victims.
They realized that proposing a new law to be
named after someone who su ered terribly in an
incident that received a great deal of media cover
age helps to build support for its passage; few oili
ceholders would dare to argue against the bill, lest
they be branded "anti-victim."
Probably the best-known example of a law
bearing the name of a crime viccirn is the Brady
BilL named after james Lirady. President lieagans
press secretary. who was shot in J JH-l by an assassin
crying to kill the president. This federal legislation
passed by Congress imposes restrictions on gun
purchases (background checks and coolingoff"
periods) that are intended to head-off shootings
by unstable individuals eager to get their ltands on a
firearm.
Tire nationwide Amber ler-t system was
named after an abducted girl who was killed by a
sexual predator. it provides federal rnding that
enables tlte authorities to use the media to quickly
disseminate descriptions of the kidnapper. the
child, and any vehide they are traveling in. These
announcements mobilize the public so that thousands ofpeople can immediately help
the police to
watch out for the missing youngster.
Many state legislatures ltave passed statutes
named after victims. For example. most states have
passed some variation of New jersey"s Megan s
Law. named after a little girl slain by her new neigh
bor, a habitual child molester. It mandates that
community residents be notified ofthe arrival offor
merly incarcerated sex oWeIrden. so that parentsin
theory. at leastcan talte measures to better shield
their children from potentially dangerous strangers
[It New iorls State. a number of receiat statutes
have been named after victims:
- Lawmakers enacted a measure requiring convicts
to serve lengthier sentences before becoming
36 tumors 2
eligible for parole, referring to it as jenna s
Law. in honor ofa 22-year-old college student
murdered by a man out on parole.
l A law mandating background checks of
employees was dubbed Kathys Law. in
memory of a comatose woman in a nursing
home who was raped and impregnated by a
health care worker and then died after
childbirth.
I A regulation that prohibited imprisoned fathers
who killed their spouses from demanding visitation rights to see their children is
called Lee.rrnne s Law after the deceased wife and mother
oftltree whose husband petitioned the court to
require their children to visit him wltilc he was
serving his prison sentence for killing her
(Henican. lEiI JSJ.
I Kendras Law. named in memory ofa young
woman who was pushed in front ofa speeding
subway train by a man who had not talsen his
prescribed medication for schizophrenia.
empowered oouro. to impose compulsory
treatment on mentally ill patients (Cox. 1998).
I Stephanie s Law. named after a woman whose
peepingtom landlord placed a hidden camera
in her apartment. rrtade it a felony to secretly
videotape a person in a place where there is a
reasonable expectation ofprivacy anWII.
arms}.
I Valiean s Law was named in honor ofan
I [yearold who was run over by a drunlt
driver. it stilfened the penalties for serious
injuries and deaths caused by intoxicated
motorists [Silverman. 2le5).
Two very different reactions are possible to the
rediscovery oftlte victim s plight by lawmakers. Une
response is to suspect that vote-seeking politicians are
exploiting the media attention surrounding highly
emotional but very complicated situations for their
own personal advantage {to advance their careers).
They grab headlines by proposing a change in the
law that will allegedly prevent such incidents from
happening again. The strong feelings cvolsed by a
reoent tragedy make it di cult for opponents to
question the wisdom and potential flaws of the rnea
suresproposed in the name oftltevictim. {During the
last EU years, legislatures nationwide reportedly have
enacted thousands of new laws named after victims}
{see Lovett, 211043. and Editors, New York Post.
aims]. The other response is to view certain highly
publicizedcragedies asa final straw that nally focused
inucltneedcd attention on a festering problem. mo
bilized public opinion, and trigered long overdue
legislative action by elected officials.
The task for victimologists is to start out as
impartial observers and to gather data to see
whether the legislation bearing the name ofa victim actually offers any tangible
assistance to ease the
plight of people harmed in this particular manner.
Also. are these measures really effective in preventing innocent people from being
harmed by: these
kinds of offenses in the future, or do theyjust punish offenders more severely in
behalf of those they
already injured? Some of these recent legal reforms
allegedly enacted in the name of honoring victims
might turn out to be ill-conceived. ineffective. or
even counterproductive (for example. see Cooper.
21m].
The News Media: Portraylng
the Victlrns Plight
Tlte news media deserve a great deal of credit for
rediscovering victims. In the past. offenders received
the lions share of coverage in newspapers. inaga
zines. and on radio and television stations. Stories
delved into their backgrounds. their motives. and
what should be done with themusually how
severely they should be punished. S-cant attention
was paid to the fleshandblood individuals who
suffered because ofillegal activities.
But now those who are on the receiving end of
criminal behavior are no longer invisible or forgotten people. Details about the
injured parcies are
routinely included to inject some hurrtan interest
into crime stories. Lialanced accounts can vividly
describe the victims plight: how they were harmed.
what losses they incurred, what intense einocions
distressed them. what helpcdor even hindered their
recovery. how they were treated by caregivers, and
how their cases were handled by the legal system.
By remaining faithful to the facts, journalists can
enable their audiences to transcend their own
limited experiences with lawbreakers and to see
emergencies. tragedies. and triumphs through the
eyes of victims. Skillful reporting and insighc il
observations allow the public to better understand
and empathize with the actions and reactions of
those who suffered harm.
[n highly publicized cases. interviews by journalists have given victims a voice in
how their cases
are resolved in court. and even how the problem
{such as kidnappings, easy aocess to firearms, or collisions caused by drunk
drivers) should be handled
by the criminal justice system. Media coverage has
given these activists with firsthand experiences a
public platform to campaign for wider societal
reforms [lJignan, Ziiil ). It appears that incidents
receive intensive and sustained coverage only
when some aspect of the victimoffender relation
ship stands out as an attentiongrabber: The act. the
perpetrator, or the target must be unusual, unex
pected. strange. or perverse. Causing harm in ways
that is typical. commonplace. or predictable isjust
not newsworthy. Editors andjournalists sift through
an overwhelming number ofreal-life tragedies that
come to their attention [largely through contacts
within the local police department) and select the
cases that are most likely to shock people out of
their complacency or arouse the publics social
conscience.
The stories that are featured strike a responsive
chord in audiences because the incidents. symbolize
some signi cant themefor example, that anyone
can be chosen at random and be attacked brutally
(simplyI for being at the wrong place at the wrong
time): that bystanders might not come to a persons
aid. especially in anonymous. big-city settings. or that
complete strangers cannot be crusted {Roberta
Fill-9).
Historically. heinous crimes that have received
the most press attention have had one or more of
these elements in common: Either the injured party
or the defendant is a child. woman, or a prominent
or wealthy person: intunations of promiscuous"
behavior by the victim or defendant help to explain
THE REDISCDVER F or CRIME vle rIMs 3 ."
the event. and some doubts linger about the guilt of
the convict (Stephens. IJHES).
However. a study of homicides in Houston,
Texas. determined that the amount ofcoverage de
pended more upon the particular circumstances and
situations surrounding the slaying than the characteristics ofthe killer or victim
Giuckler and Travis,
Ziiil ). For eatample. it is predictable that the
unsolved Christmas Eve murder of a sixyearold
beauty contest winner in her own upscale home
with her parents upstairs would be the subject of
incessant tabloid sensationalism. as was the murder
of a young woman joging in a park who was
having an affair with a married Congressman.
Furthermore. media coverage may re ect the
unconscious biases of talk show hosts. correspondents. and editors who work. in the
newsroom. For
example. members of rrunority communities have
charged that national news outlets. especially on
cableTv", focus relentless attention on the disappear
ance of attractive white people, especially young
women and children. but overlook equally coinpel
ling cases involving individuals who do not sitare
these characteristics {see Lyman, 2MB. Menunott,
Ziiil . and Gardiner. JUNK).
if these charges are true. the problem may go
deeper and may re ect the shortcomings ofmarket
driven journalism. The gatekeepers. under or nizacional pressures to sell their
product. sift through a
huge pool of items and select stories they perceive
will resonate with the general public, at the expense
of presenting an accurate sampling oftlte full range
of tragedies taking place locally. nationally. and
around the world [see Buckler and Travis. 20115}.
Pr related problem is that in the quest for higher
rao ngs. coverage can sink to an lfit bleeds. it leads"
orientation characterizing commercially driven
"infotainment." [f reporters turn a personal tragedy
into a media circus and a public spectacle. their incursive behavior might be
considered an invasion of
privacy. O vemealous journalists are frequently criticized for showing corpses
lying in a pool of blood,
maintaining vigils outside a grieving familys home,
or shoving microphones into the faces of bereaved.
dazed. or hysterical relatives at funerals. The injured
party receives unwanted publicity and experiences
3! anPrER 2
a loss of control as others comment upon. draw
lessons from. and impose judgments on what he
or site allegedly did or did not do.
Find yet, it can be argued that media coverage
ofcrime stories is an absolute necessity in an open
society. Reporters and news editors have a oonsti
tutional right, derived from the First Amendments
guarantee of a free press, to present information
about lawbreaking to the public without interfer
ence from the government. illeyl activities not
only harm particular individuals but also pose a
tltreat to those who may be next. People have a
right as well as a need to know about the erner
gence of dangerous conditions and ominous developments. and the media ltas an
obligation to
communicate this information accurately.
The problem is that the public s right to know
about crime and the medias right to report these
incidents clash with the victim s right to privacy.
journalisrs. editors. and victims advocates are ad
dressing questions of fairness and ethics in a wide
variety of forums. ranging from blogs and posted
comments on the 1Web and letters to the editor in
newspapers. to professional conferences and law
suits in civil court.
Several remedies have been proposed to curb
abusive coverage ofa victim s pliyit. One approach
would be to enact new laws to shield those who
suifcr from needless public exposure sucl r as unnecessary disclosure of names and
addresses in news
coverage or on Web sites. An alternative approach
would be to rely on the selfrestraint of reporters
and their editors. The fact that most news accounts
ofsexual rnolestations of children and of rapes no
longer reveal the names of those who were harmed
is an example of this selfpolicing approach in
action. A third remedy would be for the media to
adopt a node of professional ethics. Journalists who
abide by the code would "read victims their rights"
at the outset of interviews. just as police officers
read suspects their Miranda rights when taking
them into custody {see Thomason and. Babbilli.
198?: and Kat-men. 1.939}.
il ictimologists could play an important role in
monitoring progress by studying how frequently
and how seriously news reporters insult and defame
the subjects oftheir stories and how successfully the
diEfereirt reform strategies prevent this kind of
exploitation. or at least minUnize abusive invasions
of privacy.
Then there is the question ofaccuracy in media
imagery. For example. the most publicized stories
about mass killings center on a lone gunman who
randomly shoots complete strangers in a public set
ting. However. a careful analysis of multiple homi
cides reveals that the most frequent category ofmass
killings is the head of a household slaying all the
members of his family. so the widely disseminated
image misidentifies the greatest source of danger
{[3uwe. ZIJIHJ). journalists often put forward intriguing possibilities without
sufficient docuinenta
tion in their coverage of victuns issues. A story in
the news might hypothesize that there are a great
many battered women living in insular. devoutly
religious communities who are extremely reluctant
to turn to outside authorities for help. It is up to
vico mologists to treat these plausible assertions as
researelt hypotheses to be tested. to see ifthe avail
able data support or undermine these impressions
circulating in the media.
Con-Inertial Interests: Sailing Security
Products and Services to Victims
Just as the rediscovery of victuns by elected officials
and the news media has benefits as well as drawbacks. so too does the new attention
paid to injured
pardes by businesses. The development ofthis new
market of people seeking out protective services
and antitheft devices simultaneously raises the
possibility of commercial exploitadon. Profiteers
can engage in fear mongering and false advertising
in order to cash in on the legitimate concerns and
desires ofcustomers who feel particularly vulnerable
and even panicky. In situations where entrepre
neurs issue bold claims about their products effectiveness, objectivity takes the
form of scientific
skepticism. Victimologistsmust represent the public
interest and demand. Prove those assereions!
1Where is the evidence?H
Consider the question of whether expensive
automobile security systems actually work as well
as their manufacturers advertisements say they do.
For instance. do car alarms really provide the layer
ofprotection against break-ins that their purchasers
want and that sales pitches claim? In New York. the
City Council passed regulations restricting the in
stallation of new car alarms because the devioes
were deemed to be largely ineffective as well as a
serious source of noise pollution. Rather than
agreeing with frustrated motorists that the wailing
sirens do no good, or trying to defend the alarm
industry s reputation and profits, nonpartisan victimologists can independently
evaluate the efleceive
ness ofthese antitheft devices. re ear alarms really
useful in deterring brealtirLs. in minimizing losses of
accessories such as car stereos, navigation systems or
air bags. in preventing vehicles from being driven
away: and in aiding the police to catch thieves
redhanded?
VICTIMDLOGY CDNIRIBUTES
TO THE IIEDISCOVEIIV PROCESS
The emergence and acceptance of victimology has
furthered the rediscovery of new groups ofvictims.
This processin which people whose plight was
recognized long ago. neglected for many years.
and now again gains the attention it deserves
goes on and on lwith no end in sight. Such redis
covered groups include battered women . females
who have suffered date rapes; kidnapped cltil
dren: people targeted by bigots , drivers attacked
by enraged fellow motorists; pedestrians. passengers. and drivers killed in
collisions caused by
drunkards: prisoners sexually assaulted by fellow
inmates: and detainees killed while in government custody.
The rediscovery process is more than just a
well-intentioned humanitarian undertaking. media
campaign. or example ofspecial pleading. it ltas far
reaching consequences for everyday life. and the
stakes are high. lliJIJlDCl people who gain legitimacy
THE rtttlscovsitr or CRIME metres: 39
as innocent victims and win public backing are in a
position to malse compelling claims on government
resources [asking for compensation payments to
cover the expenses they incurred from their physi
cal wounds. for example). People who ltnow from
firsthand experience about the suffering caused by
ille l acts also can advance persuasive arguments
about reforming criminal justice policies concern
ing arrest. prosecution, trial procedures, appropriate
sentences. and custodial control over prisoners.
Finally. rediscovered victims can assert that prevent
ing others from suffering the same fate requires a
change in prevailing cultural values about tolerating
social conditions that generate criminal behavior.
1rictims even can make recommendations that are
taken seriously about the ways people should
and should not behave {for instanoe. how husbands
should treat their wives, and how closely parents
should supervise their children). the proper role of
government {such as how readily the state should
intervene in private" matters such as violence
between intimates). and ltow convicts should be
handled (whether certain offenders should be
imprisoned or sent to treatment programs for their
underlying disorders).
The process of rediscovery usually unfolds
through a series of steps and stages. The sequential
model that is proposed below incorporates observations drawn from several sources.
The notion of
developmental stages arises from the selfde nition ofthe victimization process
(Wane.
iill-li. The natural history. career. or lifecycle per
spective comes om examining models of ongoing
social problems (see Fuller and Myers. 1.94]: Ross
and Staines. 1W2: and Spector and Kltsuse. WET}.
The focus on how concerns about being harmed
are first raised. framed. and then publicized arises
from the enmtructiomist approach {see Ii-cst.
Nil-9b}. The idea of inevitable clashes ofopposing
interest groups battling over governmental resources
and influence over legislationcomes from sociology s
con ict approach. The realization that there is an
ongoing struggle by victimized groups for respect
and support in the court ofpublic opinion is an appli
cation of the conoept of stigma earnest:
(Schur, l JEi-l].
4D enAPtER 2
Stage 1: Calling Attention to an
Overlooked Problem
The rediscovery prooess is set in motion whenever
activists begin to raise the public s consciousness
about sortie type ofillegpl situation that "everybody
knows" happens but few have cared enough to
investigate or try to correct. These lateral entrepreneur s. who lead campaigns to
change laws and
win people overto their point of view. usually have
firsthand experience with a specific problem as well
as direct. personal knowledge ofthe pain and sulfer
ing that accompany it. Partic ularly effective self-help
and advocacy groups have been set up by mothers
whose children were killed in collisions caused by
drunk drivers. survivors of officers slain in the line
of duty, and parents who endured the agony of
searching for their missing children. among others.
Additional individuals who deserve credit for arous
ing an indifferent public include the targets ofhate
fllled bias crimes: adults haunted by the way they
were molested when they were young: women
brutally raped by atquaintances they trusted. and
wives viciously beaten by their husbands. These
victims called attention to a state of affairs that
people took for granted as harmful but shrugged
off with a "What can anyone do?" atdmde.
These activists responded. "Things don t ltave
to be this my!" Exploitacive and hurt rl relationships don t have to be tolerated
they can be
prevented. avoided. and outlawed; governmental
policies can be altered: and the criminaljustice sys
tent can be ntadc more aocountable and responsive
to its "clients." .i rs Stage 1 moves along. activists
function as the inspiration and nucleus for the for
ntation of self-help groups that provide mutual aid
and solace and also undertake campaigns for reform.
Members of support networks believe that only
people who have suffered through the sante ordeal
cart really understand and appreciate what others
just like them are going through {a basic tenet borrowed from therapeutic
communities that assist
substanoe abusers to recover from drug addiction].
Activists also state that victims
troubles stem
from larger social problems that are beyond any
individual s ability to control; consequently those
who suffer should not be blamed for causing their
own misfortunes. Finally. activists argue that recovery requires empowerment within
the criminaljustice prooess so that victims can pursue what they
define as their own best interests, whether to see
to it that the offender receives the maximum punishment pcrntitted by law. is
compelled to undergo
treatment, andr or is ordered to pay their bills for
crimerelated expenses.
To build wider support for their causes. moral
entrepreneurs and self-help groups organize them
selves into loosely stnactured coalitions such as the
anti-rape and anti-battering movements. Usually.
one or two chl-publicized cases are pointed to
as symbolic of the problem. Soon rrtany other
victims come forward to tell about similar personal
experiences. Then experts such as social workers, de
tectives. and lawyers testify about the suffering tltat
these kinds of victints routinely endure and plead
that legal rentedies are urgently needed. Extensive
media coverage is a prerequisite for success. The
groups plight becomes known because of investiga
tive reports on television, talk radio discussions.
magavr ne cover stories. newspaper editorials, and the
circulation of these accounts on blogs. Meanwhile.
press conferences. demonstrations marches. candle
li tt vigils. petition drives ballot initiatives. lawsuiu.
and lobbying campaigns keep the pressure on and the
issue alive.
Sociologically. what happens during the first
stage can be termed the social constructions ofa
social problem, along with claims-melting and
typi c-a on (see Spector and Kitsuse. llHT: Best.
i JEilb]. when a consensus about a pattern ofbeltavior
that is harmful and should be subjected to criminal
penalties is warranted. This crystallisation of
public opinion is a product of the activities of moral
entrepreneurs. support groups. and their allies.
Spokespersons engtge in a claims-snaking process
to air grievanoes. estimate how ntany people are
hurt in this inanner. suggest appropriate remedies to
facilitate recovery, and recorrunend measures that
could prevent this kind of physical. entocionaL
and financial suffering from burdening others.
Through the process of typifrcation, advocates
point out classic cases and textbook. examples tltat
illustrate the menace to society against which they are
campaigning.
Stage 2: Winnhg Victories.
Implementing Retort-net
The rediscovery process enters it. second stage
whenever activists and advocacy groups begin to
make headway toward their goals.
At first. it might be necessary to set up inde
pendent demonstration projects or pilot programs
to prove the need for special services. Then government grants can be secured. or
federal. state. and
local agencies can copy successful models or take
over some responsibility for providing information.
assistance. and protection. For instanoe. the battered
women s movement set up shelters. and the anti
rape movement established crisis centers. Eventually
local goverrunents rndod safe houses where
women and their young children could seek refuge.
and hospitals [and even some universitich organized
their own 24hour rape hotlines and crisisintcrvention services.
Individuals subjected to bias crimes were rediscovered during the J JENJs. During
the J Jffile. only
private organizations monitored incidents of hate
motivated violence and vandalism directed against
racial and religious minorities. as well as homosex
uals. But in 1990. the government got involved
when Congress passed the Hate Crime Statistics
Ml. which authorized the FBI to undertake the
task of collecting reports about bias crirnes from
local police departments. Achievements that mark
this second stage in the rediscovery process include
legislative hearings at which victims testimonies
can lead to new lawsfor instance. more severe
punishment for hate-motivated bias crimes
because they polarizc tommunities and undermine
the mutual resth and good will needed to
enable multiculturalism to succeed. Specially
ctained law enforcement units have been set up in
malty jurisdictions to more effectively recognize.
investigate. solve, and prosecute bias crimes. Self
help groups o er injured parties tangible forms of
JPPOIT.
THE llEEllSC-DVER F or CRIME vitTIMs 41
The best example of a redistovery campaign
that has raised consciousness. won victories. and
secured reforms is the struggle waged since the early
Willis by Mothers Ayinst Drunk Driving [MMJDIL
]t is an organization of parents. mostly mothers.
whose sons or daughters were injured or killed by
drunk drivers. These anguished survivors argued that
for toolong the "killer drunk" was able to get away
with a socially acceptable and judicially excusable
form of homicide because more pcoplc identified
with the intoxicated driver than with the innocent
person who died from injuries sustained in the
collision.
Viewing themselves as the relatives ofbona fide
crime victims not merely accident victims. these
crusaders were able to move the issue from
the obituary page to the front page by using a
wide range of tactics to mobilize public support.
including candlelight vigils. pledges of responsible
behavior by children and family cooperation by
their parents, and demonstrations outside court
houses. Local chapters of their national selfhelp
organizations offered concrete services: pamphlets
were distributed through hospital emergency
rooms and rncral parlors. bereavement support
groups assisted grieving relatives. and volunteers
accompanicd victims and their families to police
stations. prosecutors ollitcs, trials. and sentencing
hearings.
Liuoyed by very favorable media coverage,
their lobbying campaigns brought about a crack.down on DUI (driving under the
influence}
and IJWI (driving while intoxicated] offenders.
Enforcement measures include roadblocks. license
suspensions and revocations, more severe criminal
charges. and onthespot con scations of vehicles.
Their efforts also led to reforms of drinking laws.
such as raising the legal drinking age to 2| and
lowering the blood-alcohol concentration levels
that olliciaUy define impairment and intoxication
(Thompson. IJ if}. .I llong with the iii-mph speed
limit. mandatory seat belt laws. improved vehicle
safety engineering. better roads. and breakthroughs
in emergencymedical services the achievements. of
MAUI) and its allies have saved countless lives
( yres, lJEI-f-J.
42 {NAPIER 2
Stage 3: Emergence of an Opposition
and Development of Reslstmte
to Further ChangeThe third stage in the rediscovery process is marked
by the emergence oi groupcs that oppose the goals
sought by victims of rediscovered crimes. The victims had to overcome public apathy
during Stage 1.
and bureaucratic inertia during Stage 3. and they
encounter resistance i rom other quarters during
Stage 3. .i r backlash arises against percein excesses
in their demands. The general argument of oppo
neno. is that the pendulum is swinging Boo Ear in the
other direction. that people are uncritically embracinga point oE vicw that is too
extreme. unbalanced.
and onesided, and that special interests are dying
to advance an agenda that does not really benefit
the law-abiding majority.
Spokespersons for agroup of recently rediscovered victims might come under re for a
number of
reasons. They might be criticized for overestimating
the numbers of people harmed when the actual
threat to the public. according to the opposition.
is much smaller. .D rdvoeanes might be oondemnod
For portraying those who were harmed as totally
innocent of blameand tlterefore deserving of
unquali ed supportwhen in reality .some are
pardy at fault and shouldn t get all the assistance
tlrac they demand. Activists might he castigated For
malting unreasonable demands that will CM: the
government [and taxpayers} too much money.
They also mi rt be denounced for insisting upon
new policies that would undermine cherished constitutional riyrts. such as tlte
presumption of
innocence of people accused of breaking the law
[For example. allegations about child abuse or elder
abuse can lead to investigations that permanently
stigmatizc the accused even if the charges later
turn out to be unfounded) isee Crystal. 1931!).
1t Uhen the antirape movement claimed Do
have discovered an outbreak of date rapes against
college students. sltept ies asked why federally mandated statisties about
incidents reported to campus
security forces showed no such upsurge. They contended that hard-m-classiFy liaimns
were being
redefined as full- edged sexual assaults, thereby
maligning some admittedly sexually aggressive and
exploitative college men as hard-core criminals (see
Gilbert. IJ Jl; Hellman. 1.993: and. MacDonald.
2iiUH]. When the bautered women s movement
organized a clemency drive to free certain imprisoned wives who had slain
(allegedly in self
defense) their abusive husbands, critics charged
that these women would be getting away with
revenge killings. When incest survivors insisted
that new memory retrieval techniques had helped
them recall repressed recollections ofsevual moles
tat iorrs by parents. stepparents, and other guardians.
sonte aocused family members banded Dogether and
insisted they were being unfairly slandered because
ofa therapist-induced false Inertial-y syndrome.
Claims by some child-search organizations that each
year tens of thousands of children were being kidnapped by complete strangers
created near hysneria
among parents until some Journalists. challenged
their eso matcs as gross ereaggerations [see Chapters
8, 3, and III] for an indepth analysis of these
controversies}.
Even the many accomplishments. of the entire
vict ims Jttovertterrc can be questioned (see Weed.
i JJ ]. Under the banner of advancing viccin rs
rights pressure groups might advocate policies
that undermine whatever progress has been made
toward securing humane treatment For offenders
and eat-prisoners and inadvertently "widen the
net" of Formal social control exercised by the police
and prosecutors over deviants. and rebels. Viccim
activism can unnecessarily lteightcn fear and anxiety
levels about the dangers of violence and theft and
divert funds away from social programs designed to
tackle the root causes of street crime.
Groups that focus their energies on the plight
of individuals harmed by street crimes also can distract attention from other
socially harmi ul activities
such as polluting the environment or marketing
unsafe products, and their reforms can raise
expectations about full recovery that jrrsc cannot
be reasonably met {Fattah. 1.936}. It is even possible
that what was formerly a grassroots. movement run
by volunteers who solicited donations has
metamorphosed into a virtual victim industry." it
engages in a type ofmass production. churning out
newly identified groups of victims by dwelling on
kinds of suffering that can arise from noncriminal
sources such as bullying. emotional abrrsc. sexual
harassment, sexual addiction. eating disorders. and
credit card dependency (Best. WWII.
Stage 4: Research and Temporaryr
Rut-simian of Dispute:
]t is during the fourth and last stage ofthe rediscov
ery process that victimologists can make their most
valuch contributions. By getting to the bottom of
unsolved mysteries and by intervening in bitter
conflicts victimologists can become a source of
accurate assessments. helping to evaluate competing
claims issued by those who. assuming the worst.
generate high estirtrates. and by those at the oppo
site end ofthe spectrum who downplay threats and
come up with very low estimates.
During Stage 4. a standoff. deadlock. or truce
might develop between victims advocates who
want more changes. and their opponents who re
sist any further reforms. Iiut the fourth phase is
not necessarily the final phase. The findings and
policy recommendations of neutral parties such as
victimologists and criminologists do not settle
questions once and for all. Concern about some
type of victimization can recede from public consciousness for years to reappear
only when social
conditions are ripe for a new rediscovery cycle of
claimsmaking, reform. opposition. and temporary
resolution.
liy maintaining objectivity. victimologists can
serve as arbiters. in these heated disputes. For in
stanoe. since the early l Jiiiis. parents have been petri ed about the specter of
kidnappers spirit ing off
their children. Highly publicized cases of vicious
pedophiles abducting. molesting. and then slaying
youngsters periodically rekindle this smoldering
panic. ll-lJl: skeptics voice concerns that fears about
"stranger danger" are causing over-reactions and are
being exploited for commercial gain. .i r blueribbon
panel ofexperts convened by the US. Department
THE l lEEIISC D lr ER i" CIF CRIME VICTIMS B
ofJ ustice in the i Jii-ils and again in the late IJ Jils
sought to malte sense out ofcompecing daims about
just how often such infuriating tragedies take place
each year. The researchers concluded that killings and
longhtcrm abductions by complete strangers were.
thankfully, very rare and did not pose a dire threat to
the wellbeing ofthe next generation (see Chapteriii.
During the Nil-(ls. a series ofshocking shoot
ings by disgruntled guntoting employees. led to the
rediscovery of victims of "workplace violence." in
the aftermath of these slaughters. worried workers
insisted that employers call in occupational safety
specialists to devise prevention and protection programs noxious managers feared
expensive lawsuits
and lowered morale. Hut researchers havedetermined
that these highly publicized multiple murders acoountcd forJust a tiny Ei-aecion
ofa multiEroeted but
far less newswortlryset ofda.ngers. Most ofthe cases of
workplace violence across the country involve rob
beries. unarmed assaults. and complaints aboutstalkers
acting ina menacing way. Many incidents thatdisrupt
the smooth functioning of factories. and o ices are
not even criminal matters. such as incidents ofvcrbal
abuse. bullying, andscatual harassment (Rugala, 20114}.
(see Chapter ll).
A number ofaspccts ofthe crirrre problem have
reached Stage 4: data is now becoming available
that can be used to cty to put the publics fears
into perspective. to attempt to resolve controversies. and to evaluate the e
ecciveness of countermeasures and prevention strategies {see Dos: 1i).
REDISCOUERING ADDITIONAL
Gll lJPS OF VICTIMS
Academics, practitioners, social movements, elected
of cials. the news media. and commercial interests
continue to drive the process of rediscovery For
ward. .ir steady stream of fresh revelations serves as
a reminder that neglected groups still are out there"
and that they have compelling stories to tell. unmet
needs. and legitimate demands For assistance and
M CHAPTER 2
Road Rage
R-earrh o needed to addrms widupread fears about
the chances oft-lemming a victim of road rage. Flareups between drivers with short
fuses must have been
taking placetlnce the-dorm of the automobile age. but
the rediscovery of the suffer ng caused by these spontaneous confrontations between
people encountering
one another for the first time did not take place- until
the phrase road rage" was co nc-d in the late 15505.
During the 199m. news media outlets carried many
accounts about ugly acts of freeway fury in which
cursing. seething. and stressed-out motorists were
drivc-n to dHlMli n." home it was hlgh noon on
the country s streets and highways. Drivers lost the:
ten-3m and tool: their frustrations out on each other
in nunerous strays. ranging from running their ontagonists off the road to
intentional collisions to
gunfire [sec- I uhento. 1993].
Road rage is generally defined to include all
vehicular incidents in which one driver Intentionally
injures or Itills another motorist. passenger, or pedutrian. The term also n
icludes an Infuriated driver using
his vehicle as a weapon to ottarlt someone. Those who
are injured or killed often there mponslbillty to some
degree I.Ivith the complete strangers who attack thc-m
because- the- violations of traffic laws would not have
minted into criniml matters were it not for the
victims furious merreaction to the offender s had
driving. The eruption of repressed anger by both parties initially tam the form of
shouting out some curse
or slur or the- making of an obscene guture. Angry
words over minor slighis can escalate Into assaults.
A driver who is threatened can be coroidered a victim
of harassment and if a gun Is pointed. the crime hecomes menaclng." Assaults with a
deadly weapon can
result In tragically pointless dentin. as the incident
illustrats:
late at night a car. with three young men who
had beat drinlc ng heavily. Is cut off and civic-ares
out of its late. The infuriated tilver speeds up.
pulls even with the other vehicle. and usc-t his
fingers to molie a. gesture that rc-semblos pointing
a gun and pulling the trigger. The other driver
lowers hiswindow and fatallyshoota him. He later
turns himself In. claims he acted n self-defense.
and reveals that he o: an off-duty police officer.
Halter. 200?].
As the process of rediscovery gathered momentum
during the 19905. polls revealed that many motorists
have been targets of or wlme
to acts of road rage.
Some. fearful that aggressive driving was getting mat
of hand. kept weapons in their cars for self-protection.
Researchers sifting through police- and assurance company files and news accounts
attribute-d thousands of
njur m and several hundred ninth! to outbursts by
er warriors.
After the Home Subcommittee on Surface
Transportation held hearing: about a ropon epi-
demic of auto anon-lg" that was tra oforming the
nation s roodwdys Into crime scene-t. state legislatures
pasted tough new laws against recklessly aggressivedrlv u ig. Police departments
and state highway patrol
agencla devised new ways of monitoring and video
taping incidents and accidents and enforcing traffic
laws. Awareness and education campaigns were devolopod by the National Safety
Council. the MA
Foundation for Traffic Safety. assurance companies.
and government agencies such as the National
Highway Traffic Safety Administrations. In the midst of
all this publicity. however. skeptics argued that statistirs showed that the
numbers of accidents. highway
deaths. and crash-related Injuries actually store trendisg downward, especially
when the increases in the
number of drivers. reg otered vehicles. and the total
miles trove-led were taken Into account. Perhaps the
problem had been blown way out of proportion by
iournalists engaging In media mationalism. voteseeklng politician s. userapisrs
Iooltlng to profit from
heigrtened fears of a newly recognized emotional
d oorder." and lobbyists represent-1g publ icity~hungry
agencla 2nd aosociations bec- Drlverscom staff. 1557:
rumento, 1995,- Rothbone and Huckabc-e. 1999;
Henna-say and wiesenthal. 2002; and Rising rage.
EDBEII.
The problem for victimologists is that the definition of road rage has expanded for
beymd the original
narrow notion of violence on heels. flow soveralweb
situ welcome postings by people infuriated by
encounters [and sometimes accidents] triggered by
aggressive. inconsiderate. rude. tare-less. or just plain
nc-pt drive-rs who cut them off, honkod inccssonw.
broiled hard without warning. or toilgatod. These
might be annoying violations of traffic ordinances. but
they don t rise to the level of criminal matters. anti the
aggrieved parties are not victims of violence- or Intentional property destruction.
The tank for victimolog dfs
E to sort through this colIc-ction of accounts about bad
drlv ng and sift out the incidents of intentional collisions, assaults, shootingsr
and even murders in order to
45 CHAPTER 2
SUMMARY
Victinmlogiso. an: social scientists who
seriirl:
For objectivity when studying the characoetistics 0t"
victims. the suffering they endure. their reactions
on choir plight. their interactions with offenders.
and the way ushers [such as journalists. elecoed
of cials. and [ample allied with social movements
4! CHAPTER 2
ID! 2.1
a
Sources of Information
about Crime Victims
The UCR and the NCVS
Crime i1 the Streets: The Big Picture The FRI": Uniform Crime Report
the Use- andnatrse of tatis tr cs tuctn
interpreting Statistic The 315 : National Crime
Victimization Survey {NCVSII
19 TW ( lial 59W! Comparing the ucn and the new
of Victimization Data
A First Glance at the Big Picture:
Looking at the FHl s Crime Clock
Using Data to Bring the Big Ficuare
inbr Focus
Summary
CRIME IN THE STREETS: THE BIG PICTURE
Victimologists {Hillel and interplet data to answer questions such as: How many
people are harmed by criruinah each year? How Iapidly are the ranks of people
who have surl eled misr onunes glowing? nd. a matter or particular concern.
which gloups are talgeted the rue-n and. the least often? Researchers want to
find out where and when the nujoricy of crimes occur. wItetIteI predators on
the plow] intimidate and subJ Ugate their pley with weapons and it so. what kinds
of weapons. Victirnologists also want to determine wItetIteI individuals are at
tacked by complete strangers oi people they Itnow. and how these intended tar
gets act when confnanted by assailants. What plop-onion tly to escape or ght
back. how nuny are injured. what percentage need to be hospitalized. and
how Inuch money do they typically lose in an incident?
51
52 tnAPtER 3
The answers to basic questions like these. when
taken together. constitute wltac can be termed the
big picturean overview of what is really happening across the United States during
the First de
cade of this new century. The big picture serves as
an antidote to impressions based on direct but limited personal. experiences. as
well as sellserving
reports. circulated by organizations with vested in
terests, misleading media images, etude stereotypes.
and widely held myths. But putting together the
big picture is not easy. Compiling an accurate por
trayal requires caie rl planning. formulation of the
right questions. proper data-collection techniques.
and insightful analyses.
Until the lJ TIils. l e w el l orts were made to routinely monitor and
systematically measure various
indicators of a victim s plight. 1n the IJHils. a great
many social scientists and agencies were conducting
tlte research needed to bring the big picture into fo
cus. By the 1.990s. all sorts ofspecialiiiterest groups
began keeping count and disseminating their own
estimates about the suffering of a wide variety or
victims. indudiiig youngsters wounded at school.
college students hurt or killed on campus. children
reported missing by their parents. and people singled
out by assailants who hate their "kind."
Most of the statistics and analyses presented in
this chapter concern the dreaded crimes ofmurder
and robbery. Statistics about murders are more
complete. consistent [over time and from place to
place). aocurate. and detailed than those for any
other crime. Robbery statistics are far less precise
and reliable but are so ll eatoemely important be
cause holdups rel the public s fears about strangers
committing crime in the streets.I Uther street
crimes. involving violence (assaults) or stealing {bur
glaries. vehirdc thefts) will also share the locus of
attention in this chapter.
The Ilse and Abuse of Statls liu.
Statistics are meaningful ntutihers that reveal
important unfonriatioit. Statistics are oI crucial importance to social scientists.
policy analysts. and decision
makers because they replace vague adjectives siach as
many." "moist," and tests" with precise numbers.
(Iriminologiscs and victimologists botli gather their
own datatomalte their own calculations, or they sena-
tiniae n eial statistics compiled and published by
government agencies. 13y collecting. computing. and
analyzing scatisties.victiiiiologasi1can derive answers to
the intriguing researclt questions they itiust tarJtle.
Accurate statistics about crimes and victims are vital
because they can shed light on a number ofiiiiportant
111m!
I Statiso cs can be calculated to estimate vim
eimizatioin rates, which are realistic assessments of threat levels that criminal
activities
pose to particular individuals and groups. What
are the chances or odds various categories ol
people Eice oi get ting harmed during a certain
time period. such as a year. or even over an
entire lifetime? Coons {such as death tolls). or
better yet. rates (per lilil.il[Hl people per year)
can provide answers to these disturbing
questions.
Statistics can expose patterns ol criminal activity. l atteriis re ect predictable
relationships
or regular occurrences tltac show up during an
analysis of the data. For instance. a search for
patterns in the data could answer these questions: Do murders generally occur at a
higher
rate in urban neighborhoods than in suburban
and rural areas? Also. is homicide a bigger
problem year after year in the South than in
other regions oE the country? Are robberies
committed more often at certain locatimis than
others and more often against men than
women?
I Statistical ends can demonstrate how situations have changed as time goes by. ls
the
burden of crime intensifying or subsiding as
years pass? .iire the dangers of getting killed by
robbers increasing or decreasing with each
successive year?
I Statistics can provide estimates ol tlte costs and
losses imposed by illegal behavior. For exam
ple, insurance companies can determine what
premiums to charge their customers based on
SOURCES. UFINFDlM TION ABOUT CRIME VICTIMS 53
calculations of the average financial expenses
suI lered by motorists whose cars are stolen.
I Statistics can be used for planning purposes to
project a rough or ballpark gure I of [tow
many people are likely to need assistance in the
immediate future. Law enforcement agencies,
service providers, and insurance companies can
anticipate the approximate size of their caseloads for the following year if they
know ltow
many people were harmed the previous year.
I Statistics also can be computed to evaluate the
eil ectivienets of criminal justice operations. and
to assess the usefulness of recovery ell orts and
prevention strategies. rire battered wounenliltely
to lcad safer lives after their violent mates are
arrested? HOW well are police departments do
ing in rewriting stolen property to burglarized
households? IJoes installing a car alarm with a
ashing red warning light really deter thieves?
I Finally. statistical pro les can be assembled to
yield an impression of whac is usual or typical
about a victim in terms ofcharacteristics such as
seat. age. and racer ethnicicy. For example. is
there any truth in the stereotype that most of
the people who die violently are young men
from troubled families living in povertystricken big-city neighborhoods? Also.
statistical portraits can provide a reality clteck to help
ground theories that purport to explain why
some groups experience higher rates of predation than others. For example. if it
turns out
that the frail elderly are robbed less often than
teenagers, then a theory that emphasizes the
physical vulnerability of robbers targets will be
oHbasc or incomplete as an explanation of
which groups suffer the moist and why.
Interpreting Statistics
Cynics joke that stau stics can be used by special
irrteresc groups just like a lamppost is used by a
dnrnkardfor support rather than for illtunination.
Ullicials. agencies. and organizations with their
own particular agendas may release statistics to
influence decision makers or the public. Alarming
gures can be circulated by law enforcement
agencies to support their argtune-nts at budget hearings that more personnel,
equipment. and money
are needed to better protect and serve the public.
Dther numbers can be used to reduce fears and to
demonstrate that those in charge are doing their
jobs well, such as tracking down murderers or pre
venting robberies. Their opponents will cry to make
the contrary point by releasing numbers that seem
to indicate that the crime problem is getting worse
and that the incumbents are incompetent at ooiit
bao ng crime and need to be replaced. Statistics
might also be cited to prove that existing laws and
policies are having the intended cll ects (such as installing surveillance cameras
reduces the number of
robberies] or, conversely, to persuadc people that
the old methods are not working and new ap
proaches are necessary.
interpretations of mathematical ndings can be
given a spin that may be debatablefor example,
emphasizing that a shelter for battered women is
lqu empty rather than half : ull." or stressing
how much public safety has improved. as opposed
to how much more progress is needed be are
street crime can be considered under control. As
useful and necessary as statistics are. they should
always be viewed with a healthy dose of scienti c
skepticism.
Although some :inistakes are honest and unavoidable. it is easy to "lie" with
statistics by using
impressive and scienti c-sounding numbers to manipulate or mislead. Whenever
statistics are pre
sented to underscore or clinch some point in an
argument. their origin and interpretation must be
questioned. and certain methodological issues
must be raised. What was the source of the data.
and does this organization have a vested interest in
shaping public opinion? re different estimates
available from other sources? 1What kinds ofbiases
and inaccuracies could [rave crept into the collection and analysis ofthe data? How
valid and precise
were the measurements? How were key conoepts
defined and measured ("operatioiialized")? What
was included and what was excluded. and why?
For example. oIlicials in New York. like to ateiact tourists by pointing out that
it is the safest big
54 tnAPrER 3
city in merica. That claim has been true since the
late 1.990s [see Karine-n. Eilff ji and even was accurate for 2EIII]l because the
terrible death toll from
the September ll terrorist attacks on the 1World
Trade Center. in which more than 2.?IJEI people
perished. was not counted by the FL in its oflicial
calculation of New York Citys murder rate [evi
dcntfy. its rate of ordinary" murders). However.
the body count of [fig deaths resulting from the
bombing oftlte Oklahoma City federal building by
homegrown terrorists in 1995 was added to the
number of "ordinary" homicides that year. making
it look like that urban area was an exceptionally
dangerous place. To make definitional matters even
more complicated. the six people who were killed
fiom a blast in the underground garage in the first
terrorist attack on the World Trade Center in 1.993
were counted as murder victims by the FBI.
Victimologists committed to objectivity try to
gather and interpret statistics without injecting any
pardctdar "spin" into their conclusions because fit is
hoped] they have no art to grind" other than en
lightening people about iiiyrlrs and realities sur
rounding thc crime problem.
THE TWO OFFICIAL SOURCES
OF UICTIMIZATIOII DATA
As early as the ltiilifs, public officials began keeping
reoorids about crimes to gauge the "moral health"
ofsociety. Then. as now. high rates ofinterpersonal
violence and theft were taken as signs of social
patltologyindications tltac something was desperately wrong with the way many
people interacted.
Sets of yearly data. were compiled to determine
whether illegal activities were being brought under
control as time passed. This monitoring of trends is
even more important today than it was then , over
the centuries many innovative but intrusive and ex
pensive criminal justice policies intended to curb
crime have been implemented.
Two government reports published annually
contain statistical rim that enable victimologiso. to
monitor trends. The Federal Liureau of lnvesrigation s
Urig fiirm (.ririrr Report: (.ri rirr iii the United States.
is a massive compilation of incidents known to
police departments across the country. This virtual
"bible" ofcrime statistics is older and better known
than the other official source. the liureau of
justice Staciscies Mantel [ Ilr iric kirrr nrizuriwr Sump.thiirrr riiri Vi rri
iiiir ziiir aii in the Ir iir reri Shires. which is a
compilation of incidents voluntarily disclosed by vic
tims to interviewers. Bodi ofthese of cial sourees of
facts and figures about crime and its victims are dis
seminated each year by the US. Department of
justice in Washington. IJ.EI. Each of these government data-collection systems has
ll l ii. own strengths
and weaknesses in mm ofproviding the information
victimologists are seeking to answer their key
questrons.
The establishment of a second. independent
reporting system to measure the amount of street
crime in contemporary hmerican society initially
appeared to be a major breakthrougli in terms of
bringingth bigpicture into sharpcrfocus. In theory.
the federal government s two monitoring systems
should support and confirm each other s findings.
lending greater credence to all oflicial stacistics published for the public s bene
t. But in practice, estimates from the Urg arm Crime 112er IUCR} and
the Madeira! Crime We mizirnorr Survey {NCVSJ
have divergedsubstancially for particular categoricsof
offenses and terrain briefstretchcs oftime.
On occasion during the l JJ IIs and l ififls. victimieacion rates appeared to go up
according to the
UEIR but down aocording to the NYSE/ 5 , or vice
versa, as a number of graphs presented later in this
book will show (see Chapter 4 in particular}. This
lack of close oorrc-spondence (technically speaking.
this absence of a very strong positive correlation)
caused confusion and touched o debates about inaccuracies among victimologists
criminologists.
and criminal justice professionals (sec Lynch and
Addington, ZIJEITJ. The divergenoe enabled some
interest groups to oontend that .rrmerica s street
crime problem was getting worse, while their opponents could marshal evidence from
the other
reporting system to argue that the situation was
improving. During the second half of the lJJIls.
SOURCES. UFINFDRMATIDN ABOUT CRIME VICTIMS 55
trend lines drawn From tlte data from both government agencies were in synch.
confirming that an
across-the-board decline in criminal activity was
taking place throughout the country. However.
the two reporting systems again gave out con icting signals concerning short term
trends in certain
oll enses during the early years of the twentyfirst
century, yielding dill erent impressions about whether
the "big pittum" was relatively stable or slowing
changing.
A First Glance at the Belg Plenary.- Looking at
the FBI s Crime Clock Statistics never speak for
themselves. Numbers must always be scrutinized
carefully and placed within context. or put into
one
who! trite
every 22 seconds
Ef e
crime Indalo ense
every 3 sec
One
ptnptrtytrln ie
every isettntls
CINE
Wight
every 14 seconds
Brie
larceny- rth
every 5 seconds
tvtryl seconds
Brie
mumrvtflldelhtft
56 CHAPTER 3
into the number of seconds {1 10 x on as 2-1 x 365 =
3|.536,1]EHJJ orminutes{(:[f X 2-1 X 365 = 515.ft[]ff] in
an entire year. For instance, during BEING, about
1.10fo people were slain in the United States. The
calculation {515.Ift ff].-[l3 , [flf]:| = 3| indicates that
approximately every 3i minutes one American was
murdered that year CED], ZIIIIIITI].
Just a glance at this chart alerts even the casual
reader to its chilling message. The big picture it
portrays is that crimes of violence (one every 22
seconds) and theft (one every three seconds] are
all too common. As the Crime Clock ticks away.
a stream of casualties flows into morgues. hospital
emergency rooms. and police stations throughout
the land. Practically every moment somewhere in
the United States another person is experiencing
what it feels like to be harntcd by a criminal.
These grim reminders give the impression that being victimized is virtually
inevitable. it seems to be
just a matter of time before one s number is
called" and disaster strikes. Sooner or later, it will
be every hmericans "turn" so it appears.
The FBI [Hill-i: 141 offers a disclaimer that
points out that crimes do not take place with such
rigid predictability. The Crime Clock should be
viewed with care. The most aggregate representation of UHF. data, it conveys the
annual reported
crime experience by showing a relative frequency
of occurrence of the Part ] index offenses [referred
to as "street crimes" in this teatdiook. see below]. it
should not be taken to imply a regularity in the
commission of crime. The Crime Clock represents
the annual ratio ol crime to fixed time intervals." In
other innards, the FIi-I s Uniform Crime Reporting
Division is reminding the reader that in reality the
number of offenses carried out by lawbreakers ebbs
and ows, varying with the time ofday, day ofthe
week. and season. These frequencies represent proJcctions over the course of an
entire year and not
the actual timing of the attacks.
Because the Future seems so ominous. this
Crime Clock mode of presentation ltas inherent
sltock value. it lends itself to media sensationalism.
fearmongering political campaigns. and marketing
ploys. Heightened anatieties can be exploited to
garner votes and. to boost the sales ol bu rglar alarms
\Ir hen reading Table 3.]. not: that the de nitions are parallel but not idenucal.
Recall that the
NCIS and (ICE victimization rates are not directly
comparable. I Itesmndarddenominators for the Ii l IR
C rne
HER Dell-Milan
mm
late (per routine]
Mu der
FIBICIIHE Rape
Robbery
Aggravated
Assault
Sinqale Assault
Personal Larceny
Burglary
Larceny-Than
Motor Vehicle
Theft
The willfdtnonnegllgent] klllingofone human be ng
by another: Includes manslaujtterand deathrcluetio
recklessness; m5 dead-u due toarcidents.
sulcide-s. andjustiflable homicldec in self-defense.
The carnal knowledge ol a. female forcirly and
against her wlll; incl-ides attempts,- excludes other
sexual assaults and statutory rape.
The talc-so of or atternptlng to take anything of
valuefrom thecare. cmtody. or control ofaperson
or persons by force or threat of force; include-5
commercial utablishments and carjacklng. armed
and unarmed.
The mlawful attadting of one person by another
for the purpose of Inflicting severe bodilyI injury.
olten by use of a deadly weapon; Includes
attempted murder and severe- h-eatinga of family
members; occlude-r simple. unarmed assaults.
Ilo weapon coed. minor wounds infllcted
Not a separate category
The mlawful entry of a structure to commit a
felony or thel1.- Includes mlawful entry without
applylng force to resldences and commercial and
government premises.
The tnlanrfultalting. carryingleadlng or ricisgaway
ol property Irom the posse-salon ofanother; includes
purse snatchlng. pocket plckng. thefts fronts-erodes.
thefts of partsofvehicIesandrhoplilt Isgenchdes
the ureol force orfraud to obta n possessions.
The thelt or attempted drivlng away ol a vehide;
include: automoblles. truclu. limes motorcycles
snotwnoblles. and commercially owned rehlcles;
encludes farm machinery and boats and planes.
HIDE}
93.0110
not measured
not rneasu ed
LIB-LINN]5.6010)
1.1510!5.?
31
19
253
not computed
not computed
1 29
2.20?
353
CI IM
NCLI S Defitition
attidenla
lute Ipor tantrum
NIL- ler
Flap-e
Not included in use-surrey
Thecarnal knowledge ofamaleor female througs
the use of force or threats of rlolence; Includes
attempts as Itroll ac vernal threats: excludes :eaual
contacts and statutory rape.
not measured
orerall 192.0110
completed 11?.EIDI]
attempted 36.000
not computed
ED
SD
3|]
66 CHAPIER 3
TAIL! 3.1
[Mlllled]
Clil I le
m DeI Iidll
Incidents
Ilole [per limos]:
Sexual Assault
Flowery
Aggravated
Assault
Simple Assault
Personal Thelt
Household
Euglary
Thelt
Motor Vehicle
1helt
The imposition ol unwanted semi contact {grahblng. Iondliigi with or IrtritJI rrout
force: nclucles
attempts and threats: excludu molestations of
children under 11.
The taking directly from a person oi property or
cash by loroe or threat oi force with or without a.
weapon; includes attempts.- eircluzles commercial
establishments.
The attacking oi a person Irrith a weapon.
regardless of Irlirliether an injury is stetained:
includes attempts as Irtrell as attadts without a
Iweapon that result In serious injuries; escluoes
severe physical abut! ol children under 12.
The attackiig of a person Iriithout a weapon
resulting In rninor wounds or no physical Injury;
includes attempts and lntralamily violence.
The tllelt of cash or possessions from any place
other than the vict m s home or its immediate
IrIlitinity wluiout the use of force or threats;
includes pocket picking and puse matchan as
well as attempts.
memlawlul entryol a residence. garage. or shed.
usually but not always for the purpose oi melt,includes attempts: excludes
commercial or governmental premises.
The tllelt of property or cash without contact:
includes attempts to take unguarded possessions
as mall at lamenievs comitted by persons invited
into the home.
The driving away or taking Irtritl rrout authorisation
ol any household s motorised uelilcle, includes
attempts.
overall 59.0w
ovemll "3.11m
completed HEADNattempted 23D.DDD
ovemll 13qu
overall 3.??1Dm
overall 113.1101
overall 31551309
completed 2.E-IE.I:IDD
attempted i13.DDll
overall 14353.0)
overall 391.00:
in
HE
L530
Till
3320 lpef 1E|E|.|2||2|D
households]
LIN
ll]
12.190
WE.uh
in nu;- ool add no b mlaln uumolrauodiry-rrm
AI will are m;
AI MM rate-we rounded on La the Mthl1a.
"Ea! mites min multiplied is,- 100 lumi
toms-rites! 1m
like.
Lioth sources ofdata expose a widely believed
myth. Contrary to any false impressions gained
from newsmedia coverage and television ormovie
plots. people suffer from violent crimes much less
frequently than from property crimes. Every year.
theft [a broad catch-all cancgory} is the most common crime of aLl. Burglaries are
the seoond most
common form oi" victimization. and motor vehicle
thefts rank tltird. According to NCIS findings. thefts
of possessionsthe stealing of iucms left unattended
outdoors plus property or cash taken by someone
invited into the home. such as a cleaning person or
guesttouched an estimated ]2.l )i] out of every
liJEII.EHI|ll households. or roughly I2 percent in
211043. Fortunately. this kind of victimimtion turns
out to be die least serious: most ofthese cases would
be classified as petty thefts inflicting expenses ofless
than $250. The NCVS finding about how common
thefts are each year is con rmed by the UIEJR.
Larocnies of all kinds [inchrding shoplifting til-om
stores in the HER definition] vastly outnumber all
other types of crimes reported to police. These everyday thefts when added mgether
cost individuals
and stores about $51: billion in 21th. Financial losses
from burglaries of residences and commercial prop
erties added up In $4 billion that year.
As for violent crimes. fortunately a similar pat
oern emerges! The most common is the least serious
type. Simple assaults [punching kicking. and slap
ping] are far more liltelyto take place than aggravated
assaults, robberies. rapes. or murders Aggravated assaulll. which are intended to
seriously wound or kill.
ranlsedsecond in frequency on the NEVER. According
Do the E. (2R.aggravated or feloniousassa ults werethe
most common type ofviolent offense reported to
the police, but that is because the tr t JR doesn t
monitor the number of simple assaults committed.
Only the number of arrests for simple assaults, not
the number of incidents. appears in Part ]I of the
USE: NIBRS keeps traclt of both statistics but a
nationwide tally is not yet possible.
Robberies talcc place much more ofucn than
rapes. The NCIS keeps track not only of rapes
but also of other sexual assaults {fondling. grabbing,
even verbal threats to do so). Unfortunately, more
than halfofthe rapes disclosed to the NIEIVS interviewers were compleucd acts. and
not attempts. The
smaller HER estimate of the total number of
incidents indicates that many rape victims lwho dis
closed their problemsto interviewers were not will
ing to bring their plight to the atucncion of police.
Also. the [ICE only counts forcible rape-s of girls
and women but not sexual assaults against boys or
men. Both sources of data agree that rapes take
place much less often than nonscxual assaults or
robberies.
n analysis of the "big picture" indicaocs. that
the most terrible of all violent crimeshomicide
is the least likely of all to be committed. according
Do lr t lR data. But because the consequences of kill
ings are so devastating. murders {and robberies that
potentially could cscalaoc into slayings) will be the
focus of the neat: chapter.
SUMMARY
Statistics. can convey important information about
crimes and their victims. but consumers of nuineri
cal data mustascertain exactly what was counted hornI
accurate the measurements are. and whether vested
inuerests are promoting particular interpretations.
The two leading sources of data about crime victims published annually by the US.
Department of
Justice are the FBJs [fulfil-ms Crime Report and the
1315 s Nirrr wrrri Chime Vir rirun errriorr Surrey. The {HER
draws on police files and is useful to victimologists
6! CHAPTER 3
who want to study murders, but it is oflimited value
Ior research into other kinds of victimiutions. The
NET/S oontains information about a wider range of
violent and property crimes and gthers data direcdy
Irom members of a large national sample who answer
questions about their experiences over the past six
momhs. Victimization rates are expressed per Hill]
in the NCIS orper ll Kill ll in the LICK in facilitate
fair comparisons between groups, cities. or countries
of different sizes.
IIE IIII TEIIM 5
big picture. 52 spin. 53 Crime (Iloclt. 55 range [con dence
statistics, 52 [In irmr Crime Report index crimes, 5H interval}, (2
of cial statistics, 5] NIGEL 54 hierarchy rule. 58 W numbers, 5
victimization rates, 52 MIWWI Crime self-report survey. iii] 35- ( 4
Ir i riiirriz-ritr nn Surrey
{Nt IlS}. 54
correlation. 54
patterns. 52
trends. 52
profiles. 53:
memory decay. (:2
forward telescoping. r12
QUESTIONS FOII DISCUSSION AND DEBATE
1. Choose some statiso cs presented in this chapter
and interpret them in two ways: first, make
them seem as alarming as possible: and second.
portray them as reassuring as possible.
2. What kinds of data about crime victims can be
found in the Fli-Is annual [Inij bnn Crime
Reports? What are the sources ofinaccuracies in
these statistics?
3. Wluc kinds of data about crime victims can be
found in the li_[S s annual Mtr amil Crime
Victimization Surrey? What are the sources of
inaccuracies in these statistics?
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS
1. What information about crime victims is not
systemacically collected by the [EUR and the
MCI/.1 or even the NiBllS? Why would this
additional information be important? How
could it be used?
2. Make up some hypothetical soenarios in which
people with a vested interest in convincing the
public that victimization: rates are either going
up or going down oould "shop around" for
LICK or MCI/"S statistics about robberies and
burglaries to support their claim.
SOURCES UFINFDlM TIDN ABOUT CRIME VICTIMS 59
SUGGESTED RESEARCH PROJECTS
Find out the latest rates per 1.[HJ.lI{JII people for
the index crimes for your home state by
searching the Fiji website that posts the [JLR
statistics. 1What crime rates are substantially
higher or lower in your state than for the entire
United States (as shown in Table ll]?
Find out the definitions and the precise wording
of the questions that are asked in the NCVS
by downloading the survey inscnament from the
HTS website. Discuss how the inquiries about
aggravated assault. rape. and other sexual assaults
are phrased and how respondents might be
confused or unclear about how to answer these
questions.
%
Violent Crimes:
Murders and Robberies
Focusing on Murders Checking Out Whether More
Using the UCR Robberies Arie Turning into
Murders
to Analyze Murders
Searching for Crime Waiter: Differential Risk: of Being
Detecting Trends in Interpersonal Robbed
Glam-T Pruieeting Cumulative Risks
:22? E" m "1 Murder The Search for Risk rat-ms
Changes over Time in Aggravated The Deterrninani: of
53" a :fif il l ; and Liferqales
Uncovering Ivictimization Patterns Reducing Risks:
Making International How 53m 3 531:9 EVEN- 99:?
[Umlmm Ambivaience about Risk Taking
listening Comparative Risks: Putting From Crime Prevent-fan to
Crime in! PEEPEEIW E Victimization Prevention
Focusing on Robberies Criminals as Victims
Robbers and Their Ii ictin irs Deterrence Theory
Using the NM as Applied to Ii ictinis
to Analyze Robberies Summary
FDCUSING ON MURDERS
This chapter focuses on people hanncd by vinieitt ori eiiders. especially by ino
rdercrs and robbers. {The plight of those who suffer :it the lursds of rapists wi
ll he
7-D
examined in Chapter IU.} Data from the {ICE and
the NEE/S will be used to answer a sec of unsecding questions:
I What are the odds ofbeing attarJted during any
given year? Annual incidence rates reveal the
risks faced by large numbers ofpeople.
What are the chances that a person will be
harmed by a criminal at least once during his or
her lifetime [not just in a single year}?
Cumulative rirltt estimate these odds by
projecting current situations into the future.
Does violent crime burden all eorrutt unities and
groups equally. or are sonte types ofpeople
more likely than others to be physically injured
and killed? Diii ertntiel. risks indicate the odds
of an unwanted event taking place for minbers of a social grouping [for example:
urban,
suburban. or rural residenix}.
[s violence a growing problem in rimeriean
society. or is it subsiding . Trend analysis
provides the answer.
Which dreaded event is an individual more
likely to directly experiencean accident. an
illness, or a crime? Comparative risks assess
the relative threats posed by eaelt kind of mis
fortune to members of their group (for exam
ple. the chances of being murdered versus the
odds ofdying in an automobile crash for
teenagers).
[s the threat of crime as serious a problem in
other societies as it is in the United States?
Intematiorial comparisons enable research
ers to rank oouncrics according to their homi
cide rates.
Ushg the tim to Analyze Murders
Murder is the rrrost terrible crime of all because it
inflict. the ultimate harm and the damage cannot
be undone. Thelcrsssiifferedby the departed persons
survivors is total and. irreparable. iiuc the social
reaction to the taking ofa person s life varies dramatieally. It is determined by a
numberoffaetors. among
them the state s laws. theoffender s state of mind, the
VIOLENTCI IIMES: MURDERS AHDRDEBERIES 1
deceased s possible contribution to the escalation of
hostilities, thesocialstandingol cachparty. where the
crime was committed, how the person was dispatched. and whether the slaying
attracted media
coverage. Some murders malte headlines, while
others slip by virtually unnoticed except by the
next of kin. Some killings lead to the execution of
the perpetrator. others ruled to bejuscifiable hoiiii
cides result in no penalty and possibly even approval.
Homicide is broadly defined as the killing of
one human being by another. Not all homicides are
punishable murders. .Irll murders are socially defined:
the determinations are carried out by legislators.
police o lcers and detectives; prosecutors and de
fense attorneys. judges and juries. and even the
media and the public s reaction to someone s demise.
Deaths caused by carelessness and accidents are not
classi ed as murders (aldtough if the damage was
foreseeable. diey might be prosecuted as manslaugh
ters:|. .rscts involving the legitimate use of deadly
force in selfdefense whether carried out against
felons by police officers or by private citizens under
attack {see Chapter 13). are also excluded from the
body counts. as are courtsanctioned executions.
The law taltes into account whethera killing was
carried out intentionally {with "express malice"]. in a
rational state ofrrtind ["deliberate"), and with advance
planning {premeditation"). These defining characteristics of rstdcgree murders
carry the most severe
punisluiienu. induding [dependingon the state} execution or life imprisonment
without parole. Killing
eertain peoplepolice o iters. corrections olficers.
judges. witnesses; and victiiits during rapes. kidnap
pings. or robberiesmay also be capital o enses.
ii homicide committed with intent to in ict
grievous bodily injury {but no intent to kill] or with
extreme recklessness ("depraved heart"] is prosecuted as a second-degree murder. A
homicide oommitted in the "sudden heat ofpassion" as a result of
the victim s piovocations is considered a "voluntary"
{or first-degree) manslaughter. The classic example is
"the husband who comes home to find his wife in
bed with another man.I .rr negligent killing usually is
created as an "involuntary" (seconddegree) malt
slaughter. or it may not be subjected tocriminal prosecution at all.
1 2 time-ten -t
Second-degree murder is not a capital crime
and cannot lead to the dcatlt penalty. Offenders
convicted of manslaughter are punished less severely than those convicted ofmurder.
"iome types
ofslayings have special names [see Holmes. 1994):
infanticide (ofa newborn by a parent). iilicide {ofa
child by a parent or stepparent). parricide (ofa par
ent by a child]. domestic or intirrtate partner homi
cide {of a spouse or lover). serial killing {several or
more victims dispatched one at a time over an extended pcriod). truss murder
(several people slaugh
tered at the same time and place}, felony murder
[committed during another serious crime, like robbery or rape). and contract
killing {a professional
"hit" for an agreed-upon fee).
The first criminologists who were attracted to
victimology were drawn by the interaction be
tween victims and oil enders. They were especially
intrigued by any prior relationships between the
two parties in cases of interpersonal violence. For
example. they wondered whether the killer and the
mortally wounded person had known eaclt other
[as intimates, adversaries. or casual acquaintances).
andwhcther those who wereslain shared many com
mon characteristics with their killers. They also
wanted to nd out what groups ofpeople suffered
the greatest casualties. how they perisltcd. and what
caused the confrontations that led to untimely
deaths. In otherwords. they wanted to derive a pro
le or statistical portrait of the "typical" murder.
killer, and victim.
IK E IVS interviewers ask no questions about
murders of household members. so the [ICE and
tlie reeords of coroners or rrtedical examiners are
tlie o icial sources of inlormation. HER guidelines
compel police oiiicials to lill out a Supplesuenlar-y
Homicide Report [SI-Ill.) about each killing in
dieir jurisdiction. The resulting SHR database provides iniormation about the age.
sex. and race ofthe
victim andisc detectives solved the case and made
an arrestrlie aoctiscd persons age. seat. raoe.
weapon, motive. and relationsltip to the deceased.
Data derived from the FBI sSHRs ior EUH sheds
light on these issues. HER statistics indicate that men
die violently much more frequendy than women.
Year after year, at least three-quarters of the corpses
are ofboys and men (7 3pcrcei1tii12iHlfu].Also. about
9 out of liiofthc known o iendcrs wereteenage boys
or men {JI percent of the arrestees were males in
2mm. Therefore. most murders can bc categori ted as
male-onmale. when females get killed. the murderers usually turn out to be males
(12 pereent were
in Zlill }. ("in the inlrequent occasions when lernales
kill, they tend to slay their own small children or the
men in their lives. rather than other women.
As for the race of those who were slain. the
UCR recognizes only diesc categories "white."
black." and other" (Asians) plus undetermined or
unknown." {Note that most Hispanics were counted
as whites on rlte SHILs) During 2mm. half of all
who perished [54] pereent] were black. an almost
equal proportion were wltite [in percent). and the
rcrriaining 4 percent were of other races or of unknown background. Because about
1.4 percent of
the population identifies itselfas "black I on the latest
Census surveys. violent crime is a disproportionally
serious problem in AfricanAmerican communities.
Year aft:r year. most murders uarn oLn to be intra
raeial. not interracial [see Wood. i JjiJ). Focusing
solely upon Ioneo cndcrfsinglevictim killings car
ried out during 2min, the UCR documented rliat
92 percent of black victims were slain by black offenders, and H2 pendent of white
victims were killed
by white perpetrators.
As for age. the typical victims were in their late
teens. twenties. and thirties when they were killed.
Almost twothirds [in]; percent in 2110(1) of those
who died violently were between ages [7 and 3 }.
An even higher proporo on of perpetrators fall into
this age range. As a result. many murders can be
characterized as young men slaying other relatively
young men.
For decades. the majority of killers have dispatched their adversaries with
firearmssometimes
rifles and. shotguns, but usually revolvers and pistols.
which account for about three-quarters of all gun
murders. lJcaths due tobullet wounds rose from Erlpcrcent in L JENJ to_just about 3
percent in [993.
before subsiding to fei- pcrcent in L JJH. inching
baels up to Til percent in ZlKII-l. and dipping back
down to fill- percent in 2mm. Knives and other
sharp instruments ran a distant second as the
weapons ofchoice. accounting for less than 15 percent of all deaths. The rest were
killed by blunt
instruments. fists. and feet; hands (largely via strangulation and smothering). and
other ways [explo
sioris. arson, poisons. by being pushed, and other
less-frequent means).
Speci c relationships connecting victims and
offenders can be broadly categorized to shed ligltt
on certain patterns within slayings. Three ntain cate
gories can be distinguished. The two were family
members {nudear or extended]: acquaintances. neigh
bors. or close friends (including girlfriend or boy
friend]: or complete strangers brought together by
fate. According to data fnmr police investigations
from the l JEPlls to 2EKJLI. in the most common situation (ranging from 2)
percent to Jul! percent] the offender was a friend or acquaintanoe. Killings ofone
family member by anodtcr added up to an additional
12 percent to I4 percent caclt year. Slayings by stran
gers accounted for about [2 percent to [5 percent
of cases for which the relationship could be sur
mised by detectives. Unfortunately. unsolved homi
cides "of unknown relationship" (at the time the
SHRs were submitted) ntade up the largest category.
hovering betweenJSpercent and 45 percent in recent
decades.
[f detectives could determine the victim
ofl ender relationship intltis residual grouping {which
presumably contains many diliicult-tosolve slayings by complete strangers). the
percentages due to
family quarrels and con icts with friends and acquaintances probably would be much
smaller. However.
looking only at solved cases. the old adage remains
true: tltata person is more likely to bekiLled bysome
one he or she knotss than by a stranger [only 23
percent of the known killers in EUHG). liut if the
proportion of murders committed bysctangers is rising. that would be a frightening
development be
cause it is rrtore difficult to anticipate and guard
against attacks by unknown assailants (see Riedel.
liii-TI). {SHEls are lled out shortly after killings
take place. Police departments do not send updated
reports to the UCR for "cold cases" that they solve
months or years later.}
As for the reasons for the confrontations that
claimed lives (what police departments and the FL
VIOLENTCIIMES: MURDERS AHDRDEBERIES 3
call "circumstances"). the 20m": SHlls expose some
widely held myths arising om T . shows and
movies. Of the more than JfHKJ murder victims
whose circumstances were known. only eight
were labeled as prostitutes. "Gangland killings" of
mobsters claimed I [H lives but amounted to barely
1 percent of all murders nationwide. IJrug dealer
turf battles and drugfueled brawls added another
9 percent. Killings arising
om clasltes between
rival street gangs accounted for less than 9 percent
of all murders in which the motive was known
however, the nationwide death toll for juvenile
gang killings" (motivated by or related to thc activities of a youth ga.r|g"]
added up to Etc-i in 211043,
making gang membership a risky business in many
urban neighborhoods. Robbers stolc more than
].[}ii{] lives. comprising about TI pcroent of the
body count (see Hort 4.I below for a closer examination oftltese tragedies).
However. the largest category was other argu
ments" (15 percent ofall cases solved during EUi i6}!
heated disputes of all sorts. some trivial or based on
misunderstandings. If that miscellaneous grouping
of IS percent is added to "unknown reasons" aris
ing from unsolved cases {35 peroent). then the mo
cives for half of all killings can t be meaningfully
analyzed.
in sum. it is dil licult to generalize wh y killings
typically take place. But the statistical portrait that
emerges from UCR data is of young men shooting
other young men during confrontations over some
issue that seemed important to them at the time.
Searching for Crine Waves: Deter-thy
Trends in Interpersonal Violence
Each annual report from the lr R or the NCVS
presents the latest readings on the current state of
America s crime problem. But these arejust snapshots that depict what went on
during a relatively
short time periodone calendar year. Trends refer
to changes that occur over longer stretches ofcimc.
Sharp increases in rates over several consecutive
years are commonly known as crime waves.
Downward trends indicating reduced levels of
1 4 titer-rte a
criminal activity can take place as well. Ironically.
there isn t a good term to describe a sudden yet
sustained improvement in public safety. Perhaps
the term crime trash (see Karmen, 2min) captures
the essence of such a profound and largely unexpected downturn (as a tumble in
(lit: price ofshares
on the stock market is called a crash). To bring the
big picture into focus. a crucial question that must
be answered is whether street crime is becoming
more or less of a problem as years pass.
During the I Jfriis. a major crime wave en
gulfed the country, aocording to the FBI s i J EJR.
which was the only annual souruc of nationwide
data during that decade. Since 1973. the findings
of the Bureau of _]ustice 5tatisties I JJJS) NICE/LS!
have provided an additional set of gurL-s to monitor the upward and. downward
drifts in victimization rates. Acuording to both these monitoring
systems. crime rates "crashed" during the 1990s, as
the graphs below demonstrate. Is the United States
still in the midst of this crime crash? Few social
scientists, politicians. or journalise. would declare
that the "war on crime" has been won. Liut what
do the statistics derived from the two yearly
11
government reports reveal about the level of criminal activity in recent years? An:
victimization rates
rising once again. remaining steady. or dropping
further?
Changes over Time In Murder Rates
Graphs are particularly useful for spotting trends at a
glance. Trends in homicide rates can be traced fur
ther back than changes over time for the other
crimes. The MEIR has been monitoring rnurdersince
the beginning of the I Jlils. But another source of
data. drawn from death certificates and calculated by
the National (inter n Health Statistics. can be
tapped to reconstruct what has happened since the
start ofthe century. Graphing this data. as shown in
Figure 4.1. facilitates the identification of stop increases and sharp decreases in
the homicide rate over
the decades. Longterm trends can then be consid
ered against a backdrop of major historical events
affecting the nation as a whole.
As the trend line in Figure -l.] indicates. hoini
cide rates climbed rapidly soon after the statistical
reporting system based on records from coroners
1.1 so:
are
1:
m 5 "
1, E
a 1 350 1 !
r. J
r was
t r E
C 250 3
L 5 r
. 2m .3
E ll
15:: a
i 4 E
rat:
a
50
0 0
assesses sasssassessteasersastronomer
1": I
_ I 15:5ng assault. rate + UCR aggravated mull tall:
Fl Ii Ll I E 4.2 Trendsio Aggravated howl! Rates in the Llrtlted States. 1973-20
06
NDTE: MIPS Islam ndings arliu lh-d Io. mtn lhlk with redesigned me Indy.
S l lLES: FBI A WM Homeowners. 199mm.
years into the new century. a dramatic improve
ment in the level of serious interpersonal violence
became evident from NIWS Figures. Between
109.1 (when the survey was redesigned and the rate
hit a peak) and 2mm. aggravated assaults disclosed to
Nf. VS interviewers "crashed" about (:0 percent.
LICK data show a different pattern. After years of
rising numbers ofrcports about serious attacks. cottt
plaints to the police about aggravated assaults peaked
in the early liJlls. After that. just as the r siffVS line
on the graph indicated. the level of violenee stub
sided substantially during the second half of the
1 J9lls and continued to dittunish gradually through
2mm. But unlike the Nl IlS figures. the USE rates
in 2mm were lowbut not at their lowest levels in
All years. During 2110?. reports to the police about
shootings. stabbings, and other aggravated assaults
once again drifted downward [FBI. ZlKJH].
Change: over. Tiara: in Robbery Rates Robbery
is often cited as the offense most people worry
about when they discuss their fears about crime in
the streets. Trends in robbery rates are displayed in
Figure 4.}. The {.lt JR trend line shows that robberies soared after 19?? and
peaked in 191-3]. plunged
uncil 1935. and then shot up again to record levels
in the early I JJils. After that. reports ofmugings
and hold-ups plummeted impressively until 2012.
and then leveled out during the rst decade of the
2Ist century, rising a bit in 2006 and then falling
back a little during 2[H1T{FL1I. 201m}.
The .N CJVS trend line tells a sunilar. but not
identicaL story. It indicates that the robbery rate
fell between I974 and IJ ri, rebounded until
I JKI when it hit an all-time high. dropped sharply
during the early IJEHJL but then climbed back. up
from liiHr t until I JM. lter that. the robbery rate
VIOLENTCIIMES: MURDERS ANDRDEBERIES T?
H F- UI or
mm: [per 1,000perstlnel
H
N
u.
c.
200
G
a
[101 rule (per HILMD inhabitanlsl
El
3 M3 .3
.W3 3%..
You
"a
.3" 32% .33
answers. e e se;
fsf"
.a cvslare +uctme
F IG U I. E 4.] Trends In Bellamy ora in reunited 518111. 1973-2015
ME: lick intlucla. mpourcd (ammo-Sal robberies. IIJ HM. (is ndioga itlJr
h lily inIh tin
redrairjn 1m rut-rip.
source. Fart acts. mamas. arr-rams, sariam.
ttrmbled from the second half of the walk uncil
21102. llobbery rates crashed an impressive (:5 percent between ]393 and 211112.
reaching theirlowest
levels since the NCKSI surveys beyn, before creep
ing up a little by 2111113.
The graphs depicted in Figures 4.I. 4.2. and 4.3
con rm the good news dtat violent crime rates ltavc
fallen dramatically. perhaps even crashed." from
their historically high {and politically imolerable)
levels in the early i Jjils. UCR figures for 3107
showed violent crime totals were down slightly after
inching up in 211116 {FJJL 21th. To conclude from
these graphs showing favorable trends in murders.
robberies. and aggravated assaults that the "ttlrrrst
is over" trughc be overly optimistic. however.
Certainly. interpersonal violence is not "getting otn
ofhand" or "spiraling out of control" for the nation
as a whole. although speci c oontmunicies may be
rocked by sporadic spikes in lawlessness and blood-
rl Id: tamoat
shed. No criminologist or victimologist knows for
sure what the future holds.
Predictions about future crime waves or crashes
must be based on projected changes in a number
of underlying variables. Development: in some of
these root causes are very hard to anticipate. like
the emergence ofnc w drug epidemics. perhaps in
volving methamphetamine. Other crucial variables
are difficult to measure. such as the willingness of
children of recem immigrants to maintain their
parents optimism about the American dream. And
of course. the experts don t agree about the reasons
why street crime rates rise and fall. Another crime
wave could break out or the dramatic improvement
in mericas crime problem that materialized as one
oentlury drew to a dose and another one began just
might toncinue after tlte current pause. But it is safe
1 ! crrAPtER s
to conclude that the ranks ofvietims oF violence are
not growing as rapidly as they were in the "bad old
days" of the l ifrlls. li h. l Jll-lli. and early lJ ills.
Uncovering Vielimhatlon Patmrns
Recognizing Differential Blah Victimization
rates for the entire population indicate how fre
quently murders. rapes, robberies. and assaults are
committed against "average" Americans and how
often typical" households suiFer burglaries and
motor vehicle theFts. [c is reasonable to suspect
that the chance ofbeeoming a victim is not uniform
For everyone but more likely for sortie and less
likely for others, just as different categories oF people do not face the same odds
of getting hurt
accidentallysay, From a skiing rnishapor oFcon
tracting a particular disease. such as HIVIAIIJS.
People with attributes in common such as sex and
age may be affected by crime muclt more or much
less often than others. If these suspicions can be
documented, then any overall rate that projects a
risk For all Americans might mask important varia
tions by subgroups. In other words. victimologists
must disaggregate. or break down. general victimization rates to reveal the rliii
etential. risk: Eaced by
particular categories ofpeople.
A pattern within a victimiration rate is recognizable when one category sull ers
signi cantly more
than another. The most obvious example is the incidence of rape. Females are much
more likely to
be sexually violattd tlran are males. Searching for
patterns means looking for regularities within a seemingly chaotic mass oF
inFormation and finding pre
dicrability in apparently random evenn. To discover
patterns, researchers must sort through data collected
each year about various groupings of people and
households Ilrat participated in the MCI/S survey.
Patterns can emerge when rates are calculated separately for each grouping,
especially by sex, age. race.
marital status, income class. and area of" residence.
Once a pattern has been established over the years
tlren the group s differential risks {as obscured in the
pastJ can be projected into the future. For example.
because men historically have suil ered assaults more
often than women (according to tlre annual surveys).
it can be predicted that men will Face greater risks of
being attacked than women next year and in the
foreseeable friture. unless profound social changes affecting interpersonal
violence take place.
The diilerential risks derived From victimization patients will be investigated for
the crimes of
murder and robbery.
Differential Risks of Busing Murdered As was
noted in Chapter 3. the murder rate in the United
States in aim was 5.? per l[)i],i][H]. That means that
between Five and six people ofall backgrounds were
killed. and at least 3 ).9 9-1 survived out oF every collection of 1.[|(J.ilii{i
people. This statistic captures the
odds oF being slain for the ctitious "average"
Americas]. which is a useful social construct for certain purposes {for example. to
compare risks faced lry
the average American to the average Canadian or
Mexicanj. But this composite statistic oonoeals as
much as it reveals. When the FBI compiles statistics
from SHRs and publishes them in annual U s, a
number ofstriking patterns within homicides emerge
{which should be especially alarming for those who
fall into some or all ofthe highrisk categories. and
should be somewhat reassuring for members ofotlter
groupsa. The risks ofbeing murdered vary greatly lry
region ofthe couim y. area ofresidencc {urban. suburban. or rural]. seat. age, and
race.
As for different sections oF the country. the
highest homicide rates For many years have been
found in the South (with 6.0 per ii ili