Chapter 8a

CHAPTER 8
CHEMICAL AND MECHANICAL DESIGN
8.1 Plug Flow Reactor, R-101
Reactor is considered as the most important equipment in chemical plant and also called
as heart of the design project because it is the place where reactants are convert into
products. The selection and designing the reactor are important to provide optimum
economy of the chemical industry and at the same time produce high conversion. In
Acetone production plant from Isopropanol, the reactor selected was plug flow reactor
(PFR).
8.1.1 Chemical Design for PFR, R-101
8.1.1.1 Design Method
To have a complete design of reactor, a few steps are needed to follow. The step provided
below are acting as guide to the designer to do the correct acting.
Below is the step taken for the chemical design of reactor:
Figure 8.1: Flowchart for designing a reactor
8-1
8.1.1.2 Process Design
The PFR is selected based on its function that fulfil the requirement in acetone production.
Before the reactor is proceed to design process, some assumption need to be noted. The
assumption are:
 Continues operation
 Steady state condition
 Irreversible reaction
 Adiabatic operation (no heat loss throughout the system, Q=0)
 No work shaft applied in the reactor (W=0)
 Assume an endothermic reaction
 Assume as isothermal reactor
 Assume as isobaric (no ΔP)
 The reaction is homogeneous (gas)
Table 8.1: Reactor Design Summary Equipment Specification Sheet
Table 1: Reactor Design Summary Equipment Specification Sheet

Identification: Plug Flow Reactor (PFR)
Item no: Reactor (R-101)
Function: To dehydrogenation the isopropyl alcohol to produce acetone
Number of Reactor: 1 reactor
Specifications
Design type Horizontal Vessel diameter (m) 1.20
Material of Carbon steel Vessel length (m) 4.80
3
Construction Vessel volume (m ) 5.4108
Operating Condition
Operating temp (K) 623 Number of pipe 1372
Operating pressure 1 Outside diameter (mm) 33.4
(atm) Inside diameter (mm) 30.02
Wall thickness(mm) 3.38
8-2
8.1.1.3 Chemical Design
Main reaction
CH3CHOHCH3 CH3COCH3 + H2
Operating Condition:
Reactor Type = Isothermal
Conversion of Methanol = 99%
Operating Temperature = 623 K
Operating Pressure = 1 bar
Molar Feed rate = 223.701 kmol/hr
= 3.72835 kmol/s
1. PFR Equation
dx
FA ∫ = -rA
dV
dx
V= FA ∫
-rA
2. Rate Law
-rA = kCA
Reaction Rate, k = 351000 s-1 at 623 K

Activation Energy, E = 72.38 MJ/kmol
3. Stoichiometry
CAO (1-X)
CA =
(1+ εX)
1-X
-rA = kCAO [ ]
(1+ εX)
8-3
4. Combine Item 1 and 3
FA (1+ εX)
V= ∫ dX
kCAO (1-X)
5. Parameter Evaluation
FAO
yAO =
FTO
223.701
=
308.3263
=0.7255
δ =1+1-1
=1
yAO PO
CAO =
RTO
0.7255× 1 ×1.01325
=
0.08314 ×623
= 0.01419 mol/dm3
6. Total Reactor Volume
FA 1
V= [(1+ ε) ln - εx]
kCAO 1-x
(3.72835 x 1000) 1
= ⌈(1+0.7255) ln -(0.7255 ×0.99)⌉
(351000)(0.01419) 1-0.99
= 5.4108 m3
Assume L/D = 4
8-4
πD2
V= ( )x L
4
= πD3
Therefore,
D = 1.20 m
L = 4.80 m
Total volumetric flow rate entering the reactor is:

VO = total mass flow rate = 14500.61 m3/hr
7. Tube Length Suitable Checking
Table 8.2: Dimension of Standard Steel Pipe

Nominal Outside Diameter, dO Schedule Wall Thickness
Pipe Size Number
(in)
In. mm In. mm
1 1.315 33.4 40 0.133 3.38
Therefore,
πD2O
AC =
4
=876.158 mm2
=0.000876158 m2
Length of pipe selected = 4.5 m

Volume of single pipe = 0.0039427 m3
Volume for tube in reactor = 2.545 m3
Number of tube required, N = volume for tube in reactor/volume of each pipe
= 645 tubes
8-5
Bundle diameter Db can be estimated using constants shown:
1
Nt n
Db = do ( )
K1
1032 1
𝐷𝑏 = 33.4 ( )2.142
0.319
Db = 1.17 m
Where; (E.Edwards, 2008)

K1 = 0.319
n = 2.142
8. Catalyst
Catalyst are substance that is integrated in the process to increase the rate of reaction or
in other words to speed up the process by taking part in intermediate stage of the reaction
and is liberated near the end of the reaction without changing the form of the catalyst
substance. Over a period of time, the catalyst will experience deactivation and will no
longer be efficient. The catalyst used in the fixed bed reactor Raney-Nickel catalyst. The
properties of the catalyst is shown Table 8.3 below.
Table 8.3: Raney-Nickel catalyst information
catalyst information
Surface area, SA 53m2/g
Diameter particle, dp 3mm
Pore diameter, Өd 55µm
Particle density 3.46 g/mL
Voidage, Ɛ 0.65
Volume catalyst used = 0.65 x 0.0039427 m3 x 1372 tubes

= 3.516 m3
9. Jacket Selection
Initially, simple jacket is chosen because;

a) It is least costly
8-6
b) Low power requirement
c) Less pressure drop
Less heat transfer rate is overcome by installing baffled-jacket. Further calculation will
determine whether internal and external heat exchanger is needed.
Data heat of reaction from energy balance:
Mole flow rate of Isopropanol = 223.701kmol/h

Mole flow rate of water = 84.62422 kmol/h
Feed inlet temperature,TR = 300°C
Reaction temperature,T’R = 350°C
Hot stream inlet temperature,TJ1 = 400°C
Hot stream outlet temperature,TJ2 = 302°C
Required conversion, X = 0.99
∆HoR =71.4 kJ/mol
Table 8.4: Enthalpy table for reactor (R-101) Subtance

nin (kmol/hr) Hin (kJ/mol) nout (kmol/hr) Hout (kJ/mol)
IPA 223.70 0 7.38 2245.59
H2O 84.62 0 84.62 1.819
C3H6O - - 216.31 -182.76
H2 - - 216.31 9.4213
(0-(-20768.5)+71.4]kJ
∴ ∆E = Qn = [ ]
hr
kJ 1 hr kW
=20839.9 × ×
hr 3600s kJ
s
=5.789 kW (endothermic)
Energy balance in jacket

Heat from reactor to jacket
QJ = UJ AJ (TR -TJ )
8-7
UJ =f(reaction solution, jacket fluid)→Table
100+1200 W
UJ =
2 m2 K
W
= 650 2
m K
Table 8.5: Range of Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients for Jacketed Reactor
Condition of heat transfer W/(m2K)
Gases in free convection 5-37
Water in free convection 100-1200
Oil under free convection 50-350
Gas flow in tubes and between tubes 10-350
Water flowing in tubes 500-1200
Oil flowing in tubes 300-1700
Molten metals flowing in tubes 2000-45000
Water nucleate boiling 2000-45000
Water film boiling 100-300
Film-type condensation of water vapour 4000-17000
Drop size condensation of water vapour 30000-140000
Condensation of organic liquids 500-2300
Area for molten salt in reactor,
πD2 πD2
AJ = (outer space)- (inner space)
4 4
π
= (1.252- 1.22 )
4
=0.096 m2
T' J1 + T' J2
TJ =
2
400+302
=( )℃
2
= 351 ℃
QJ = UJ AJ (T' R -TJ )
8-8
W
= 650 × 0.096 m2 ×(623- 624)K
m2 K
= -62.4 W
Specific heat for molten salt, CP = 1.53 J/g.K = 1.53 kJ/kg.K
5.789 kW= ṁCp ∆T
kJ
=ṁ(1.53) (623-624)
kg.K
kg 3600s
∴ṁ= 3.78 ×
s hr
kg
=13608
hr
This indicates that approximately 13608 kg/h of hot molten salt is to be supplied to maintain
reaction temperature at 350°C. Note that molten salt will be cooled from 400°C to 302°C
in this case.
8.1.2 Mechanical Design for PFR, R-101
8.1.2.1 Thickness of vessel reactor
For safety factor = 1.5 x operating pressure
Therefore,
Pi = 1.5 x 0.1 N/mm2
= 0.15 N/mm2
Material of construction = carbon steel, SA-516
At temperature 350 oC, design stress, S = 128 N/mm2 (online calculation tools, 2017)
Pi Di
Thickness= (ASME BPV Code (Sec. VIII D.1 Part UG-27))
2SE- 1.2Pi
N
(0.15 2)
(1200mm)
= mm
N N
2(1) (128 2 ) -0.15
mm mm2
8-9
=0.7 mm
Pi =design pressure
Di =internal diameter
S = design stress
E = maximum allowable joint efficiency
Assumption;
Corrosion allowances of the wall thickness = 2 mm
So,
Vessel thickness = 0.7 mm + 2 mm
= 2.7 mm
8.1.2.2 Head and column thickness
For standard ellipsoidal head:
Pi Di
Thickness of the head, e' =
2ES - 0.2Pi
Taking the factor E as 1.0 indicates that the joint is equally as strong as the virgin plate.
This is achieved by radio graphing the complete weld length and cutting out and remaking
any effect. The lower joint factor will result in thicker and heavier vessel.
Therefore, e’ = 0.703 mm
Vessel head thickness, t = corrosion allowance + e’
= 2 mm + 0.703 mm
= 2.703 mm
As a conclusion, ellipsoidal heads type is selected because it shows economical

consideration and less thickness required.
8-10
8.1.2.3 Weight of the vessel, Wt
8.1.2.3.1 Weight load of shell
For steel vessel, a cylindrical vessel with domed ends and uniform wall thickness can be
estimated from the following equation:
Ws = 240 x Cv x Dm x (Lv + 0.8Dm) t
Dm = Di + t
= 1.20 m + 2.7 x 10-3 m
= 1.2027 m
Cv = Internal fitting factor
= 1.08 (vessel with few internal fitting)
Lv = Length of reactor
= 4.50 m
Therefore, Ws = 4597.48 N
= 4.597 kN
8.1.2.3.2 Weight of load pipe
For carbon steel, 1 inch, schedule 40, weight of tube = 2.5 kg/m
Hence, for 1372 tubes,
WP = Number of pipes ×weight of pipe ×length ×9.81
kg
= 1372 ×2.5 ×4.5 m ×9.81
m
= 151.417 kN
8.1.2.3.3 Weight of insulation material (Wi)
Fiberglass (density = 100kg/m3) is used as insulated material. The thickness is 90 mm.
Approximate volume of insulation = π x Dm x 60 x 10-3 x Lv
= π ×1.2027 m×90×10-3 m×4.50m
= 1.530 m3
8-11
Wi = Volume of insulation material x density x 9.81
= 1.020 m3 x 100 kg/m3 x 9.81
= 1.5 kN
Double this to allow for fittings etc
= 1.5 kN X 2
= 3.0 kN
8.1.2.3.4 Weight load of fluid (shell side)
Wfs = mass flowrate (shell side) x 9.81
= 3.78 kg/s x 9.81
= 37.08 N
= 0.03708 kN
8.1.2.3.5 Weight load of fluid (tube side)
Wft = mass flowrate (tube side) x 9.81
= 14968.7 kg/hr x 1 hr/3600 s x 9.81
= 40.79 N
= 0.04079 kN
8.1.2.3.6 Weight of catalyst
Wc = density x volume
= 3460 kg/m3 x 3.516 m3 x 9.81
= 119.342 kN
8.1.2.3.7 Total weight load
Wt = W s + W p + W i + W fs + W ft + W c
= (4.597 + 151.417 + 3.0 + 0.03708 + 0.04079 + 119.342) kN
8-12
= 278.434 kN
8.1.2.4 Analysis of stress
Primary stress: Longitudinal and circumferential stresses due to pressure
𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖
𝜎𝐿 =
2𝑡
0.15 × 1200
=
2 × 2.7
𝑁
= 33.3
𝑚𝑚2
𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖
𝜎𝐿 =
4𝑡
0.15 × 1200
=
4 × 2.7
𝑁
= 16.7
𝑚𝑚2
Dead weight stress:
𝑊𝑡
𝜎𝑤 =
𝜋(𝐷𝑖 + 𝑡)𝑡
278.434 × 103
=
𝜋(1200 + 2.7)2.7
𝑁
= 127.29
𝑚𝑚2
8.1.2.5 Vessel support
Saddles support are the most commonly used support for the horizontal cylindrical vessel.
Therefore, design of saddle will be considered here. A horizontal vessel will normally be
supported at two cross sections (if more than two saddles are used the distribution of the
8-13
loading is uncertain). The total weight of the design reactor is 278.434 kN which is less
than the maximum weight of saddle support. Therefore the saddle support dimension
could be used.
The theoretical optimum position of the supports to give the least maximum bending
moment will be the position at which the maxima at the supports and at mid-span are equal
in magnitude. For a uniformly loaded beam, the position will be at 21% of the mid span, in
from each end. Thus, based on statement above, saddles position from both end:-
= (0.21 x Reactor length)
= 0.21 x 4.5 m
= 0.945 m
(The end of the vessel will stiffen the shell if the position of the saddles is less than D/4
from the ends)
The minimum contact angle suggested by the ASME Code is 1200, except for the very
small vessels, (Code Appendix G-6). For unstiffened cylinders under external pressure the
contact angle is mandatory limited to 1200 by the ASME Code (UG-29).
The diameter of vessel is 1.2 m which is around 3 feet and 11.24 inch. According to figure
2.3, the nearest diameter available is 4 feet. But because of the maximum weight of vessel
is 252,000 N which is lower than calculated weight which is 278,434 N, the size cannot be
selected. The data on diameter of 4 feet and 6 inch with maximum weight is 282,000 N is
selected.
8-14
Figure 8.2: Guideline symbol for saddle design
Figure 8.3: Symbol for saddle design (F.Megyesy, 2001)
8-15
Figure 8.4: Suggestion of measurement based on diameter of vessel
8.1.2.6 Pipe Diameter Estimation and Thickness Required
The type of material used in designing the piping is carbon steel due to the price is lower
than other materials and its properties that does not corrode when involving in the
operation. The pipe diameter and thickness will be used to determine the size and physical
characteristic of the flange.
8-16
doptimum = 260G0.5 ρ-0.37
Where;
G = flow rate, kg/s
Ρ = density, kg/m3
P x doptimum
Pipe thickness, t=
20σ+P
Where;
P = internal pressure, bar
d = pipe outer diameter
σ = design stress for carbon steel at working temperature, 128 N/mm2
i) Feed stream
Feed density at 573 K = 1.032241 kg/m3
Mass flowrate, G = 4.1578 kg/s
Optimum diameter:
doptimum = 260(4.1578)0.5 (1.032241)-0.37
=524 mm
Corrosion allowance consideration (2 mm) = 526 mm, 20.7 inch
Thus diameter = 21 inch
P x doptimum 1 x 524
Pipe thickness, t= = =0.20 mm
20σ+P 20(128)+1
Corrosion allowance consideration (4 mm) = 4.20 mm
Cross sectional area = π/4(524/1000)2 = 0.216 m2
8-17
ii) Outlet stream
Optimum diameter:
doptimum = 260(4.1578)0.5 (0.8579616)-0.37
= 561 mm
20σ+P 20(128)+1
iii) Hot molten salt feed stream

Optimum diameter:
doptimum = 260(3.878)0.5 (3.78)−0.37
=313 mm
20σ+P 20(128)+1
8-18
iv) Hot molten salt outlet stream

Optimum diameter:
doptimum = 260(3.878)0.5 (3.78)-0.37
=313 mm
20σ+P 20(128)+1
8.1.2.7 Flanges
A flange is a method of connecting pipes, valves, pumps and other equipment to form a
piping system. It also provides easy access for cleaning, inspection or modification.
Flanges are usually welded or screwed. Flanged joints are made by bolting together two
flanges with a gasket between them to provide a seal.
Pipe flanges are manufactured in all the different materials like stainless steel, cast iron,
aluminium, brass, bronze, plastic etc. but the most used material is forged carbon steel
and have machined surfaces.
In addition, flanges, like fittings and pipes, for specific purposes sometimes internally
equipped with layers of materials of a completely different quality as the flanges
themselves, which are "lined flanges".
8-19
The material of a flange, is basically set during the choice of the pipe, in most cases, a
flange is of the same material as the pipe.
All flanges, discussed on this website fall under the ASME en ASTM standards, unless
otherwise indicated. ASME B16.5 describes dimensions, dimensional tolerances etc. and
ASTM the different material qualities.
Figure 8.5: Weld neck flanges dimension
(ANSI B16.5 Weld Neck Flange, 2017)
8-20
Table 8.6: Flanges dimension of welding neck flanges
Pipe Nominal
outer size Flanged Hub ansatz Raised Bolting Drilling
diameter face Size
, OD D J b h a m g (inch) Number I k
(inch) (inch) (inch) (inch) (inch) (inch) (inch) (inch) (inch) Anzahl (inch) (inch)
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
Feed 20 20 27.50 20.50 1.69 5.6 20.0 22.00 23.00 1.25 20 1.25 25.00
508 698.5 520.7 42.9 144.5 508 558.8 584.2 31.8 635.0
Outlet 24 24 32.00 25.00 1.88 6.00 24.0 26.12 27.25 1.38 20 1.38 29.50
609.6 812.8 635.0 47.8 152.4 609.6 663.4 692.2 35.1 749.3
Hot in 12.75 12 19.00 12.00 1.25 4.5 12.75 14.38 15.00 1.00 12 1.00 17.00
323.8 482.6 304.8 31.8 114.3 323.8 365.3 381 25.4 431.8
Hot out 12.75 12 19.00 12.00 1.25 4.5 12.75 14.38 15.00 1.00 12 1.00 17.00
323.8 482.6 304.8 31.8 114.3 323.8 365.3 381 25.4 431.8
8-21
Figure 8.6: Bolt selected dimension
(FASTENER TECHNICAL DATA AND CHARTS SECTION, 2010)
8-22
8-23
8.2 Heat Exchanger, E-102
The basic concept of a heat exchanger depends on the commence that the loss of heat on
the high temperature side is precisely the same as the heat picked up in the low
temperature side after the heat and mass flows through the heat exchanger. Heat
exchanger basically exchanges the heat between those two sides as a result; it is
decreasing the temperature of higher temperature side and increasing the temperature of
lower temperature side. A part from this, flow arrangement in heat exchanger is essential
as it related to the effectiveness of the heat transfer. There are two kinds of flow
arrangement which are parallel or co-current flow and counter-current flow. A counter-flow
heat exchanger shows the direction of the flow of one of the working fluids is opposite to
the direction to the flow of the other fluid. Meanwhile, in a parallel flow exchanger, both
fluids in the heat exchanger flow in the same direction.
Figure 8.7: Parallel flow (concurrent) and counter flow (countercurrent) of heat
exchanger.
The principal types of heat exchanger used in the chemical process and allied industries,
1. Double-pipe exchanger: the simplest type, used for cooling and heating.
2. Shell and tube exchangers: used for all applications.
3. Plate and frame exchangers (plate heat exchangers): used for heating and cooling.
4. Plate-fin exchangers.
5. Spiral heat exchangers.
6. Air cooled: coolers and condensers.
8-24
8.2.1 Heat Exchanger Selection
In order to select an appropriate type of heat exchanger for the chemical plants, optimum
process operations is need by selecting and implement the right types of process
equipment. Therefore choosing the right heat exchanger is important. Below are examples
of characteristic the right heat exchanger.
Application
Costing
Available utilities
Fluid flow capacity
Accessibility for cleaning and maintenance
Considerations for future expansion
Pressure drops across exchanger
Mechanical considerations
Operating Temperature and Pressure
8.2.2 Construction Details of Shell and Tube Exchangers

The shell and tube exchanger is by far the most commonly used type of heat transfer
equipment used in the chemical and allied industries. The advantages of this type are:
1. The configuration gives a large surface area in a small volume.

2. Good mechanical layout: a good shape for pressure operation.
3. Uses well-established fabrication techniques.
4. Can be constructed from a wide range of materials.
5. Easily cleaned.
6. Well-established design procedures
Figure 8.8: Shell and tube exchanger
8-25
The extent of the individual coefficients will rely on upon the way of the heat transfer
process which is conduction, convection, condensation, boiling or radiation on the physical
properties of the liquids, on the liquid stream rates, and on the physical course of action of
the heat transfer surface. Therefore this is the steps in a typical design procedure are given
below:
1. Define the duty: heat-transfer rate, fluid flow-rates, and temperatures.

2. Collect together the fluid physical properties required: density, viscosity, thermal
conductivity.
3. Decide on the type of exchanger to be used.
4. Select a trial value for the overall coefficient, U.
5. Calculate the mean temperature difference,
6. Calculate the area required
7. Decide the exchanger layout.
8. Calculate the individual coefficients.
9. Calculate the overall coefficient and compare with the trial value. If the calculated value
differs significantly from the estimated value, substitute the calculated for the estimated
value and return to step 6.
10. Calculate the exchanger pressure drop; if unsatisfactory return to steps 7 or 4 or 3 in
that order of preference.
11. Optimize the design: repeat steps 4 to 10, as necessary, to determine the cheapest
exchanger that will satisfy the duty. Usually this will be the one with the smallest area.
8.2.3 Chemical Design for Heat Exchanger, E-102
8.2.3.1 Process Condition
In the process, E-102 was selected to describe the design. The temperature reduced from
738.9199°K to 351.203°K. The shell side was the effluent from the reactor, meanwhile at
the tube side was the acetone recycle stream that act as coolant. First step, the
temperature inlet and outlet of the cooling stream was made with temperature inlet and
outlet 293.15°K and 464.14°K respectively.
8-26
8.2.3.2 Shell and tube properties
Table 8.7: Shell properties

Inlet Mean Outlet
Temperature (K) 738.9199 545.0618 351.2037
Specific heat, Cp 69.45 65.06 60.67
(kg/kj.K)
Thermal - - 0.1152
conductivity
Density (kg/m3) 1.41163 2.3775 3.3433
Viscosity (mPa/s) 0.09 0.15 0.21
Flowrate (kg/h) 14968.13 14968.13 14968.13
Table 8.8: Tube properties

Inlet Mean Outlet
Temperature (K) 239.15 351.647 464.1445
Specific heat, Cp 108.78 92.05 75.31
(kg/kj.K)
Thermal - - 0.1032
conductivity
(W/m.k)
Density (kg/m3) 811.1091 408.627 6.145975
Viscosity (mPa/s) 0.32 0.22 0.128
Flowrate (kg/h) 13990.91 13990.91 13990.91
8.2.3.3 Heat Load

For tube side,
Q = mCpΔt
Q= 4460 kW
Where:
Q = heat load (kW @ kJ/s)

m = mass flow rate of the fluid (kg/s)
Cp = specific heat of the fluid (kJ/kg.K)
T = temperature difference between the fluid in and fluid out (K)
8-27
8.2.3.4 Overall coefficient
For this heat exchanger, the solvent are the mixture of organic solvent (IPA and acetone)
and water, hence, the overall coefficient that obtained (from ASPEN) is 850 W/m2.K.
8.2.3.5 Mean Temperature Difference (Temperature Driving Force)
Assumption made:
1. The exchanger operates steady state
2. The overall heat-transfer coefficient is constant
3. Heat loss are negligible
4. All elements of a given fluid stream have the same thermal history in passing through
the exchanger.
5. Heat loss are negligible
(𝑇1−𝑡2)−(𝑇2−𝑡1)
ΔTlm = 𝑇1−𝑡2
ln( )
𝑇2−𝑡1
where ΔTlm = log mean temperature difference,

T1 = hot fluid temperature, inlet,
T2 = hot fluid temperature, outlet,
t1 = cold fluid temperature, inlet,
t2= cold fluid temperature, outlet
(𝑇1−𝑇2)
R=
(𝑡2−𝑡1)
(𝑡2−𝑡1)
S=
(𝑇1−𝑡1)
ΔTm = Ft ΔTlm
Where ΔTm = true temperature difference, the mean temperature difference for use in the
design equation
Ft = the temperature correction factor

Assumption made for correction factor Ft:
1. Equal heat transfer areas in each pass
2. There is no leakage of fluid between shell pass
8-28
3. Constant overall heat-transfer coefficient in each pass
Therefore,
(738.9199−464.1445)−(351.2037−239.15)
ΔTlm = 738.9199−464.1445
ln( )
351.2037−239.15
= 181.41 oK
The correction factor is a function of the shell and tube fluid temperatures, the number of
tube and shell passes. It correlated as a function of two dimensionless temperature ratios.
Where, R is two dimensionless temperature ratios and P is measure of the temperature
efficiency of the exchanger.
(738.9199−351.2037)
R=
(464.1445−239.15)
=1.72
(464.1445−239.15)
P=
(738.9199−239.15)
=0.45
The correction factor for 1 shell pass and two tube passes is obtained from Figure 8.9. The
value of temperature ratio (R) and temperature efficiency (P) is plotted in Figure 3.3.
Hence, the temperature correction factor (Ft) value obtained from the curve is 0.64. From
correction factor, the true temperature difference (ΔTm) can be determined as below.
8-29
Figure 8.9: Correction factor for 1 shell and two tubes passes.
From Ft = 0.64, which is acceptable, hence,
ΔTm = 0.64 x 181.41 oK

=116.10 oK
8.2.3.5 Heat Transfer Area

Heat transfer area is calculated where, Q is heat transfer per unit time (W), U is the overall
heat transfer coefficient (W/m2.oK), ΔTm is the actual temperature difference (oK) and A is
the heat transfer area (m2). The general equation is,
Q =UoAΔTm
Where,
Q = Heat load, kW
Uo= Overall coefficient, W/m2.K
A = Heat transfer area, m2
Tm =True temperature differences
𝑄
A=
𝑈ΔTm
4460 𝑥 103
A=
850 𝑥 116.10
Area =45.204 m2 (obtained from ASPEN)
8-30
8.2.3.6 Layout and tube size
Using a split-ring floating head exchanger for efficiency and ease of cleaning, plain carbon
steel can be used for the shell and tubes as long as neither fluid is corrosive, and the
operating pressure is not high. Standard diameters for tubes are given as shown in Table
8.9 below. Use 19.05 mm (3/4 inch) outside diameter, 14.83 mm inside diameter, 5 m long
tubes on a triangular 23.81 mm pitch (pitch/diameter = 1.25).
Table 8.9: Properties and dimension of tube

Properties Dimension
Length, L 5m
Outside diameter, Do 19.05 mm
Inside Diameter, Di 14.83 mm
Tube Pitch, Pt 1.25 Do
1.25 (19.05mm) = 23.81 mm
Tube Arrangement Triangular pattern
8.2.3.7 Number of tubes

Area of one tube (neglecting thickness of tube sheets)
𝜋 19.05103 5 0.2992 m 2
Number of tubes, Nt = 45.204/0.2992 = 151.08 ≈ 152 tubes

So, for 2 passes, tubes per pass, Np =76 tubes
𝜋𝐷2
Tube cross-sectional area =
4
𝜋(14.83 X10−3 )2
=
4
= 0.0001727 m2
Area per pass = Number tubes per pass, Np x Tube cross-sectional area
= 76 0.0001727 = 0.01312 m2
13990.91 𝑘𝑔 1 ℎ𝑟 𝑚3
Volumetric flowrate = x x
ℎ𝑟 3600 𝑠 6.145975 𝑘𝑔
= 0.63234 m3/s
0.63234
Tube side velocity,UT = = 28.16 m/s
0.02245
8-31
8.2.3.8 Bundle and shell diameter
From Table 12.4, from Coulson & Richardson sixth edition handbook, for two tube
passes and triangular pitch, K1 = 0.249, n1 = 2.207,
𝑁𝑡 1/𝑛1
𝐷𝑏 = 𝐷𝑜 x [𝐾1]
152 1/2.207
𝐷𝑏 = 19.05 x [0.249]
=0.364 m
For a pull-through floating-heat exchanger, the typical shell clearance from Figure 8.10
(Coulson & Richardson, 4th Edition Handbook) is 89 mm, so the shell inside diameter, Ds
is:
Figure 8.10: Shell bundle clearance (Coulson & Richardson, 4th Edition Handbook)
Ds = 0.089 m +0.364 m
Ds = 0.454 m
8-32
8.2.3.9 Tube-side heat transfer coefficient
Reynolds’s number, Re,
𝑝𝑢𝑑
Re =
𝑢
(408.63)𝑥(28.17)𝑥(14.83𝑥10−3 )
=
0.224𝑥10−3
=762096.95
From the result obtained, the flow is turbulent.
Prandtl’s number, Pr
𝐶𝑝 𝑈
Pr =
𝑘𝑓
Where,
Fluid specific heat capacity, Cp = 92.050 kJ/kg.K
Fluid viscosity, μ = 0.224x10-3 kg/m.s
Fluid thermal conductivity, kf = 0.1032 W/m.K
92.05 (0.224𝑥10−3 )
Pr =
0.1032
=0.199
𝐿 5
= = 337.15
𝐷𝑖 0.01483
By using the calculated Reynolds number, the value of jh is determined from the Figure
8.11 below. From the figure, the value of jh obtained is 2.9 x 10-2.
8-33
Figure 8.11: Heat Transfer Factor for Tube Side
Hence, heat transfer coefficient for tube side is determined as below,
𝑗ℎ 𝑥 𝑅𝑒 𝑥𝑃𝑟 0.33 𝑥 𝑘𝑓
hs =
𝑑𝑖
(2.9 x 10−2 ) 𝑥 762096.95 𝑥 0.1990.33 𝑥 0.1032
hs =
0.01483
=9248.24 W/m2.oc
8.2.3.10 Overall heat transfer coefficient,Uo

For heat exchanger across a typical heat-exchanger tube, the relationship between the
overall coefficient and the individual coefficients which are the reciprocals of the individual
resistances is given by:
𝑑𝑜
1 1 1 𝑑𝑜 ln( ) 𝑑𝑜 1 1
𝑑𝑖
= + + [ 𝑥( + )]
𝑈𝑜 ℎ𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑑 2𝑘𝑤 𝑑𝑖 ℎ𝑖𝑑 ℎ𝑖
Where:
Uo = overall coefficient based on the outside area of the tube, W/m2.°C
h0 = outside fluid film coefficient, W/m2.°C
hi = inside fluid film coefficient, W/m2.°C
hod = outside dirt coefficient (fouling factor), W/m2.°C
hid = inside dirt coefficient, W/m2.°C
kw = thermal conductivity of the tube wall material, W/m2.°C
di = tube inside diameter, m
do = tube outside diameter, m
8-34
𝑑𝑜
1 1 1 𝑑𝑜 ln( ) 𝑑𝑜 1 1
𝑑𝑖
= + + [ 𝑥( + )]
𝑈𝑜 ℎ𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑑 2𝑘𝑤 𝑑𝑖 ℎ𝑖𝑑 ℎ𝑖
The table below illustrated the typical value for fouling factors coefficients depending on
the types of the fluid used. From this Table 8.12, the value of hod and hid is determined. The
type of fluids used in hot stream is organic fluid, while the cool stream to cool down the
temperature is an outlet stream from flash which is also organic fluid. The value obtained
from the table is:
Table 8.12: Fouling factors (coefficient)
hid = 5000 W/m2.°C

hod= 5000 W/m2.°C
8.2.4 Mechanical Design for Heat Exchanger, E-102
The mechanical design of a shell and tube heat exchanger provides information on items
such as shell thickness, flange thickness, etc. The popularity of shell and tube exchangers
has resulted in a standard nomenclature being developed for their designation and use by
the Tubular Exchanger Manufactures Association (TEMA). Figure 8.12 illustrates the full
TEMA nomenclature.
8-35
Figure 8.12: TEMA nomenclature (Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, 1988)
8.2.4.1 Design Pressure and Design Temperature
The design pressure needs to be taken 5% to 10% higher from the actual working
pressure. This is because of safety measure which to avoid spurious operation. The taken
safety factor is 10% higher. The design temperature needs to be calculated as it related
with design stress value. The design temperature needs to be taken as the maximum
working temperature of materials.
Design pressure calculation:
Operating pressure for shell side = 3 atm

Design Pressure, Ps = 3 atm *1.1 = 3.3 atm
Operating pressure for tube side = 5 atm
Design Pressure, Pt = 5 atm *1.1 = 5.5 atm
Design temperature calculation:
Operating temperature for shell side = 465oC
8-36
Design Temperature, Tt = 465*1.1 = 511 oC
Adding 2oC to cover uncertainties in temperature prediction, the design temperature is:
511 oC+2oC = 513oC
Operating temperature for tube side = 190oC

Design Temperature, Tt = 190*1.1 = 209oC
Adding 2oC to cover uncertainties in temperature prediction, the design temperature is:
209oC+2oC = 211oC
Table 8.10: Design pressure and design temperature of shell and tube
Shell Tube
Operating 10% Safety factor Operating 10% Safety factor
Pressure 3 atm 3.3 atm 5 atm 5.5 atm

Temperature 465oc 511oc+ 2oc 190oc 209oc + 2oc
=513oc = 211oc
8.2.4.2 Material of Construction

Commonly, pressure vessels are constructed from plain carbon steel, low and high alloy
steels, other alloys, clad plate and reinforced plastics. Selection of suitable material is
important to ensure the compatibility of the material with the process. There are few factors
should be considered in selecting the material of construction for heat exchanger:
1. Corrosion Resistance
2. Operating Conditions
3. Economic Feasibility
4. Suitability for Fabrication
5. Process Safety
Depending on the process condition with high inlet temperature on the tube side, the
tendency of corrosive to occur is high although always happen in long term since the fluid
8-37
properties is not corrosive. Considering the corrosion will occur in a long term, it is
important for both tube and shell to be constructed with a material that is highly corrosive
resistance materials. As a result, the selection of carbon steel material is selected for both
shell and tube since the operating temperature is not too high and standard carbon steel
can encounter the temperature up to 900°F.
8.4.2.3 Welded Joint Efficiency

According to Sinnott, the strength of a welded joint are depending on the type of joint and
the quality of the welding. The ASME BPV Code Sec. VIII D.1 describes four categories
(Part UW-3):
a. Longitudinal or spiral welds in the main shell, necks or nozzle or circumferential welds
connecting hemispherical heads to the main shell, necks or nozzle.
b. Circumferential welds in the main shell, necks or nozzle or connecting a formed head
other than hemispherical.
c. Welds connecting flanges, tube sheets or flat heads to the main shell, a formed head,
neck or nozzle.
d. Welds connecting communicating chambers or nozzles to the main shell, to ehads or to

necks.
The strength of a welded joint is directly proportional with the type of joint and also the
quality of the welding. Radiography and visual testing used to test the soundness of welds.
Welded joint factor (J) used in the design ware determine on the type of joint and also by
the amount of radiography required. The welded joint factor J, shall be taken as 1 as it
implies that the joint is actually strong as the virgin steel plate.
Corrosion allowance been define as the additional thickness off metal that is added in order
to allow material lost. Source of material lost is corrosion, erosion or scaling. These
allowances are based on the experience of construction materials under similar condition.
Minimum allowance of 2.0 mm is used by carbon and low–alloy steel where corrosion is
not severe. 4.0 mm corrosion allowance should be used if there is a severe corrosion
condition. In this design, 2.0 mm was used as corrosion allowance.
8-38
8.2.4.4 Design Stress
In mechanical design, it is necessary to decide a value for the maximum allowable stress
(nominal design strength) that is suitable with the construction material. The basis for
establishing the maximum allowable stress values in the ASME BPV Code is given in
ASME BPV Code Sec. II Part D (Figure 8.13). At temperature where creep and stress
rupture strength does not rule the selection of stresses; the maximum allowable stress is
the lowest of:
1. The specified minimum tensile strength at room temperature divided by 3.5
2. The tensile strength at temperature divided by 3.5
3. The specified minimum yield strength at room temperature divided by 1.5
4. The yield strength at temperature divided by 1.5
At temperature where creep and stress rupture strength rule, the maximum allowable
stress is the lowest of:
1. The average stress to produce a creep rate of 0.01%/1000 h
2. F × the average stress to cause rupture at the end of 100,000 h, where F¼0.67 for
temperatures below 15008F (8158C) (see the code for higher temperatures).
3. 0.8 × the minimum stress to cause rupture after 100,000 h.
Figure 8.13: Typical Maximum Allowable Stresses for Plate under ASME BPV Code Sec
VII D.1
8-39
8.2.4.4.1 Tube Side
Construction Material : Carbon Steel
Design Temperature : 211 °C
Allowable Stress, S : 102 N/mm2
Tensile Strength : 360 N/mm2
8.2.4.4.2 Shell Side

Construction Material : Killed Carbon Steel
Design Temperature : 513 °C
Allowable Stress, S : 40.68 N/mm2
Tensile Strength : 360 N/mm2
8.2.4.5 Minimum Practical Wall Thickness for Shell Side

There will be a minimum wall thickness required to ensure that the vessel can sufficiently
rigid to withstand its own weight and any incidental loads. Using the shell side internal
diameter, Ds = 0.454 m = 454 mm. The minimum thickness required to resists internal
pressure can be determined by:
𝑃𝑖𝐷𝑖
Minimum thickness, e =
2𝑆𝐸−𝑃𝑖
Where:
Pi = internal pressure =3.3 atm= 0.334 N/mm2
Di = Ds = shell diameter = 454 mm
E = Joint factor = 1
S = Design stress of shell side
Determination of minimum wall thickness:
0.3343𝑥 454
e=
2𝑥40.68𝑥1−0.3343
e = 1.873 mm
Adding the corrosion allowance of 2 mm,

e = 1.873 mm + 2 mm
e = 3.873 mm
8-40
The minimum wall thickness obtained for shell diameter of 454 mm is 1.873 mm. With the
corrosion allowance consideration of 2 mm, the minimum wall thickness is 3.873 mm which
are adequate for industrial application.
8.2.4.6 Minimum Thickness for Cylindrical Vessel for Tube Side

The minimum thickness required to resists internal pressure can be determined by:
𝑃𝑖𝐷𝑖
Minimum thickness, e =
2𝑆𝐸−𝑃𝑖
Where:
Pi = internal pressure =5.5 atm= 0.557 N/mm2
Di = tube diameter = 14.83 mm
E = Joint factor = 1
S = Design stress of shell side
Determination of minimum wall thickness:
0.557 𝑥 14.83
e=
2𝑥 102 𝑥1−0.557
e = 0.0406 mm
Minimum thickness for tube side with corrosion allowance, adding the corrosion allowance
of 2 mm,
e = 0.0406 + 2 mm
e = 2.0406 mm
8.2.4.7 Head and Closure

The ends of a cylindrical vessel are closed by heads of various shapes. The common types
used are as shown in Figure 8.14 below:
1. Flat plates or formed flat heads
2. Hemispherical heads
3. Ellipsoidal heads
4. Torispherical heads
8-41
Figure 8.14: Type of head; ellipsoidal, torispherical and hemispherical.
8.2.4.7.1 Hemispherical heads

𝑃𝑖𝐷𝑖
t=
4𝑆𝐽−0.4𝑃𝑖
Where,
Pi = design pressure
Di = internal diameter
J = welded joint efficiency
S = maximum allowable stress
Inserting the value into the equation,

0.334 𝑥 (0.454𝑥103 )
t=
4𝑥40.68𝑥1−0.4𝑥0.334
= 0.933 mm
8.2.4.7.2 Ellipsoidal heads
𝑃𝑖𝐷𝑖
t=
2𝑆𝐽−0.2𝑃𝑖
Where,
Di = internal diameter
J = welded-joint efficiency
8-42
0.334 𝑥 (0.454𝑥103 )
t=
2𝑥40.68𝑥1−0.2𝑥0.334
=1.86 mm
8.2.4.7.3 Torispherical heads

0.885𝑃𝑖𝑅𝑐
t=
𝑆𝐸−0.1𝑃𝑖
Where,
Rc = crown radius
E = welded-joint efficiency = 1
The crown radius, Rc = Di = 454 mm, considering the knuckle radius = 6% hence,
Rc = 0.027 m
0.885 𝑥 0.334 𝑥 (0.454𝑥103 )

t=
(40.68𝑥1)−(0.1𝑥0.334)
= 3.302 mm
From the calculation obtained, torispherical head would probably be the most
economical. Take as same thickness as wall thickness, 3.873 mm.
8.2.4.7.4 Channel Cover Thickness
The minimum thickness required is given by:

𝑃𝑖
t= CpDe√
𝑆
Where:
Cp = A design constant, depend on the edge constraint
= 0.55 (for plates welded to the end of the shell with a fillet weld, angle of fillet
45o)
De = Nominal plate diameter
S = Design stress
0.334
t= (0.55)(0.454x103) √
40.68
8-43
= 22.62 mm
=22.62 mm+ 2 mm (corrosion allowance)
= 24.62 mm
8.2.4.8 Dead Weight Load
The major sources of dead weight loads are:
1. The vessel shell
2. The vessel fittings: manholes and nozzles
3. Internal fittings: plates (plus the fluid on the plates); heating and cooling coils
4. External fittings: ladders, platforms and piping
5. Auxiliary equipment that is not self-supported; condensers, agitators
6. Insulation
7. The weight of liquid to fill the vessel. The vessel will be filled with water for the hydraulic
pressure test; and may fill with process liquid due to miss-operation.
8.2.4.8.1 Dead Weight of Vessel
For preliminary calculation, the approximate weight of a cylindrical vessel with

uniform wall thickness can be estimated from the following equation:
Wv = 𝐶𝑤 𝜋 𝜌𝑚 𝐷𝑚𝑔(𝐻𝑣 + 0.8𝐷𝑚)𝑡 𝑥10−3
Where:
Wv = total weight of the shell, excluding internal fittings, such as plates, N
Cw = a factor to account for the weight of nozzles, manholes, internal support, etc;
which can be taken as
= 1.08 for vessels with only a few internal fittings
= 1.15 for distillation column, or similar vessels, with several manways and
with plate support rings, or equivalent fittings
Hv = height, or length, between tangent lines (length of the cylindrical section)
g = gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s2
8-44
t = wall thickness
𝜌m = density of vessel material ; for carbon steel =7850 kg/m3
Dm = mean diameter of vessel = (Di + t x10-3),m
Taking Cv =1.08 and Dm = (454 mm + 3.873 mm) x10-3= 0.4578 m, hence,
Wv = 1.08 𝑥 𝜋 𝑥 7850 𝑥 0.4578 𝑥 9.81 ( 5 + 0.8𝑥0.4578) (3.873 𝑥10−3 )

= 2483.14 N
8.2.4.8.2 Weight of Tubes
The weight contributes by tube is calculated by:

Wt  Nt  do2  di2mgL
Where:
Wt = weight of tubes,
Nt = number of tubes ,N = 152 tubes
do = outside tube diameter = 0.019m
di = inside tube diameter = 0.015m
m= density of tube material =7850 kg/m3
g = gravity acceleration = 9.81 m/s2
L = length of tube = 5m
Therefore,
Wt  152  0.0192  0.0152 7850 x 9.81 x 5
= 25005.8 N
8.2.4.8.3 Weight of Insulation
To calculate the weight of insulation:

Wi = V𝜌g
Properties of insulation
Type of material : Mineral wool
Thickness, r : 75 mm = 0.075 m
Added thickness, r1 : 20 mm = 0.020 m
Density of insulator (mineral wool) : 130 kg/m3
Firstly, approximate the volume of insulation:
V =  × Ds × L × thickness of insulation
=  × 0.454 × 5 × 0.075 = 0.535 m3
8-45
Then, the weight of insulator is,
Wi = V𝜌g
=0.535 x 130 x 9.81
= 682 N
Thus, the total weight of heat exchanger is:
Wt = W v + W t +W i
= 2483.14 N + 25005.8 N + 682N
= 28170.94 N = 28.17 kN
With a 10% of allowance,

W  28170.94 N × 10%
= 2817.09 N
8.2.4.9 Bolted Flanged Joints
Flanged joints are used for connecting pipes and instruments to vessels for manhole
covers and for removable vessel heads when ease of access is required. Flanges are also
used on the vessel body, when it is necessary to divide the vessel into sections for
transport or maintenance and to connect pipes to other equipment such as pumps and
valves. Flanged joints are essential for maintenance while pipework are normally be
welded to reduce the costs. Flanges range in various sizes from a few millimetres diameter
for small pipe to several metres diameter for those used as body or head flanges on
vessels.
8.2.4.9.1 Types and Selection of Flanges
Several different types of flange used in numerous applications as shown in Figure

8.15. The principal types used in the process industries are:
1. Welding-neck flanges
2. Slip-on flanges, hub and plate types
3. Lap-joint flange
4. Screwed flanges
5. Blank, or blind, flanges
8-46
Figure 8.15: Flange type (a) Welding-neck (b) Slip-on (c) Lap-joint (d) Screwed
The welding neck flange type, which has a tapered hub with a smooth stress
transition and accessibility for full nondestructive examination, provides the highest
integrity of the three types. Furthermore, it is suitable for extreme conditions as
subjected to temperature, shear and vibration loads.
Figure 8.16: Weld neck flange
8-47
8-48
8.3 Absorption Column, T-102
The typical gas-liquid contacting operations include distillation, absorption, stripping,
leaching and humidification. Distillation and absorption are two most widely used mass
transfer processes in chemical industries. Design of plate column for absorption and
distillation involves many common steps of calculation such as determination of number of
theoretical plates, column diameter and plate hydraulic design. In absorption process, a
soluble component is absorbed in a liquid (called absorbent) from a gaseous mixture. The
gas and liquid streams leaving the tray are in equilibrium under the ideal condition.
Additional vapor phase is generated by the vaporization of more volatile components
(called stripping) and by condensation of relatively less volatile components (called
absorption) add to the liquid phase. Figure 8.17 below shows the schematic inlet and outlet
for the absorption column.
Figure 8.17: Schematic diagram of absorption column
8-49
8.3.1 Chemical Design for Absorption Column, T-102
Chemical design of absorption column require a few objectives to be considered. The

objectives are to find:
 Column type
 Number of trays
 Column diameter
 Column height
 Liquid flow pattern
 Provisional plate design
 Weir design
 Plate pressure drop
 Downcomer residence time
In this absorption process, acetone (A) is diffused through stagnant, non-diffusing of water
(B). As the acetone gas diffuse into water and known as bottom product (LN stream), the
by-product of hydrogen will separate from the acetone and flowing out as top product (V1
stream). The column is operate at 50OC and 3 atm.
V1
LO
VN+1
LN
8-50
Some of the information required for further calculation such as composition of
components for each stream are retrieved from the AspenPlus simulation model result.
Tables 8.11 below list all the required value for each stream.
Table 8.11: Summary of flow rate and composition for each stream
Component Flow rate Mole fraction

(kmol/hr)
Lo (Stream 16)
IPA 0 0
Acetone 2.47X10-5 1.505x10-7
H2O 163.9744 0.999
H2 0 0
DMSO 0.11111103 6.765x10-4
Total 164.0856 1

(kmol/hr)
VN+1 (Stream 7)
IPA 0.0810568 3.588x10-4
Acetone 9.069404 0.0402
H2O 0.5586704 2.476x10-3
H2 216.0744 0.957
DMSO 5.42X10-9 2.4x10-11
Total 225.7835 1
(kmol/hr)
LN (Stream 8) IPA 0.0808146 4.898x10-4

Acetone 6.880635 0.0417
H2O 157.8617 0.9569
H2 0.0448868 2.721x10-4
DMSO 0.1111033 6.734x10-4
Total 164.9791 1

(kmol/hr)
V1 (Stream H2)
IPA 0.000242204 1.0769x10-6
Acetone 2.188794 9.733x10-3
H2O 6.671419 0.0297
H2 216.0295 0.9606
DMSO 7.03x10-6 3.126x10-8
Total 224.89 1
8-51
8.3.1.1 Selection of column
Selection of column internals require an understanding the separation purpose, the

required range of vapor and liquid flows and the physical properties of the vapor and liquid
throughout the column. System characteristics that affect the design and construction of
the column internals, including the constraints such as maximum temperature, fouling
tendencies and ongoing chemical reaction, must be carefully evaluated.
Generally, column internals can be trays or packing. Both column operates at different
fundamental and provide various advantages and disadvantages. Tray column generally
provide holdup for a portion of liquid through which vapor flows to accomplish the vapor-
liquid mass transfer liquid required for separation. With a conventional crossflow tray, the
liquid travel horizontally across the tray and into a vertical downcomer while the vapor
passes up through holes in the tray and across the flow of liquid. Whereas, packed column
offers continuous contact without full disengagement of the vapor and liquid between the
top and bottom of the packed. Tables 8.12 below explain the advantages and
disadvantages that need to be considered in column selection.
Table 8.12: Advantages and disadvantages comparison
Tray column Packed column
Advantages  The liquid/vapor contact  Low pressure drop

in the cross flow of plate required.
columns is more effective
than the countercurrent  Can handle foaming
flow in packed columns. systems.
 Can handle high or low  Low capital, operating,

liquid flow rates cost and maintenance cost.
effectively.
 Can handle corrosive
 Easily customized to materials due to
specific requirements corrosion-resistant
such as operations packing.
requiring much heat.
Disadvantages  Higher pressure drops  Cannot handle extremely

than packed columns. high or low flow rates.
 Plugging and fouling may  Cannot handle liquids with

occur.
high viscosities.
8-52
Since this absorption process handling non-foaming system and non-corrosive materials,
the effectiveness of the column is take into consideration. Tray column offers an efficient
contact between liquid and vapor in the cross flow system. It also able to handle high or
low liquid flow rate throughout the process. In fact, it is acceptable if the cost is slightly
higher than packed column despite it can contribute to high efficiency of the process.
Therefore, tray column has been considered in the design.
8.3.1.2 Calculation of Relative Molecular Mass (RMM) and stream density
Calculation of stream density involved and relative molecular mass (RMM) calculated are
shown in the Table 8.13 and Table 8.14 below.
Table 8.13: The properties for each stream
Component MW Mole Mole Mole Mole Density

(kg/kmol) fraction fraction fraction fraction (x), (kg/m3)
(x), Lo (x), VN+1 (x), V1 LN
IPA 60.1 0 3.588x10-4 4.898x10-4 1.0769x10-6 786
Acetone 58.08 1.505x10-7 0.0402 0.0417 9.733x10-3 791
H2O 18.02 0.999 2.476x10-3 0.9569 0.0297 988
H2 2.016 0 0.957 2.721x10-4 0.9606 0.0899
DMSO 78.13 6.765x10-4 2.4x10-11 6.734x10-4 3.126x10-8 1100
Total 1 1 1 1
RMM can be calculated with the equation as below:
RMM = Σ (Component mole fraction x Molecular weight)
Table 8.14: Relative molecular mass (RMM) for each stream
Component RMM, Lo RMM, VN+1 RMM, V1 RMM, LN

(top) (bottom)
IPA 0 0.022 6.413x10-5 0.029
Acetone 8.741x10-6 2.323 0.565 2.439
H2O 18.002 0.045 0.523 17.245
H2 0 1.929 1.937 5.299x10-4
DMSO 0.053 1.875x10-9 2.442x10-6 0.053
Total 18.056 4.319 3.025 19.768
8-53
Therefore,
RMM, top = 3.025 kg/kmol
RMM, bottom = 19.768 kg/kmol
By using P = 100 kPa as basis, the liquid and vapor density are calculated by using
equation below:
Liquid density, ρl (kg/m3) = (x)(ρ)
𝑅𝑀𝑀 273 𝑃
Vapor density, ρv (kg/m3) = ( )( 𝐾)( 𝑘𝑃𝑎)
22.4 𝑇 100
The properties required for the calculation are shown as Table 8.15 below:
Table 8.15: Properties required for the calculation
Temperature, Pressure,
(K) (kPa)
V1, top 309.305 202.65
LN, bottom 303.813 303.975
The liquid density and vapor density for bottom and top product is calculated as shown in
Table 8.16 below:
Table 8.16: The liquid density and vapor density for bottom and top product
LN, bottom V1, top

Component
(xt x ρ) kg/m3 (xb x ρ) kg/m3
IPA 0.386 8.387x10-4
Acetone 33.222 7.699
H2O 945.516 28.652
H2 2.452x10-5 0.0864
DMSO 0.740 3.439x10-5
Total 979.864 36.438
8-54
Therefore,
Liquid density for stream V1, top = 36.438 kg/m3
Liquid density for stream LN, bottom = 979.864 kg/m3
To find vapor density, therefore,
3.025 273 202.65

Vapor density for stream V1, top, ρvt = ( ) (309.975) ( ) = 0.241 kg/m3
22.4 100
19.768 273 303.975

Vapor density for stream LN, bottom, ρvb = ( ) (303.813) ( ) = 2.411 kg/m3
22.4 100
8.3.1.3 Optimum vapour (V’) and liquid (L’) flow rate
The vapor (V’) and liquid (L’) flow rate is determined by using the Equation 10.3-4 [6] as
shown below:
𝑋𝑜 𝑌𝑛+1 𝑋𝑛 𝑌1
𝐿′ ( ) + 𝑉′ ( ) = 𝐿′ ( ) + 𝑉′ ( )
1 − 𝑋𝑜 1 − 𝑌𝑛+1 1 − 𝑋𝑛 1 − 𝑌1
Hence, the required component composition are retrieved from the AspenPlus simulation
model as shown below:
Table 8.17: Required component composition are retrieved from the AspenPlus
simulation
Component (A) Composition
Xo at stream Lo 1.505x10-7
YN+1 at stream VN+1 0.04
XN at stream LN 0.042
Y1 at stream V1 9.734x10-3
The vapor (V’) flow rate is calculated by using Equation 10.3-6 [6]:
𝑉 ′ = 𝑉1(1 − 𝑌𝑛+1 )
8-55
V’ = (224.889)(1 – 0.04) = 215.893 kmol/hr
The value of Xo is a maximum at XN,max when L’ is a minimum as shown below:
𝑋𝑜 𝑌𝑛+1 𝑋𝑛, 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑌1

𝐿′𝑚𝑖𝑛 ( ) + 𝑉′ ( ) = 𝐿′𝑚𝑖𝑛 ( ) + 𝑉′ ( )
1 − 𝑋𝑜 1 − 𝑌𝑛+1 1 − 𝑋𝑛, 𝑚𝑎𝑥 1 − 𝑌1
The value XN,max is calculated by using equation below:
𝑌𝑛+1
𝑋𝑛, max =
𝑚
To find slope of equilibrium line, m = (YN+1 – Y1) / (XN – XO)
m = 0.721
Hence, it shows y = 0.721x
0.04
𝑋𝑛, max =
0.721
= 0.055
To calculate L’ min,
1.505𝑥10 − 7 0.04 0.055 9.734𝑥10 − 7

𝐿′𝑚𝑖𝑛 ( ) + 215.893 ( ) = 𝐿′𝑚𝑖𝑛 ( ) + 215.893 ( )
1 − 1.505𝑥10 − 7 1 − 0.04 1 − 0.055 1 − 9.734𝑥10 − 7
L’ min = 118.293 kmol/hr
For absorption, the optimum liquid (L’) flow rate is usually taken with 1.5 times L’min [8].
Thus,
L’ = 1.5 x Lmin
L = 1.5 x 118.298
L’ = 177.439 kmol/hr
8-56
8.3.1.4 Number of trays
Analytical equation can be implemented in order to calculate theoretical number of trays,

N in absorption column. For transfer of the solute from vapor phase to liquid phase,
Equation 10.6-7 [6] is used.
𝑌𝑛+1 − 𝑚𝑋𝑜 1 1
ln ( 𝑌1 − 𝑚𝑋𝑜 (1 − (𝐴) + 𝐴))
𝑁=
ln 𝐴
Value of geometric average, A is calculate by using:
𝐴 = √𝐴𝑛𝐴1
𝐿𝑛 164.98
To find 𝐴𝑛 = = = 1.013
𝑚𝑉𝑛+1 0.721 𝑥 225.783
𝐿𝑜 164.085
To find 𝐴1 = = = 1.017
𝑚𝑉1 0.721 𝑥 224.889
𝐴 = √(1.013)(1.017)
A = 1.015
Hence, to find N,
0.04 − (0.721)(1.505𝑥10 − 7) 1 1
ln ( (1 − ( )+ ))
(9.734𝑥10 − 3) − (0.721)(1.505𝑥10 − 7) 1.015 1.015
𝑁=
ln 1.015
N = 2.963 = 3 trays
In actual practice, the efficiency of the tray will not be 100%. This means more number of
trays is needed for more efficient separation. Thus, overall tray efficiency is used to
determine the efficiency of the absorption in this design. Column efficiency is calculated by
using the value retrieved from the AspenPlus simulation model by considering the feed
flow rate of acetone and product flow rate of acetone for the absorption column.
8-57
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐴𝑐𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 6.881 ℎ𝑟
𝐸𝑜 = = 𝑥 100%
𝐴𝑐𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
9.069
ℎ𝑟
Eo = 75.87%
By considering 1.5 safety margin, the new column efficiency is,
0.759
𝐸𝑜 = 𝑥 100%
1.5
Eo = 50.6%
The information on the tray efficiency is used to calculate the number of actual trays in the
absorption column.
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦

𝐸𝑜 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦
3
0.506 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦
N,act = 5.963 = 6 trays
8.3.1.5 Column sizing
The column sizing is carried at the tray where the anticipated column loading is the highest
and lowest for each section. However, the vapor flow rates have the highest impact on
tower diameter. The tray spacing determines the column height. Lower tray spacing is
desirable to minimize construction cost by checking against the column performance
criteria [7].
The principal factor that determines the column diameter is the vapor flow rate. The
equation which is based on the well-known Souder’s and Brown equation, can be used to
estimate the maximum allowable superficial vapor velocity (Uv), and hence the column
area and diameter [3].
8-58
𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 1/2
𝑈𝑣 = (−0.171𝐼𝑡 2 2
+ 0.27𝐼𝑡 − 0.047) [ ]
𝜌𝑣
Where:
𝑈𝑣 = maximum allowable vapour velocity based on column cross sectional area, m/s
𝐼𝑡 = tray spacing, m
Therefore, for initial calculation, the tray spacing is assume as 600 mm for column diameter
of 1 to 3 m [7].
979.864 − 2.41 1/2

𝑈𝑣 = (−0.171(0.62 ) + 0.27(0.62 ) − 0.047) [ ]
2.41
Uv = 1.076 m/s
Recall the vapor (V’) and liquid (L’) flow rate for further calculation,
L’ = 177.439 kmol/hr = 0.0493 kmol/s = 3193.902 kg/hr = 0.887 kg/s
V’ = 215.893 kmol/hr = 0.0493 kmol/s = 12521.641 kg/hr = 3.478 kg/s
8.3.1.5.1 Maximum volumetric flow rate, Qmax
Maximum volumetric flow rate can be calculated by using equation below:
𝑉′(𝑅𝑀𝑀)
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜌𝑣
For top section,
0.059(3.025)
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 0.741 𝑚/𝑠
0.241
For bottom section,
0.059(19.768)
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 0.484 𝑚/𝑠
2.411
8-59
8.3.1.5.2 Flooding velocity, Uf
Excessive liquid buildup inside the column leads to column flooding condition. The
nature of flooding depends on the column operating pressure and the liquid to vapor
flow ratio. The column flooding conditions sets the upper limit of vapor velocity for
steady operation. Thus, flooding velocity, Uf can be calculated by using equation
below [3]:
𝜌𝑙−𝜌𝑣
𝑈𝑓 = 𝐾𝑖 √ 𝜌𝑙
Where:
Uf = flooding vapour velocity, m/s, based on the net column cross-sectional area,
An
K1 = a constant obtained from Figure 8.18
Based on the Figure 8.18 below, the liquid-vapour flow factor FLV is given by:
𝐿′ 𝜌𝑣
𝐹𝐿𝑉 = √
𝑉′ 𝜌𝑙
Where:
L’ = liquid mass flow-rate, kg/s
V’ = vapor mass flow-rate, kg/s
8-60
Figure 8.18: Flooding velocity
To calculate LFV,
For top section,
0.887 0.241
𝐹𝐿𝑉 = √ = 0.0207
3.478 36.438
Hence, K = 0.12
For bottom section,
0.887 2.411
𝐹𝐿𝑉 = 3.478 √978.864 = 0.0127
Hence, K = 0.11
To calculate Uf,
For top section,
36.438−0.241
𝑈𝑓 = 0.12√ 0.241
= 1.471 m/s
8-61
For bottom section,
979.864−2.411
𝑈𝑓 = 0.11√ = 2.215 m/s
2.411
8.3.1.5.3 Net area and cross-sectional area, Ac required
Net area for the column can be calculated by using equation below:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 =
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑈𝑓
For top section,
0.741
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = = 0.504 m2
1.471
For bottom section,
0.484
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = = 0.219 m2
2.215
Calculate cross-sectional area, Ac by assuming 12% of downcomer area of total

cross sectional area.
For top section,
0.504
𝐴𝑐 = = 0.577 m2
0.88
For bottom section,
0.219
𝐴𝑐 = = 0.249 m2
0.88
Therefore, column diameter for top and bottom section can be calculated by using
the equation below. The higher diameter is selected as the column diameter for the
uniformity between the sections.
8-62
To calculate column diameter, Dc,
4𝑥𝐴𝑐
𝐷𝑐 = √
𝜋
For top section,
4𝑥0.577
𝐷𝑐 = √ = 0.857 m
𝜋
For bottom section,
4𝑥0.249
𝐷𝑐 = √ = 0.563 m
𝜋
Thus, the column diameter, Dc for this design is estimate as 0.857 m.
As the column diameter, Dc is 0.857 < 1 m, the selection of the tray spacing will be
changed by following table below. Hence, the considered tray spacing in this design is
500 mm.
Table 8.18: Suggested tray spacing with column diameter [1]
Tower diameter, m Tray spacing, mm
1 or less 500 (150 is minimum)

1-3 600
3-4 750
4-6 900
Thus, to find column height,
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝑚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠
m = 0.5 m x 6 trays
m=3m
8-63
8.3.1.6 Liquid flow pattern
The choice of flow type (reverse, single pass or multiple pass) will depend on the liquid
flow-rate and column diameter. An initial selection can be made using Figure 8.19 below
[3].
Figure 8.19: Selection of liquid flow arrangement
To calculate Qmax liquid,
𝐿′(𝑅𝑀𝑀𝐿,𝑇𝑂𝑃 )
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜌𝑙
(0.059)(3.025)
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 4.9 x 10-3 m3/s
36.438
By using Qmax = 4.9 x 10-3 m3/s and Dc = 0.9 m, from the Figure 3.5.3, the cross-flow
single pass is obtained.
8.3.1.7 Provisional trays design
The definition of tray areas and its nomenclature illustrated in Figures 8.20 and 8.21 are
followed throughout the design procedure [2].
8-64
Total tower cross-section area (𝑨𝑻): The empty tower inside cross-sectional area without
trays or downspouts.
Net area (𝑨𝑵): The total tower cross-sectional area (𝐴𝑇) minus the area at the top of the
downcomer (𝐴𝐷𝑇). The net area symbolizes the smallest area available for vapor flow in
the inter-tray spacing.
Bubbling area or active area (𝑨𝑨): The total tower cross-sectional area minus sum of the
downcomer top area (𝐴𝐷𝑇) and downcomer seal area (𝐴𝐷𝐵) and any other non-perforated
areas on the tray. The bubbling area represents the area available for vapor flow just above
the tray floor.
Hole area (𝑨𝒉): The total area of the perforations on the tray. The hole area is the smallest
area available for vapor/gas passage.
Figure 8.20: Schematic of a tray operating in the froth regime [2]
8-65
Figure 8.21: Typical cross-flow plate [3]
Column diameter, Dc = 0.857 m
Column area, Ac = 0.557 m2
Downcomer area, Ad with assumption of 12% = 0.12 x 0.557 m2 = 0.0692 m2
Net area, AN = Ac – Ad = 0.557 – 0.0692 = 0.5078 m2
Active area, AA = Ac – 2Ad = 0.557 – 2(0.0692) = 0.439 m2
Hole area, AH with assumption of 10% of AA = 0.1 x 0.439 = 0.0439 m2
8.3.1.8 Weir design
The height of the weir determines the volume of liquid on the plate and is an important
factor in determining the plate efficiency. A high weir will increase the plate efficiency but
at the expense of a higher plate pressure drop.
8.3.1.8.1 Weir length, Iw
For columns operating above atmospheric pressure, since this system operates at
3 atm, the weir height will normally be between 40 mm to 90 mm, which are 40 to
50 mm is recommended [3].
8-66
Hence, weir height, hw = 50 mm
For hole diameter, the hole sizes used vary from 2.5 to 12 mm; 5 mm is
recommended [3][7]. The bigger sizes are susceptible to weeping.
Hence, hole diameter, dh = 5 mm
For tray thickness, it typically varies from 0.2 to 1.2 times of the hole diameter and
should be verified by checking the allowable plate pressure drop [7].
Hence, tray thickness, tt = 1.2 x 5 = 6 mm
In order to calculate weir height, it can be estimated using the Francis weir as written below:
2/3
𝐿′
ℎ𝑜𝑤 = 750 [ ]
𝜌𝑙𝐼𝑊
Where:
lw = weir length, m
how = weir crest, mm liquid
Lw = liquid flow-rate, kg/s
The relationship between weir length and downcomer area is given in Figure 8.22 [3]
8-67
Figure 8.22: Relation between downcomer area and weir length
To calculate Iw based on Figure 8.4,
𝐴𝐷 0.0692 𝐼𝑊 𝐼𝑊
= 𝑥 100% = 12% = = 0.77
𝐴𝐶 0.577 𝐷𝐶 0.857
Therefore, Iw = 0.660 m
8.3.1.8.2 Number of holes per tray
Area of one hole,
𝜋𝑑ℎ 2 (𝜋)0.0052
𝐴1ℎ = = = 1.963𝑥10−5 m2
4 4
Number of holes per tray,
𝐴ℎ 0.0439
𝑛ℎ = = = 2236.37 = 2237 holes per tray
𝐴1ℎ 1.963𝑥10−5
8-68
8.3.1.9 Evaluation of the design
Weeping occurs at low vapor flow rates. The upward vapor flow through the plate
perforations prevents the liquid from leaking through the tray perforation. At low vapor flow
rates, liquid start to leak through the perforation, which it called weeping. When none of
the liquid reaches the downcomer at extreme weeping condition at very low vapor flow
rate, it is called dumping. The weeping tendency increases with increasing fractional hole
area and liquid flow rates [7].
8.3.1.9.1 Check weeping
To calculate maximum liquid rate in the column,
0.0493𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐿′ (𝑅𝑀𝑀𝑇𝑂𝑃 ) = 𝑥 3.025 = 0.149 = 0.149 kg/s
𝑠
To calculate minimum liquid rate in the column, assume 70% of turn-down ratio,
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.7 𝑥 0.149 = 0.104 kg/s
8.3.1.9.2 Weir liquid crest
The height of liquid crest over the weir, how is estimated using Francis weir formula
as below.
𝐿𝑊 2/3
ℎ𝑜𝑤 = 750 [ ]
𝜌𝑙𝐼𝑊
Where:
Lw = liquid flow rate, kg/s
lw = weir length, m
how = weir crest, mm
8-69
Maximum height liquid crest,
0.149 2/3
ℎ𝑜𝑤,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 750 [ ] = 25.299 mm = 26 mm liquid
(36.438)(0.660)
Minimum height liquid crest,
0.104 2/3
ℎ𝑜𝑤,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 750 [ ] = 19.907 mm = 20 mm
(36.438)(0.660)
The lower limit of the operating range occurs when liquid leakage through the plate
holes becomes excessive. This is known as the weep point. The vapor velocity at
the weep point is the minimum value for stable operation. The hole area must be
chosen so that at the lowest operating rate the vapor flow velocity is still well above
the weep point [3].
Thus, at minimum rate, clear liquid depth is calculated as:
how + hw = 20 mm + 50 mm = 70 mm liquid
8.3.1.9.2 Minimum vapor velocity at weep point, Uh
The purpose to calculate weep point is to know the lower limit of the operating range
occurs when liquid leakage through the plate holes becomes excessive. Minimum
vapor velocity through the holes is calculated based on the holes area.
[𝐾2 − 0.90(25.4 − 𝑑ℎ )]
𝑈ℎ =
𝜌𝑣 1/2
Where:
Uh = minimum vapor velocity through the holes, m/s
dh = hole diameter, mm
K2 = a constant, depends on the depth of clean liquid on the plate
8-70
From the weep-point correlation Figure 8.23 below [3], K2 = 30.3
Figure 8.23: Weep-point correlation
Therefore,
[30.3−0.90(25.4−5)]
𝑈ℎ = = 7.688 m/s
(2.411)1/2
The minimum operating vapor velocity at weep point, Uh is 7.688 m/s.
8.3.1.10 Plate pressure drop
A simple additive model is normally used to predict the total pressure drop. The total is
taken as the sum of the pressure drop calculated for the flow of vapor through the dry plate
(the dry plate drop hd); the head of clear liquid on the plate (hw and how), and a term to
account for other, minor, sources of pressure loss, the so-called residual loss hr [3]. The
equation used as shown below.
ℎ𝑡 = ℎ𝑑 + (ℎ𝑤 + ℎ𝑜𝑤 ) + ℎ𝑟
Where:
hd =dry plate pressure drop, mm
how =height of liquid over weir (weir crest), mm
8-71
hw =weir height, mm
hr = residual head, mm
8.3.1.10.1 Dry plate pressure drop
Dry plate pressure drop occurs due to friction within dry short holes. Dry plate
pressure drop, hd can be calculated by using following expression [3].
𝑈ℎ,𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 𝜌𝑣𝑡𝑜𝑝
ℎ𝑑 = 51 [ ]
𝐶𝑜 𝜌𝑙𝑡𝑜𝑝
Where, the orifice coefficient Co is a function of the plate thickness, hole diameter,
and the hole to perforated area ratio. Co can be obtained from Figure 8.24 below
[3]:
Figure 8.24: Discharge coefficient, sieve plates
8-72
From Figure 8.24,
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 6 𝑚𝑚 𝐴ℎ 0.0439

= = 1.2 = 𝑥 100% = 10%
𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 5 𝑚𝑚 𝐴𝑎 0.439
Hence, Co = 0.88
To find Uh,max,
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑡𝑜𝑝 0.741
𝑈ℎ,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 16.879 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴ℎ 0.0439
Calculate hd,
16.879 2 0.241
ℎ𝑑 = 51 [ ] = 124.097 mm liquid
0.88 36.438
8.3.1.10.2 Residual head
The residual pressure drop, hr results mainly from the surface tension as the gas
releases from a perforation. Equation below is equivalent to taking the residual
drop as a fixed value of 12.5 mm of water [3].
12.5 𝑥 103 12500

ℎ𝑟 = = = 343.048 mm liquid
𝜌𝑙𝑡𝑜𝑝 36.438
Hence, the total pressure drop per plate,
ℎ𝑡 = 124.097 + 70 + 343.048 = 537.145 𝑚𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
8.3.1.11 Design of downcomer
The downcomer area and plate spacing must be such that the level of the liquid and froth
in the downcomer is well below the top of the outlet weir on the plate above. If the level
rises above the outlet weir, flooding in the column may occur. Figure 8.25 below shows the
downcomer backup.
8-73
Figure 8.25: Downcomer backup
In terms of clear liquid the downcomer back-up is given by:
ℎ𝑏 = (ℎ𝑤 + ℎ𝑜𝑤 ) + ℎ𝑡 + ℎ𝑑𝑐
Where:
hb = downcomer back-up, measured from plate surface, mm
hdc = head loss in the downcomer, mm
To find hdc, the head loss in the downcomer can be estimated using the equation:
2
𝐿𝑤𝑑
ℎ𝑑𝑐 = 166 [ ]
𝜌𝑙𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝐴𝑚
Where:
Lwd = liquid flow rate in downcomer, kg/s,
Am = either the downcomer area Ad, or the clearance area under the downcomer Aap;
whichever is the smaller, m2
8-74
To find Am, the clearance area under the downcomer is given by [3]:
Am = Aap = hap x Iw , where Aap < Ad
The value hap is refer to the height of the bottom edge of the apron above the plate. This
height is normally set at 5 to 10 mm below the outlet weir height [3].
hap = hw – 10 mm
hap = 50 – 10 = 40 mm
To find Aap,
Aap = (0.04)(0.66) = 0.0264 m2
Hence, Aap < Ad
To calculate hdc,
2
0.149
ℎ𝑑𝑐 = 166 [ ] = 3.983 𝑚𝑚
36.438 𝑥 0.0264
Hence, the backup in the downcomer,
ℎ𝑏 = 70 + 537.145 + 3.983 = 611.128 𝑚𝑚 = 0.611 𝑚
8.3.1.12 Downcomer residence time, tr
The residence time, tr must be sufficient to allow in the downcomer for entrained vapour
to disengage from the liquid stream to prevent heavily aerated liquid being carried under
the downcomer. 3 s is recommended for the least residence times [3]. The residence time
can be calculated with the following equation below:
𝐴𝑑 ℎ𝑏𝑐 𝜌𝑙
𝑡𝑟 =
𝐿𝑤𝑑
Where,
tr = residence time, s
8-75
hbc = clear liquid back-up, m
Lwd = liquid flow rate in downcomer, kg/s
0.0692 𝑥 0.611 𝑥 36.438

𝑡𝑟 = = 10.34 𝑠
0.149
Therefore, 10.34 s > 3 s and it is sufficient.
8.3.1.13 Summary of Chemical Design of Absorption Column
Table 8.19: Summary of Chemical Design of Absorption Column
Parameter Value
Column type Tray

Number of actual trays 6
Column diameter 0.857 m
Column height 3m
Liquid flow pattern Cross flow (single pass)
Column efficiency 50.6%
Tray spacing 0.5 m
Tray thickness 0.006 m
Hole diameter 0.005 m
Hole area 0.0439 m2
Number of hole per plate 2237 units
Downcomer area 0.0692 m2
Net area 0.5078 m2
Active area 0.438 m2
Weir height 0.05 m
Weir length 0.66 m
Trays pressure drop 343.048 mm liquid
Downcomer pressure drop 611.128 mm liquid
Downcomer residence time 10.34 s
8-76
8.3.2 Mechanical Design of Absorption Column, T-102
Several factors need to be considered in the mechanical design of absorption column such
as:
1. Design pressure and temperature
3. Material of construction
4. Maximum allowable stress
5. Welded-joint efficiency
6. Corrosion allowance
7. Wall thicknesses
8. Head and closure selection
9. Analysis of stresses
10. Vessel support
11. Base ring and anchor bolts
In order to complete the mechanical design, several parameter are get from previous
chemical design and also retrieved from AspenPlus simulation model. Those parameters
are listed in Table 8.20 below.
Table 8.20: Column design specification
Parameter Value
Operating temperature, Top 3.04 bar

Operating pressure, Pop 323 K, 122 oF
Internal diameter, Di 0.857 m
Column height, Hc 3m
Column area, Ac 0.557 m2
Number of trays, N 6 trays
8-77
8.3.2.1 Design pressure, Pdesign
The column must be design to ensure it can withstand with the maximum pressure to which
it is to be subjected in operation [1]. It is stated that design pressure in the column normally
must be 5-10% above normal operating pressure for safety factor to avoid unexpected
release from the relieve valve during the process. Hence, API RP 520 has recommended
practice sets of 10% margin between the normal operating pressure and the design
pressure.
Pdesign = Poperating + 10% safety factor
Pdesign = 3.04 bar x 1.1
Pdesign = 3.34 bar = 0.334 N/mm2
8.3.2.2 Design temperature, Tdesign
Design temperature is important as the strength of metal decrease with increasing

temperature.
It is stated that by ASME BPV Code, the maximum design temperature at which the
maximum allowable stress is evaluated should be taken as the maximum working
temperature of the material. The minimum design metal temperature (MDMT) should be
taken as the lowest temperature expected in service [1]. Therefore, design temperature is
expected as the same as operating temperature.
Tdesign = Toperating
Tdesign = 323 K
8.3.2.3 Material of Construction
Selection of a suitable material must take into account the suitability of the material such
as cost, strength, ability of temperature and pressure handling and availability in market.
The selected material is carbon steel SA-516. Generally, grade 60, 65 and 70 are usually
used in industry. Based on several properties and advantages, carbon steel SA-516 grade
70 is selected. Table 8.21 shows the comparison of mechanical properties between these
materials.
8-78
Table 8.21: Mechanical properties comparison
SA-516 Grade 60 SA-516 Grade 65 SA-516 Grade 70
Tensile Strength
415-550 450-585 485-620
(MPa)
Yield Strength
220 240 260
(MPa)
Elongation in
21 19 17
200mm (%)
Elongation in
25 23 21
50mm (%)
Max Thickness
205 205 205
(mm)
Carbon steel SA-516 provides a number of advantages as a pressure vessel material. In

addition to being highly resistant to corrosion, shock, and vibration, it possesses a high
tensile strength in which, making it ideal for demanding vessel applications in a wide range
of industrial processes. It also retains strength at minimal thicknesses, which reduces the
amount of material needed for tank fabrication, thereby lowering fabrication costs.
8.3.2.4 Maximum allowable stress, S
It is important to decide a value for maximum allowable stress that can be accepted in the
material construction. The allowable stress limit helps to identify the ability of the column
to stand under standard test condition. ASME BPV Code has provide Appendix A for
maximum stress value for ferrous material. Table A.6 and A.7 in the Appendix A are used
to select the maximum allowable stress for carbon steel material. Table 8.21 below
summarized all the required information.
8-79
Table 8.21: Summary of Table A6. And A.7 in Appendix A [1]
Line No. Nominal Spec. Max. allowable stress (ksi)(multiply by 1000 to

composition No obtain psi), for metal temperature (oF), no
exceeding
-20 to 100 150 200
29 Carbon SA-515 20.0 20.0 20.0

steel
30 Carbon SA-516 20.0 20.0 20.0
steel
31 Carbon SA-671 20.0 - 20.0
steel
Hence, the maximum allowable stress, S for carbon steel SA-516 is 20 000 psi, which
equal to 137.896 N/mm2.
8.2.3.5 Welded-joint efficiency, E
Absorption column is built up of performed parts which are cylindrical body, head, fitting
and support that being joined by fusion welding. The quality of the welding usually checked
by visual inspection and non-destructive testing (radiography). Radiographing is performed
on complete weld length, cutting out and remarking any device. Welded joint strength is
depend on the joint type and amount of radiography required by the design code [1]. The
ASME BPV Code Sec. VIII D.1 Part UW describe the requirement for vessel fabricated by
welding. Table 8.22 shows the requirement of welded material.
Table 8.22: Maximum allowable joint-efficiency [1]
Joint Degree of radiographic

Joint description category examination
Full Spot None
Double-welded butt joint or equivalent A,B,C,D 1.0 0.85 0.70
Single-welded butt joint with backing strip A,B,C,D 0.9 0.8 0.65
Single-welded butt joint without backing strip A,B,C N/A N/A 0.60
Double full fillet lap joint A,B,C N/A N/A 0.55
Single full fillet lap joint with plug welds B,C N/A N/A 0.50
Single full fillet lap joint without plug welds B,C N/A N/A 0.45
8-80
For pressurized component, the preferred joint type is basic weld joint. Any pressure vessel
containing lethal substances such as isopropanol, acetone and hydrogen, it requires full
radiographic testing for all type of butt welds. To ensure the flexibility of design, double
welded butt joint is selected. Whereas, by taking factor as 1.0, it implies that the joint is
equally as strong as the virgin plate. The use of lower joint efficiency in design can save
cost on radiography, but resulting thicker and heavier vessel which is unfavorable. Thus,
the welded-joint efficiency is selected as 1.0.
8.3.2.6 Corrosion allowance
Corrosion allowance is the additional thickness of metal added to allow material lost by
corrosion, erosion or scaling. Corrosion allowance shall be specify for all type of pressure
vessel as stated in ASME BPV Codes Sec. VIII (Part UG-25). For carbon steel, which
severe condition is not expected, a minimum corrosion allowance of 2.0 mm will be used
[1]. It is due to carbon steel behavior as it is resistant to corrosion of the separation process
environment which involved hydrogen, isopropyl alcohol and acetone.
8.3.2.7 Vessel thickness, tv
The equation for vessel thickness is specified by the ASME BPV Code (Sec. VIII D.1 Part
UG-27) as stated below.
𝑃𝑖𝐷𝑖
𝑡𝑣 =
2𝑆𝐸 − 1.2𝑃𝑖
Where:
Pi = internal pressure = 0.334 N/mm2
Di = internal diameter = 857 mm
S = maximum allowable stress = 137.896 N/mm2
(0.334)(857)
𝑡𝑣 = = 1.039 mm
2(137.896)−1.2(0.334)
By adding corrosion allowance, tv = 1.038 mm + 2 mm = 3.038 mm
8-81
8.3.2.8 Head and closure selection
For the column head and closure thickness, choice is selected by calculating the minimum
thickness of head type which are hemispherical, torispherical and ellipsoidal head. The
selection is based on the thickness, ability in handling pressure, strength and cost. The
equation involved are stated as in the ASME BPV Code Sec. VIII D.1.
8.3.2.8.1 Hemispherical
Minimum thickness is calculated by using equation below,
𝑃𝑖𝐷𝑖
𝑡ℎ =
4𝑆𝐸 − 0.4𝑃𝑖
(0.334)(857)
𝑡ℎ = = 0.519 mm
2(137.896)(1)−0.4(0.334)
By adding corrosion allowance, th = 0.519 mm + 2 mm = 2.519 mm
8.3.2.8.2 Torispherical
0.885𝑃𝑖𝑅𝑐
𝑡𝑡 =
𝑆𝐸 − 0.1𝑃𝑖
where Rc = Di,
0.885(0.334)(857)
𝑡𝑡 = = 1.837 mm
(137.896)(1)−0.1(0.334)
By adding corrosion allowance, tt = 1.837 mm + 2 mm = 3.837 mm
8.3.2.8.3 Ellipsoidal
𝑃𝑖𝐷𝑖
𝑡𝑒 =
2𝑆𝐸 − 0.2𝑃𝑖
8-82
(0.334)(857)
𝑡𝑒 = = 1.038 mm
2(137.896)(1)−0.2(0.334)
By adding corrosion allowance, te = 1.038 mm + 2 mm = 3.038 mm
In term of strength, hemispherical head is the strongest shape and capable of

resisting about twice the pressure of a torispherical head of the same thickness. In
fact, the cost of forming a hemispherical head will, however, be higher than that for
a shallow torispherical head. Hence, it is arguable to be selected in industry since
it involves higher cost [2].
For ellipsoidal, it is usually used for process with pressure above 10 bar. The shape
of the ellipsoidal head is defined by the ratio of the major and minor axis with
standard arrangement on vessels is the 2:1 elliptical head. This will have a depth
of head which is a quarter of the vessel’s internal diameter. Due to shallow dished
shape, the forming cost is reduced [2]. However, in this design, the head thickness
is higher than wall thickness and make the column unstable. Hence, ellipsoidal
head is unfavorable.
For torispherical shape, which is extensively used as the end closure for a large
variety of cylindrical pressure vessels, usually operates below 10 bar. It is easier to
manufacture because of availability regular circular curves on the edges then a
larger curve as it heads. Torispherical heads are more economical than other types
of domed heads, owing to their compact construction they are used for vertical
pressure vessel. In addition, the thickness is quite similar with the wall thickness so
that it can offers more stability on the column.
Therefore, torispherical head has been selected in this design.
8.3.2.9 Weight loads
Some of the factor that contribute to the weight loads are vessel shell, vessel fittings such
as manway and nozzle, internal fitting such as trays, external fitting such as ladders and
piping and also the insulation material [1].
The column based need to be much thicker in order to withstand the wind and dead loads.
As for trial for weight load calculation, the columns are divided into 5 sections with
8-83
increment of 2 mm per section; 3.038 mm, 5.039 mm, 7.039 mm, 9.039 mm and 11.038
mm. Hence, average 7.039 mm is considered.
8.3.2.9.1 Weight of vessel shell, Wv
Weight of vessel is calculated by using the equation below,
𝑊𝑣 = 240𝐶𝑤𝐷𝑚(𝐻𝑣 + 0.8𝐷𝑚)𝑡
Where,
Cw = a factor to account for the weight of manways and internal support (in this
case, Cv = 1.15)
Dm = mean diameter of vessel [Dc + (t x10-3)], 0.864 m
Hv = height or length between tangent lines, m
t = wall thickness, mm
𝑊𝑣 = 240(1.15)(0.864)[3 + 0.8(0.864)](7.039)
Wv = 8081.552 N = 8.081 kN
8.3.2.9.2 Weight of trays, Wp
Weight of trays is calculated by using the equation below, by assuming typical liquid
loading as 1.2 kN/m2
𝑊𝑝 = 𝐴𝑐 𝑥 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠
Wp = 0.557 m2 x 6 x 1.2 kN/m2 = 4.01 kN
8.3.2.9.3 Weight of ladder, Wl
By taking the cage ladder with the weight of 360 N/m, thus the total weight of ladder
can be determine by multiply the value with column height, Hv,
Wv = 360 N/m x 3 m = 1080 N = 1.08 kN
8-84
8.3.2.9.4 Weight of insulation, Wi
Foam glass has been selected as the insulation material due to several
advantages. For physical attributes, foam glass is resistant to water in both liquid
and vapor forms, non-corrosive and has superior compressive strength. Instead, its
unique benefits have make it favorable in industry application. The benefits are it
offers minimal maintenance or replacement of insulation or so that it can reduces
life-cycle costs. Foam glass also fire resistance that protects the insulated
equipment, and helps minimize subsequent plant shutdown time [3].
By using the foam glass density as 150 kg/m3 and the range of optimum thickness
of foam wall insulation available in market is 30 mm to 120 mm, select the insulation
thickness as 120 mm.
The weight of insulation is calculated by following the equation below.
Approximate volume of insulator, Vi,
𝑉𝑖 = 𝜋𝐷𝑖𝐻𝑣 𝑡𝑖
Vi = 𝜋(0.857)(3)(120x10-3) = 0.969 m3
Hence, the weight of insulator, Wi,
0.969 m3 x 150 kg/m3 x 9.81 m/s2 = 1425.884 N = 1.426 kN
Double the weight to allow attachment fittings, sealing and moisture absorption,
2 x 1.426 kN = 2.853 kN
Therefore, the total weight loads obtained from this column is,
WT = W V + W P + W L + Wi
WT = 8.081 + 4.01 + 1.08 + 1.426
WT = 16.023 kN
8.3.2.10 Wind loading
The function to design the wind loading is to withstand the highest wind speed that is likely
to encounter at the site during the life of the plant. In this design, the dynamic wind pressure
is assumed to be 1280 N/m2.
8-85
The mean diameter which including insulator, Deff is calculated by using the equation
below,
Deff = Di + 2 (tv + ti) x 10-3
Deff = 2 (7.039 + 120) x 10-3
Deff = 0.984 m
Calculate the wind loading, Fw
Fw = Pw x Deff
Fw = 1280 N/m2 x 0.984 m = 1259.52 N
Hence, the bending moment, Mx is,
(𝐹𝑤)(𝐻𝐶 2 ) (1259.52)(32 )
𝑀𝑥 = = = 5667.84 N.m
2 2
8.3.2.11 Analysis of stress
The analysis is involving the stress of pressure, dead weight and bend act on the column.
8.3.2.11.1 Pressure stress, σH and σL
The longitudinal stress, σH and circumferential stress, σL which are due to pressure
is calculated by using equation below,
𝑃𝐷𝑖 (0.334)(857)
𝜎𝐻 = = = 20.332 N/mm2
2𝑡 2(7.039)
𝑃𝐷𝑖 (0.334)(857)
𝜎𝐿 = = = 10.166 N/mm2
4𝑡 4(7.039)
8.3.2.11.2 Dead weight stress, σw
Dead weight stress is contribute by the weight of vessel and any attachment on it.
The stress can be either compressive or tensile, where compressive stress act
above the column while tensile stress act below the column [1].
8-86
𝑊𝑇 16023
𝜎𝑊 = = = 0.839 N/mm2
𝜋(𝐷𝑖+𝑡)𝑡 𝜋(857+7.039)(7.039)
8.3.2.11.3 Bending stress, σb
Bending moments will be caused by the following loading conditions;
1. The wind loads on tall self-supported vessels

2. Seismic loads on tall vessels
3. The dead weight and winds loads on piping and equipment which is
attached to the vessel but offset from the vessel centre line
The bending stress will be compressive or tensile depending on location and are
given by,
𝑀𝑥 𝐷𝑖
𝜎𝐿 = ± ( ) ( ) + 𝑡
𝐼𝑣 2
Where,
Mx = total bending moment, N.m
Iv = second moment area, mm2
Do = outside diameter = Di + 2t
Find the Do,
Do = 857 + 2(7.039) = 871.078 mm
Find the Iv,
𝜋 𝜋
𝐼𝑣 = 64 (𝐷𝑜4 − 𝐷𝑖 4 ) = 64 (871.0784 − 8574 ) = 1.783x109 mm
Hence, to find bending stress,
5667.84𝑥103 857
𝜎𝐿 = ± ( )( ) + 7.039 = ±8.401 N/mm2
1.783𝑥109 2
8-87
8.3.2.11.4 Resultant longitudinal stress, σz
σz = σL + σw ± σb
To check compressive or tensile,
σH – σz = 20.332 -19.406 = 0.92 N/mm2, Hence, it is tensile
Since σw is tensile, therefore it indicates positive value, +0.839 N/mm2
σz (upwind) = 10.166 + 0.839 + 8.401 = 19.406 N/mm2
σz (downwind) = 10.166 + 0.839 - 8.401 = 2.604 N/mm2
The greatest different between the principle stress will be on the downwind side,
σH – σz (downwind)
19.406 – 2.604 = 16.802 N/mm2
Thus, the value obtained is well below the maximum allowable design stress,
137.896 N/mm2
Figure 8.26: Analysis of stress
8-88
8.3.2.12 The resultant buckling stress, σc
Buckling stress is normally occurring at stress that required buckling complete. A column
design must be checked in order to ensure that the maximum value of the resultant axial
stress does not exceed the critical value at which buckling will be occur.
Critical buckling stress is calculated by using equation below,
𝑡
𝜎𝑐 = 2𝑥104 ( )
𝐷𝑜
7.039
𝜎𝑐 = 2𝑥104 ( ) = 161.616 N/mm2
871.078
The maximum compressive stress will occur when the vessel is not under pressure.
σw + σH = 0.839 + 8.401 = 9.24 N/mm2
Since the maximum compressive stress, 9.24 N/mm2 is below than crtitical buckling stress,
161.616 N/mm2, hence, the design is satisfactory.
8.3.2.13 Vessel support
There are various factors that supposed to take in consideration to choose the support for
a pressure vessel or distillation column such as;
1. Size of the column

2. Shape and weight of the column
3. Design temperature and design pressure
4. The location and arrangement of the vessel
5. Internal and external fittings and attachment
Since the column is vertically tall, the skirt support is suggested as shown in the Figure
8.27 [1]. By support the column on the ground, the skirt support has the ability to carry the
total weight loaded by the column and protect the column from superimposed load
especially the wind load. Table 8.23 below list all the parameters involved for vessel
support design.
8-89
Figure 8.27: Straight cylindrical support
Table 8.23: Support design specification
Parameter Value/Description
Type of support Straight cylindrical skirt

Angle of support, Øs 90o
Material of construction Carbon steel
Design stress, S, Fs 137.896 N/mm2
Young modulus, E 210 000 N/mm2
Joint factor, J 1
Column height, Hv 3m
Liquid density, ρL 979.864 kg/m3
Assumption of skirt thickness, Ts 7. 039 mm
Assumption of skirt height, Hs 0.002 mm
8.3.2.13.1 Weight of skirt, Ws
The maximum dead weight load on the skirt will occur when the vessel is full of
water.
The approximate skirt weight, Ws,
𝜋
𝑊𝑠 = ( ) 𝐷𝑖 2 𝐻𝑉 𝜌𝐿 9.81
4
𝜋
𝑊𝑠 = ( 4 ) (0.8572 )(3)(979.864)(9.81) = 16634.417 N = 16.634 kN
8-90
Total weight of the vessel calculated earlier, = 16.023 kN
Thus, total weight carried by the skirt,
WT = 16.023 + 16.634 = 32.657 kN
8.3.2.13.2 Bending moment at skirt base, Ms
By taking wind loading, Fw = 1.259 kN/m
(𝐹𝑤)(𝐻𝑣 + 𝐻𝑠)2
𝑀𝑠 =
2
(1.259)(3+2)2
𝑀𝑠 = = 15.738 kN.m
2
8.3.2.13.3 Bending stress in skirt, σbs
4𝑀𝑠
𝜎𝑏𝑠 =
𝜋(𝐷𝑠 + 𝑡𝑠)(𝐷𝑠)(𝑡𝑠)
Where,
Ms = maximum bending moment, evaluated at the base of the skirt (due to the
wind, seismic and eccentric load), N/m
Ds = inside diameter of the skirt, at the base, mm
ts = skirt thickness (by taking the bottom thickness of the column), mm
4(15.738)𝑥103
𝜎𝑏𝑠 = = 3.846 N/mm2
𝜋(857+7.039)(857)(7.039)
8.3.2.13.4 Dead weight stress in skirt, σws
𝑊𝑉
𝜎𝑤𝑠 =
𝜋(𝐷𝑠 + 𝑡𝑠)𝑡𝑠
8081.552
𝜎𝑤𝑠 = = 0.423 N/mm2
𝜋(857+7.039)7.039
8-91
8.3.2.13.5 Resultant stress in skirt, σs
For maximum (tensile),
σs = σbs + σws = 3.846 + 0.423 = 4.287 N/mm2
For minimum (compressive),
σs = σbs – σws = 3.846 - 0.423 = 3.441 N/mm2
8.3.2.13.6 Criteria for the design
By taking the joint factor, J = 1 and θs = 90°,
For tensile stress,
σs (tensile) < (fs) (J) (sin θ)
4.287 N/mm2 < (137.896) (1) (sin 90)
4.287 N/mm2 < 137.896 N/mm2
Thus, it follows the rule.
For compressive stress,
σs (compressive) < 0.125 (E) (ts/Ds) (sin θ)
3.441 N/mm2 < 0.125 (210000) (7.039/857) (sin 90)
3.441 N/mm2 < 215.605 N/mm2
Thus, it follows the rule.
Both tensile and compressive follow the criteria. Hence, the thickness 7.039 mm
(round off to 8 mm) is valid to be implemented.
8.3.2.14 Base ring and anchor bolts
The loads carried by the skirt are transmitted to the foundation slab by the skirt base ring
(bearing plate). The moment produced by wind and other lateral loads will tend to overturn
8-92
the vessel as this will be opposed by the couple set up by the weight of the vessel and the
tensile load in the anchor bolts. The simplest types, suitable for small vessels, is the rolled-
angle flange rings, as shown in Figure 8.28 which have been implemented in this design
[2].
Figure 8.28: Rolled-angle flange
The following guide rules for selection of the anchor bolts:
1. Bolts smaller than 25 mm diameter should not be used.
2. Minimum number of bolts 8.
3. Use multiples of 4 bolts.
4. Bolt pitch should not be less than 600 mm (2 ft).
The anchor bolts are assumed to share the overturning load equally, and the bolt area
required is given by,
1 4𝑀𝑠
𝐴𝑏 = [ − 𝑊𝑣]
(𝑁𝑏)(𝐹𝑏) 𝐷𝑏
Where,
Ab = Area of one bolt at the root of the thread, mm2
Nb = Number of bolts
Fb = Maximum allowable bolt stress, N/mm2 (Typical design value 125 N/mm)
8-93
Ms = Bending moment at the base, Nm
Wv = Weight of the vessel, N
Db = Bolt circle diameter, m
To calculate approximate pitch circle, Db
Db = Di + 2 (tv + tins) = 857 + 2 (7.039 + 120) = 1111.078 mm
To calculate circumference of bolt circle, Cb
Cb = Db x 𝜋 = 1111.078 𝜋
To calculate number of bolt, at minimum recommended bolt spacing, Nb
111.078𝜋
Nb = = 5.818 = 6
600
Hence, bolt area, Ab
1 4(15.738𝑥103 )
𝐴𝑏 = (6)(125) [ − 8081.552] = 64.775 mm2
1.111
Bolt root diameter, Dbolt
4 4
𝐷𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 = √(𝐴𝑏 ) (𝜋) = √(64.775) (𝜋) = 9.082 mm = 10 mm
Base on Figure 13.30 [2], the type of bolt that recommended to be used is M24 with root
area 353, as show in Table 8.24 below. The selection is made by comparing bolt root
diameter, Dbolt with the D value (refer to the bolt root diameter) in that figure. The nearest
value is then selected.
8-94
Table 8.24: Anchor bolt design
Dimension, mm
Bolt Root A B C D E F G
size area
M24 353 45 76 64 13 19 30 36
Bolt size = Nominal diameter (BS 4190: 1967)
By referring to the dimension as in Figure 8.29 below,
(a)
(b)
Figure 8.29 (a) and (b): Flange ring dimension
Total compressive load on the base ring per unit length, Fb
4𝑀𝑠 𝑊
𝐹𝑏 = [ + ]
𝜋(𝐷𝑠 2 ) 𝜋(𝐷𝑠 2 )
8-95
Where,
Fb = the compressive load on the base ring, N/m
Ds = skirt diameter, m
4(15.783𝑥103 ) 8081.552
𝐹𝑏 = [ + ] = 30 785.911 N/m
𝜋(0.8572 ) 𝜋(0.8572 )
Bearing pressure range is usually at 3.5 N/mm2 to 7 N/mm2. Therefore, the bearing
pressure is taken as 3.5 N/mm2.
Thus, minimum width of the base ring is given by, Lb
𝐹𝑏 30785.911
𝐿𝑏 = = = 8.796 mm = 9 mm
𝐹𝑐 𝑥 103 3.5 𝑥 103
Actual width required, Lbact with Lr value is equal to B value from Table 8.5,
Lbact = Lr + ts + 50 mm = 76 + 7.039 + 50 = 133.039 mm
Actual bearing pressure on concrete foundation, f’c
𝐹𝑏 30785.911
f’c = = = 0.231 N/mm2
𝐿𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑡 133.039
The minimum base ring thickness, tb
3(𝑓 ′ 𝑐)
𝑡𝑏 = 𝐿𝑟√
𝑓𝑟
Where,
Lr = the distance from the edge of the skirt to the outer edge of the ring, mm
tb = Base ring thickness, mm
f c ' = Actual bearing pressure on base, N/mm2
8-96
fr = Allowable design stress in the ring material, typically 140 N/mm2
3(0.231)
𝑡𝑏 = (76)√ 140
= 5.347 mm = 6 mm
8.3.2.15 Design of nozzles (Flanges)
Flanged joints are also used to connect pipes to other equipment, such as pumps and
valves. It connecting pipe sections where ease of assembly and dismantling is required for
maintenance, but pipework will normally be welded to reduce costs.
In this absorption column, 4 main piping have take into consideration such as liquid feed,
vapor feed, bottom and top streams. The choice of piping materials is depending on the
mass flow and density of the stream that passing through the pipeline. For this design,
carbon steel is the most suitable for the piping materials and the type of flanges used is
welding neck type.
The approximate optimum duct diameter for carbon steel is given by,
𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 = 260(𝐺 )0.5 (𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑥 )−0.37
Where, both source are from AspenPlus simulation model
G = mass flow, kg/s
ρ = density of mixture, kg/m3
A typical example of a standard flange design is shown in Figure 13.37 [2]. This was taken
from BS 4504, which has now been superseded by the European standard BS EN 1092.
The design of standard flanges is also specified in BS 1560. The recommended standard
flange is based on the optimum pipe diameter, Di. The dimension of the flange design is
refered as Figure 8.30 below.
8-97
Figure 8.30: Nozzle flange dimension
8.3.2.15.1 Water inlet, Lo (Stream 16)
G = 0.823 kg/s
ρ = 985.678 kg/m3
𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 = 260(0.823)0.5 (985.878)−0.37 = 18.407 mm
By adding corrosion allowance, 18.407 mm + 2 mm = 20.407 mm
Hence, the standard flange design for stream 16 is tabulated as below,
Table 8.25: Standard flange design [2]
Nom Pipe, Flange Raised Bolting Drilling Boss

size Di face
D b h d4 f No. d2 k d3
15 21.3 80 12 20 40 2 M10 4 11 55 30
8.3.2.15.2 Vapor inlet, VN+1 (Stream 7)
G = 0.271 kg/s
ρ = 0.899 kg/m3
𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 = 260(0.271)0.5 (0.899)−0.37 = 137.16 mm
8-98

size Di face
125 139.7 240 18 44 178 3 M16 8 18 200 160
8.3.2.15.2 Top outlet, V1 (Stream H2)
G = 0.189 kg/s
ρ = 0.239 kg/m3
𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 = 260(0.189)0.5 (0.239)−0.37 = 185.663 mm
Hence, the standard flange design for stream H2 is tabulated as below,

size Di face
200 219.1 320 20 44 258 3 M16 8 18 280 240
8.3.2.15.2 Bottom outlet, LN (Stream 8)
G = 0.905 kg/s
ρ = 955.849 kg/m3
𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 = 260(0.905)0.5 (955.849)−0.37 = 19.462 mm
8-99
Table 8.28: Standad flange design [2]

size Di face
20 26.9 90 14 24 50 2 M10 4 11 65 40
8.3.2.16 Specification of Mechanical Design for Absorption Column
Table 8.29: Specification of Mechanical Design for Absorption Column
Types Tray column

Design pressure 0.334 N/mm2
Design temperature 323 K
Material selection Carbon steel SA-516
Plate
Tensile strength 485 MPa
Design stress 137.896 N/mm2
Types of head Torispherical
Thickness 3.038 mm
Corrosion allowance 2 mm
Column Weight
Vessel weight 8.081 kN
Weigh of ladder 1.08 kN
Weight of insulation 2.853 kN
Weight of trays 4.01 kN
Total weight 16.023 kN
Wind Loading
Loading 1259.52 N
Analysis Stress
Pressure stress 20.332 N/mm2, 10.166 N/mm2
Dead weight stress 0.839 N/mm2
8-100
Bending stress ±8.401 N/mm2
Critical buckling 9.24 N/mm2
Vessel Support
Straight cylindrical skirt 90o
Skirt height 0.02 mm
Total weight 32.657 kN
Bending moment 15.738 kN.m
Thickness 7.039 mm
Anchor Bolts
Bolts 8 bolts
Area 64.775 mm2
Bolts root diameter 10 mm
Types M24
Flanges
Types Carbon steel welding neck
Diameter
Water inlet 20.407 mm
Vapor inlet 139.16 mm
Top 187.663 mm
Bottom 21.462 mm
8-101
8-102
8.4 Distillation Column (T-103)
8.4.1 Chemical Design for Distillation Column (T-103)
Distillation is one of the most important method apply in acetone production plant.
Distillation is well established technology that function to separate acetone from IPA-
acetone-water mixture from stream 6 and 8 in an economic way and commercial scale.
This process is being applied to separate acetone from the mixture as the components in
the mixture have difference boiling point and volatility as shown in Table 8.30.
Table 8.30: Boiling Point of Liquid Component
Component Boiling point (°C)

Isopropanol 82.2
Acetone 56.2
Water 100
The following steps should be considered in order to develop reliable design of distillation
column (R.K.Sinnot, 1999);
1. Degree of separation such as products specification being specified.
2. Selecting suitable operating condition: temperature and pressure.
3. Determining number of stage and reflux requirement: number of equilibrium stage.
4. Selecting appropriate contacting device either plate or packing. Determining size of the
column: diameter, number of real stages.
6. Designing the internal of the column: plates, distributors, packing support.
7. Conduct mechanical design: vessels, internal fitting.
Since the distillation process for this acetone plant involved multicomponent distillation, the
process in determining the number of stages and reflux requirement much more complex
than separation process for binary mixture. The complexity of multicomponent distillation
calculation can be reduced by neglecting the component that exist in a small amount at
feed stream.
8-103
Table 8.31: Initial Feed Components Flowrate and Mole Fraction
Components Flow rate (kmol/hr) Mole fraction

IPA 7.3894 0.01593
Acetone 214.1233 0.4616
Water 241.9273 0.5216
Hydrogen 0.2825 0.0006091
DMSO 0.1122 0.0002419
Total 463.83 1
Based on Table 8.31, there are very small amount of hydrogen and DMSO entering T-103,
therefore these two component can be considered as trace and will be neglected during
calculations. Considering only IPA, acetone and water entering T-103, the new mole flow
used in the calculation and targetted split fraction for each component at the top and bottom
of the column being specified as in Table 8.32.
Table 8.32: New Feed Flow for Component Involved, Mole Fraction and Split Fraction
Component Flow rate (kmol/hr) Mole Split fraction Split fraction

fraction (top) (bottom)
IPA 7.3894 0.01595 0.17 0.83
Acetone 214.1233 0.4620 0.9999 0.0001
Water 241.92773 0.5220 0.009 0.991
Total 463.55 1 `
Error between initial and final feed flow entering T-103 can be calculated and the
calculated percentage error between final and inital total flowrate is less than 0.1% which
is 0.07%, therefore the assumption making is acceptable.
8-104
8.4.1.1 Selection of Key Component
Key component desired for separation process will be categorised into heavy key and light
key component. Heavy key component is a component that has high boiling point and it
will be out from top product and being enriched at bottom product. While light component
is the component with low boiling point that is desired to keep out from bottom product and
being enriched at top product.
Table 8.33: Classification of Heavy and Light Key Component in Acetone Production
Plant
Heavy componet (boiling point) Light component (boiling point)

Water (100°C) Acetone (56.2°C)
8.4.1.2 Bubble and Dew Point Temperature
Operating pressure for each stream will be used to determine the bubble and dew point.
Bubble point is the point whereby any rise in the temperature of saturated liquid that will
cause the formation of vapor and it can be determined from the pressure of feed and
bottom stream. Meanwhile dew point is a point whereby any drop in the temperature of
saturated vapor that will cause the formation of liquid droplet and this point can be
determined from the top stream operating pressure. For multicomponent mixtures at given
pressure with the relation of equilibrium constant (K), bubble and dew point can be
calculated as follow;
Bubble point : ∑ 𝑦i = ∑ 𝐾ixi = 1.0 (8.1)
Dew point : ∑ 𝑥 i = ∑ 𝐾 iyi = 1.0 (8.2)
Where:
Ki = equilibrium constant for component i
xi = liquid mol fraction for component i
yi = vapour mol fraction for component i
8-105
Equilibrium constant, K:
P°
K= P
(8.3)
Whereby P° is vapor pressure and P is the operating pressure both in Pa. P° will be
calculated by using Antoinne Equation as in Equation 8.4.
Vapour pressure, Pa = exp (C1 + (C2/T) + (C3lnT) + (C4TC5) (8.4)
Where:
C= antoine constant
T= temperature (K)
Table 8.34: Antoinne Constant for Each Component (R.H Perry & D.W. Green, 1997)
Component Antoine Constant

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5
IPA 96.094 -8575.4 -10.292 1.67E-17 6

Acetone 69.006 -85599.6 -7.0985 6.22E-6 2
Water 73.649 -7258.2 -7.3037 4.17E-6 2
i) Determination of Bubble Point
At feed stream with pressure of 5 atm, temperature required for bubble point to happen is
130.709°C (403.709K).
Table 8.35: Details for Bubble Point Calculations at 130.709°C
Composition Vapor pressure (Pa) Ki xi ∑ 𝑲ixi

IPA 494 654.3 0.976372 0.015945 0.015568
Acetone 769446 1.518768 0.46203 0.701717
Water 274461.9 0.541746 0.522025 0.282805
Total 3.036886 1 1.00009
8-106
At bottom stream with pressure of 1 atm, temperature required for bubble point to happen
is at 99.599°C (372.599K). Data required for the bubble point calculation at bottom stream
as being tabulated in Table 8.36.
Table 8.36: Details for Bubble Point Calculations at 99.599°C
Component Vapour Pressure (Pa) Ki Xi ∑ 𝑲ixi

IPA 186 424.10 1.839863 0.025002 0.046
Acetone 367 450.80 3.626458 1.01E-6 3.65E-6
Water 99 351.72 0.980525 0.974997 0.956009
Total 6.446846 1 1.002
ii) Determination of Dew Point
At top stream with pressure of 1 atm, temperature required for dew point to happen is
57.999 °C (330.999K). Data required for dew point calculation at top stream as being
tabulated in Table 8.37.
Table 8.37: Details for Dew Point Calculations at 57.999°C
Component Vapour Pressure (Pa) Ki yi ∑ 𝑲i/yi

IPA 36 060.73 0.355892 0.005712 0.01605
Acetone 107 353 1.059492 0.984343 0.929071
Water 18 048.07 0.178121 0.009945 0.055835
Total 1.593504 1 1.000955
Table 8.38: Summary for Bubble and Dew Point Temperature
Stream
Feed Top Bottom
Bubble point temperature (K) 407.709 372.599
Dew point temperature (K) 330.999
8-107
8.4.1.3 Relative Volatility
Relative volatility is a measured of the differences between vapor pressure of the more
volatile component of liquid mixture with the vapor pressure of the less volatile
components in the mixture. Relative volatility functions to indicate the ability of the
distillation process to separate high volatility component from less volatility component.
The higher the relative volatility, the easier the separation process will occur. Relative
volatility between components can be expressed as the ratio of their K value as being
illustrated in Equation 8.5.
KLK
𝛼 LHK =
KHK
(8.5)
Where:
KLK = light key components
KHK = heavy key components
Average volatility = 𝛼 avg = (𝛼 top× 𝛼 bot)1/2

(8.6)
Where :
𝛼 top= relative volatility at distillate
𝛼 bot = relative volatility at bottom
Table 8.39: Relative Volatilies of Each Component
Component Top Bottom 𝜶average

Ki 𝛼 Ki 𝛼b
IPA 0.355892 1.998 1.839863 1.876 1.936
Acetone 1.059492 5.948 3.626457 3.698 4.690
Water 0.171821 1.000 0.980528 1.000 1.000
8-108
8.4.1.4 Determination of q Value
λ+Hfs-Hf
q = λ
(8.7)
Where
𝜆 = molar of the latent heat of vaporization
Hfs = molar entalphy of feed at its boiling point
Hf = molar entalphy of feed
(Hfs – Hf) can be calculated by using Equation 8.8;
Hfs – Hf = CpL (TB – Tf) (8.8)
Where:
TB = boiling point of feed
Tf = feed temperature
CpL = specific heat capacity of liquid feed
i) Specific Heat Capacity (Cp)
For heat capacity calculation, equation 8.9 has been employed for heat capacity
calculation of liquid at Tfeed and Tbubble of the feed at column operating pressure.
CpL = A + BT + CT2 + DT3 (8.9)
Tfeed = 354 K, Tbubble = 403.709 K
T = (Tfeed + Tbubble)/2 = 378.85 K
Table 8.40: Data for Heat Capacity Calculation (R.H Perry. & D.W Green., 1997)
Component A B C D CpL,i (J/gmol.K)

IPA 32.43 0.1885 6.406E-6 -9.261E-8 108.0019
Acetone 6.301 0.2606 -1.25E-4 2.038E-8 88.197
Water 32.24 0.01924 1.055E-5 -3.596E-9 40.84775
8-109
Table 8.41: Heat Capacity
Component CpL,i XF CpLXF (J/gmol.K)

IPA 108.0019 0.015944675 1.72209
Acetone 88.197 0.462030252 40.74966
Water 40.84775 0.522025073 21.32355
Total 237.0466 1 63.7953
Hfs – Hf = CpL (TB – Tf)
Hfs – Hf = 63.7953 (403.709 - 354)
Hfs – Hf = 3 171.2 kJ/kmol
ii) Latent heat of Vaporization
8.32BT 2 ∆z
𝜆 = LV = (T+C)2
(8.10)
Where:
Lv = latent heat at the required temperature
T= temperature, K
B, C = coefficient in antoinne equation
∆z = compressibility constant
∆z in Equation 8.10 can be calculated based on equation below;
Pr 0.5
∆z = [1- Tr 3
] (8.11)
Where:
Pr = reduced pressure
Tr= reduced temperature
8-110
Pr and Tr can be calculated via Equation 8.12 and 8.13 respectively:
1
Pr = Pc (8.12)
Tbp
Tr = Tc
(8.13)
Where:
Pc = critical pressure
Tc = critical temperature
Tbp = boiling point temperature
Table 8.42: Compresibilty Constant Calculation
Component Tc Pc Tbp Pr Tr ∆z
IPA 508.2 4.701 355 0.212721 0.698544 0.613137
Acetone 647.096 22.064 329 0.045323 0.508425 0.809411
Water 508.3 4.765 373 0.209864 0.733819 0.684768
Table 8.43: Latent Heat Calculation
Component B C ∆z Lv,i Xf Lv,i Xf

IPA 3 640.20 -53.54 0.613137 25 0.015945 401.5701
185.22
Acetone 2756.22 -45.090 0.809411 23 0.46203 11 049.51
915.12
Water 3885.70 -42.98 0.684768 28 0.522025 14 703.45
166.18
Total 1.000000 26 154.53
8-111
Since value of Lv = 26 154.53 kJ/kmol and Hfs – Hf = 3 171.2 kJ/kmol, thus
λ+Hfs-Hf
𝑞= λ
26 154.53+3 171.2
𝑞= 26 154.53
𝑞 = 1.12, q > 1 feed condition is subcooled liquid
8.4.1.5 Minimun Reflux Ratio (Rmin)
Minimun reflux ratio (Rmin) gives definitation of minimun amount of liquid being returned to
column. Rmin can be identified through the Equation 38.14 that had been develop by
Underwood and Equation 8.15 had being applied in order to solve for 𝜃. Value of 𝜃 usually
lies between relative volatility of light component and heavy component. Data required for
the calculation of 𝜃 and Rm as being tabulate in Table 8.44 and 8.45 respectively.
∝iXid
∑ = Rm + 1 (8.14)
αi-θ
Where:
𝛼 i = relative volatility of component i with respect to some reference component, usually

heavy key
Rm = minimun reflux ratio
xid = concentration of component i in the tops at minimun reflux
∝iXif
∑ = 1-q (8.15)
αi-θ
Where:
xif = concentration of component i in the feed
q= depend on the condition of feed (q > 1 when feed is subcooled liquid)
8-112
Table 8.44: Sumary of Data for Determination of 𝜃 Value
Component xi,f 𝜶i 𝜶i xi,f ∝iXif

∑
αi-θ
IPA 0.015945 1.936 0.030873 -0.41311
0.8 0.462030 4.690 2.167076 0.808812
Water 0.522025 1 0.522025 -0.51635
Total 1 -0.12065
∝iXif
Since q=1.12, thus to give ∑ αi-θ
= -0.12, value of 𝜃 = 2.011 will take into consideration.
Table 8.45: Summary of Data for Determination of Rm
Component xi,top αi xi,top αi θ Rm + 1

IPA 0.0057 1.936267 0.01106 2.011 -0.14799
Acetone 0.9843 4.690333 4.616895 2.011 1.723151
Water 0.0099 1 0.009945 2.011 -0.00984
Total 1 1.565323
From Table 8.45, it give total Rm + 1 = 1.565323, thus soving for Rm = 0.565323
8.4.1.6 Optimun Reflux Ratio
Optimum reflux ratio is an important consideration in order to minimize total cost required
for distillation process. For many system, the optimum reflux ratio usually lies between 1.2
to 1.5 times the minimun reflux ratio.
Optimum reflux ratio = 1.5Rm
= 1.5(0.565323)
= 0.847985
8-113
8.4.1.7 Minimun Number of Stage (using Fenske Equation)
Fenske equation will be used to estimate the minimun stages required at total reflux.
Fenske equation had been rearranged into Equation 8.16 in determining the minimun
stage required.
Xlk Xhk
log[ ]d [ ]b
Xhk Xlk
Nm = (8.16)
log (α)lk
Where:
Nm = minimun number of theoritical staages in column at total reflux
Xlk,d = mol fraction of light key (acetone) at distillate
Xhk,d = mol fraction of heavy key (water) at distillate
Xhk,b = mol fraction of heavy key (water) at bottom
Xlk,b = mol fraction of light key (acetone) at bottom
𝛼 avg,lk = average relative volatility of light key component (acetone)
0.984342678 0.974996957
log[[ ][ ]]
0.009945413 1.0059E-6
Nm = log 4.690333
Nm = 11.88
From the calculated Nm, theoritical nomber of stage could be identified by using Erbar
Maddox Correlation as attached in Figure 8.31. From the figure, following data are being
calculated:
R/(R+1) = (0.85/1.85) = 0.46
Rm/(Rm+1) = (0.565323/1.565323) = 0.36
Nm/Ntheo = 11.88/Ntheo = 0.58
Ntheo = 21 stages
8-114
Figure 8.31: Erbar- Maddox Correlation (Erbar and Maddox, 1961)
8.4.1.8 Efficiency of Plate in Column
Efficiency of colum can be determined from the correlation made by O’Connell. Equation
8.17 expressed the correlation in equation form for estimation of column efficiency.
Equation 8.18 expressed the function in determining the average viscosity (𝜇a).
Eo = 51 – 32.5 log (μaαa) (8.17)
Where:
Eo = column efficiency
𝜇a = molar average liquid viscosity, mNs/m2
𝛼 a = average relative volatility of light key
8-115
1 1
log 𝜇a = (VISA) × [(Taverage) -( VISB)] (8.18)
Where:
VISA, VISB = liquid viscosity constant
Taverage (K) = (Ttop + Tbottom)/2
= (329 + 361)/ 2
= 345 K
Table 8.46: Average Viscosity at 345K
Component VISA VISB Viscosity

(mNs/m2)
IPA 1139.7 323.44 0.602276
Acetone 367.25 209.68 0.205596
Water 658.62 283.16 0.382895
Table 8.47: Molar Average Viscosity
Component Average Viscosity Mol Molar average viscosity

2
(mNs/m ) fraction (mNs/m2)
IPA 0.602276 0.015931 0.009603
Acetone 0.205596 0.461637 0.094992
Water 0.382895 0.521581 0.199881
Total 0.304475
From the data obtained in the tables above, efficiency of column calculated:
Eo = 51 – 32.5 log (0.304475 × 4.690333)
= 45.97% ≈ 46%
8-116
From the efficiency of column obtained, thus the number of actual stage can be determined
based on the Equation 8.19.
Nthe
N= (8.19)
Eo
21
N= 0.46 = 46 stages
8.4.1.9 Feed Point Location
An estimation of feed point location could be made through the application of empirical
equation givenby Kirkbride as shown in Equation 8.20.
Nr B Xf,hk Xb,lk 2
Log Ns = 0.206 log [(D) ( Xf,lk ) (Xd,hk) ] (8.20)
Where:
Nr = number of stages above the feed, including any partial condenser
Ns = number of stages below the feed, including the reboiler
D = molar flow of top stream
B = molar stream of bottom stream
xf,HK = concentration of heavy key (water) in feed stream
xf,LK = concentration of light key (acetone) in feed stream
xb,LK = concentration of light key (acetone) in bottom stream
xd,HK = concentration of heavy key (water) in top stream
Nr 245.9014 0.52203 1.0059E-6 2

Log Ns = 0.206 log [(217.5386) (0.46203) ( 0.009945 ) ]
Nr
Ns
= 1.0517
Nr = 1.0517Ns
Nr + Ns = 46
8-117
1.0517Ns + Ns = 46
2.0517Ns = 46
Ns = 22.4 ≈ 22
Nr = 24
Feed point location is at stage 24.
8.4.1.10 Column and Tray Selection
Plate tower distillation column has been chosen as column type for acetone separation
process as it offers lower cost compared with packed distillation column. Conditions
favoring plate column over packed column can be described as below:
1. Plate column more reliable because of liquid dipersion difficulties faced in packed
column.
2. Plate column may be designed to handle wide range liquid rate without flooding.
3. plate column is preferred for non foaming and corrosive condition.
4. Cleaning process more easier for plate column compared with packed column
5. For large column height, packed column will give disadvantages as it will give more
weight.
6. Packing in packed column may be damaged when experienced rapid temperature

changes.
7. Packed column generally are not designed for column diameter larger than 1.5 meter.
8.4.1.11 Plate Spacing
Colum height will be depending on the spacing between plate. Plate spacing normally
range from 0.5 m to 1.0 m depending on the diameter and also operating condition
(R.K.Sinnot, 1999). For column diameter above 1 m, plate spacing of 0.3 to 0.6 m normally
used. For initial estimation, plate spacing of 0.5 will be used and the value would be revised
later once detailed of the plate design is completed.
8-118
8.4.1.12 Physical Properties
i) Pressure Drop
Assuming 100 mm water pressure drop per plate.
Column pressure drop = ∆P per plate × 𝜌water × g × number of stages
= 0.1 × 1000 × 9.81 × 42
= 41.202 kPa
Top pressure = 101.3 kPa (1 atm)
Estimated bottom pressure = 41.202 + 101.3 = 142.502 kPa
ii) Relative Molar Weight
Relative Molecular Weight (RMW) is the average molecular weight of the mixture for each
stream and this parameter can be identified through Equation 8.21.
RMW= ∑(XiMW) (8.21)
Table 8.48: Component of RMW Calculation
Component MW Xf Xd Xb Density
(kg/kmol) (kg/m3)
IPA 60.1 0.015945 0.005712 0.025002 786
Acetone 58.08 0.46203 0.984343 1.01E-06 791
Water 18 0.522025 0.009945 0.974997 1000
Total
Table 8.49: RMW Value for Each Stream
Component RMW feed RMW top RMW bottom

IPA 0.958275 0.343286 1.502622424
Acetone 26.834717 57.17062 5.84227E-05
Water 9.3964513 0.179017 17.54994523
Total 37.189443 57.69293 19.05262607
8-119
iii) Density of Mixture (PPM)
Liquid density = ∑ 𝜌l = ∑ 𝑋i 𝜌i (8.22)
MW Tstd Pop
Vapor density = ∑ 𝜌v = ∑ × × (8.23)
Vstd Top Pstd
Where:
𝜌l = density of liquid (kg/m3)
𝜌v = density of vapor (kg/m3)
Tstd = Temperature standard (273K)
Top = Temperature operating
Pstd = Pressure standard (1 bar)
Pop = Pressure operating
Table 8.50: Liquid and Vapor Density at Feed Stream (Top = 354K, Pop = 5 bar)
Component Liquid density (𝝆l)

Vapor Density(𝜌v)
IPA 12.5325 10.3456

Acetone 365.4659 9.9979
Water 522.0251 3.0985
Total 900.0235 23.4420
Table 8.51: Liquid and Vapor Density at Top Stream (Top = 329K, Pop = 1 bar)

IPA 4.4896 2.2263

Acetone 778.6151 2.1515
Water 9.94541 0.6679
Total 793.05 5.0447
8-120
Table 8.52: Liquid and Vapor Density at Bottom Stream (Top = 361K, Pop = 1 bar)

IPA 19.6516 2.0289

Acetone 0.0007957 1.9608
Water 974.9969 0.6077
Total 994.6494 4.5975
8.4.1.13 Maximum Allowable Vapor Density, Ûv
(ρl- ρv) 1/2

Ûv = ( -0.171Lt2 + 0.27Lt – 0.047) [ ] (8.24)
ρv
Where :
Ûv = maximum allowable vapour velocity, based on total column cross sectional area (m/s)
Lt = plate spacing (m)
(994.6494- 5.0447) 1/2

Ûv = ( -0.171(0.5)2 + 0.27(0.5) – 0.047) [ 5.0447
]
Ûv = ( 0.04525) (14.0059)
Ûv = 0.63377 m/s
8.4.1.14 Flooding Vapor Velocity (Uf)
Flooding condition will determine the upper limit of vapour velocity. For high plate
efficiencies, a high vapour velocity is requiredand it normally lies between 70 to 90% of
that which would cause flooding. In designing distillation column, value of Uf being
assumed between 80 to 85% of flooding. Uf value can be estimated from the correlation by
Fair (1961) as being states in Equation 8.25.
8-121
𝜌𝐿−𝜌𝑉
Uf = K1 √ 𝜌𝑉 (8.25)
Where:
Uf = flooding vapour velocity (m/s) based on net column cross sectional area, An
K1= a constant (obtained from Flooding Velocity, Sieve Plates figure)
In determination of K1 value, liquid vapor flow factor (FLV) must be calculated from
Equation 8.26;
ρV
Lw
FLV = Vw √ ρL (8.26)
Where:
𝐿𝑤= liquid mass flow rate, kg/s
𝑉𝑤= vapor mass flow rate, kg/s
Liquid Vapor Flow Factor, FLV
5.047
3.4313
FLV = 6.4492 √994.6494
FLV = 0.03789
Based on Figure 8.32, at FLV = 0.03789 and plate spacing of 0.5 m,
K1 = 0.1
994.6494-5.047
Uf = 0.1 √ 5.047
Uf = 1.4003 m/s
8-122
Un = 0.85× flooding velocity
Un = 0.85×1.4003
Un = 1.19 m/s
Figure 8.32: Flooding Velocity, Sieve Plate(R.K. Sinnot, 1999)
8.4.1.15 Column Diameter and Area
Vapor flow rate is an important parameter in determining diameter of column. It is important

that the vapour velocity to be below that which would caused excessive liquid entrainment
(high pressure drop). Based maximun vapor velocity being calculated, diameter of column
then can be calculated as in Equation 8.27.
Ṽw
Dc = √ (8.27)
πρvÛv
Where:
Ṽ𝑤= maximun vapor rate (kg/s)
Ṽ𝑤= D(1+R)
Ṽ𝑤= 217.529(1+0.85)
8-123
Ṽ𝑤= 402.4287 kmol/hr
= 402.4287kmol/hr × 57.6929 kg/kmol
= 23 217.2759 kg/hr
= 6.4492 kg/s
4 ×6.4492
Dc = √𝜋×5.044×0.63377
Dc = 1.6027 m
From the diameter obtained, area of the column can be determined from Equation 8.28.
𝜋𝐷𝑐 2
Ac = (8.28)
4
𝜋(1.6)2
Ac =
4
Ac = 2.0174 m2
8.4.1.16 Liquid Flow Arrangement
Type of plate in distillation column will depend on the liquid flow rate and also column
diameter. An initial selection of plate type can be made by utilizing Figure 8.33. According
to the figure, at Dc = 1.6027 m and liquid flow rate of 0.00345 m3/s, plate type suitable for
the operation is cross flow (single pass) type.
8-124
Figure 8.33: Selection of Liquid Flow Arrangement (R.K. Sinnot, 1999)
8.4.1.17 Provisional Plate Design
Table 8.53: Provisional Plate Design
Column diameter, Dc 1.6 m

Column Area, Ac 2.0 m
Downcomer area, Ad 12%×(2.0 m)= 0.24 m
Net area, An Ac - Ad = 1.76 m
Active area, Aa Ac - 2Ad = 1.52 m
Hole are, Ah (assume 10% of Aa in the first trial) 10%×(1.52 m)= 0.15 m
8.4.1.18 Weir Length
Length of the downcomers will fix the area of the downcomer and it usually be between
0.6 to 0.85 0f the column diameter. Initial value to be used is 0.77 which is equivalent to a
downcomer of 12%. Length of downcomer could be determined based on the figure of
relation between downcomer area and weir length as shown in Figure 8.34.
By referring to the figure at;
(Ad/Ac) × 100% = (0.24/2.0) ×100 = 12%, thus lw/Dc = 0.76
Since lw/Dc = 0.76 and Dc= 1.6 m, thus lw= 1.22 m
8-125
Figure 8.34: Relation between Down Comer Area and Weir Length (R.K. Sinnot, 1999)
8.4.1.19 Weir Height
Height of weir help in determining the volume of liquid on the plate and plate efficiency.
Plate efficiency will increase if the weir height is increase but will contribute to the higher
expense on the pressure drop. For column that operating above atmospheric pressure, the
weir height will normally between 40 mm to 90 mm. The recommended height for weir
design is between 40 mm to 50 mm. Thus in weir design basis of following parameter is
taken into consideration:
Weir height, hw = 50 mm
Hole diameter, dh = 5 mm
Plate thickness = 5 mm
8.4.1.20 Weep Point
Weep point is a condition whereby lower limit of the operating range occurs when liquid
leakage through the plate holes become excessive. To prevent the occurance of weeping
point, the lowest rate of vapour flow velocity must exceed the weep point. As given by
Eduljee (1959), the simplest yet reliable method to calculate minimun velocity required in
order to avoid weeping as shown in Equation 8.29.
8-126
[K-0.9(25.4-dh)]
Ǔh = ρv 0.5
(8.29)
Where:
Ǔh = minimun vapour velocity through the holes (based on hole area), m/s
Dh = hole diameter, m/s
K = constant dependent on the depth of clear liquid on the plate
Clear liquid depth is equal to the height of the weir, hw plus the depth of the crest of liquid
over the weir,how. The depth of the liquid crest over the weir can be estimated by using
Equation 8.30.
Lw
how = 750 [ ] (8.30)
(ρl)lw
Where:
Lw = liquid flow rate,kg/s
lw = weir length, m
how = weir crest, mm liquid
Maximum liquid rate = 3.4313kg/s
Minimun liquid rate at 70% down = 0.7(3.4313) = 2.4019 kg/s
3.4313
Maximum how = 750 [(994.9464)(1.22)]2/3 = 14.9943mm liquid
2.4019
Minimun how = 750 [(994.9464)(1.22)]2/3 = 11.8211 mm liquid
At minimun rate, hw + how = 50 mm + 11.8211 = 61.8211 mm liquid
By referring to the weep point correlation as illustrated in Figure 8.35, at hw + how = 61.8211
mm, the K obtained is 30.37.
8-127
Figure 8.35: Weep Point Correlation (R.K. Sinnnot, 1999)
[30.37-0.9(25.4-5)]
Ǔh =
5.04470.5
= 5.3472 m/s
Actual minimun vapour velocity = minimun vapour rate / Ah = (0.7 × Vmax.base)/ Ah
= (0.7 × 1.2784 m3/s)/ 0.15 m2
= 5.9659 m/s
As actual minimun vapour velocity is higher than vapour velocity at weep point thus
weeping phenomenon can be avoided.
8.4.1.21 Plate Pressure Drop
Maximun vapor velocity through the holes can be calculated from Equation 8.31.
Uh (max) = Vmax /Ah (8.31)
= 1.2784 m3/s / 0.15 m2
= 8.52 m/s
8-128
8.4.1.22 Dry Plate Pressure Drop, hd
The estimation on the dry plate pressure drop for oriface flow could be derived from
Equation 8.32. Value of Co could be determined from the Figure 3.6.
𝑈ℎ 𝜌𝑣
hd= 51[ 𝐶𝑜 ]^2 𝜌𝑙
(8.32)
where:
C0 = function of plate thickness, hole diameter and hole to perforated area ratio
Uh = velocity through holes, m/s
Figure 8.36: Discharge Coeff, Sieve Plates (R.K. Sinnot, 1999)
Based on Figure 8.36, the percent of perforated area;
At Ah/Ap × 100 ≈ Ah/Aa × 100 = 0.15 m / 1.52 m × 100 = 9.89 and
Plate thickness / hole diameter = 5 mm / 5 mm = 1
C0 = 0.84
8.52 5.0447
hd= 51[0.84]^2 994.6494
= 26.61 mm liquid
8-129
8.4.1.23 Residual Head, Hr
Estimation on residual head can be determined from Equation 3.33.
hr = 12.5 × 103 / 𝜌L (8.33)
= 12.5 × 103 / 994.6494
= 12.57 mm liquid
8.4.1.24 Total Pressure Drop
Equation for total pressure drop calculation as given in Equation 3.34.
ht = hd + (hw + how) + hr (8.34)
ht = 26.61 + 61.82 + 12.57
ht = 101 mm liquid
The value of calculated total pressure drop is acceptable as it approximately equal to the
assumption of total pressure drop made in section 5.1.8 before which is 100 mm.
8.4.1.25 Downcomer Pressure Loss
Constriction at the downcomer outlet is the main resistance to flow. Based on Equation
8.35, head loss in the downcomer can be estimated.
Lwd
hdc = 166 [𝜌𝑙𝐴𝑚] (8.35)
where:
Lwd = liquid flow rate in downcomer, kg/s
Am = downcomer area, Ad or clearance area under downcomer, Aap whichever is the

smaller, m2
For clearance area under downcomer, Aap = hapLaw
Where:
hap = height of the bottom edge of the apron above the plate (normally set at 5 to 10 mm
below the outlet weir height).
8-130
hap = hw – (5 to 10 mm)
hap = 50 – 10 = 40 mm
Aap = (40 mm/ 1000 mm) × 1.22 m
= 0.048 m2
Since Ad = 0.24 m, thus Aap smaller than Ad, thus value of Aap wil be taken into
consideration.
3.4313
hdc = 166 [994.6494×0.048]
hdc = 1.48 mm
8.4.1.26 Downcomer Liquid Back Up
hbc = (hw + how) + ht + hdc
hbc = 61.82+ 101 + 1.48
hbc = 164.3 mm
The downcomer are and plate spacing must be such that the level of the liquid and froth in
the downcomer is well below the top of the outlet weir on the pplaye above. Column will
flood if the level rises above the outlet weir. hbc should not exceed half of the plate spacing
in order to avoid flooding.
hbc < 0.5(lt + hw)
0.5(lt + hw) = 0.5 [(0.5m × 1000 mm) + 50 mm] = 260 mm
Since hbc value which is 164.3 mm is less than half of plate spacing which is 260 mm, thus
the value of plate spacing being assumed (0.5 m) can be accepted.
8.4.1.27 Downcomer Residence Time
Sufficient residence time in the downcomer is required to allowed entrained vapor to

disengage from liquid stream. This important to prevent heavily aerated liquid being carried
under the downcomer. Based on Sinnot, a time of at least 3 seconds is recommended.
The downcomer residence time is given as in Equation 8.36.
8-131
tr = Adhbc𝜌l / Lwd (8.36)
tr = 0.24 m2(164.3 mm /1000 mm)(994.6494 kg/m3) / 3.4313 kg/s
tr = 11.4 seconds
8.4.1.28 Entrainment
Entrainment can be estimated from the correlation given by Fair (1961) as shown in Figure
8.7 which gives the fractional entrainment 𝜑 (kg/kg gross liquid flow) as a function of the
liquid vapor factor, FLv with the percentage approach of flooding as a parameter. Effect on
the efficiency of column will be small when the upper limit of 𝜑 is 0.1. Flooding percentage
can be determined as in Equation 8.37.
Percentage flooding = Un ( actual velocity based on net area) / Uf (8.37)
Percentage flooding = 1.19 / 1.4003 × 100
= 84.98 %
Based on Figure 8.37, at percentage flooding of 84.98% and FLV =0.03789, 𝜑 value = 0.09.
As 𝜑 below than 0.1 than there is no effect in the column efficiency.
8-132
Figure 8.37: Entrainment Correlation for Sieve Plate (R.K. Sinnot, 1999)
8.4.1.29 Trial Layout and Perforated Area
The area available for perforation will help to reduce the obstruction caused by structural
members like support rings and beams and also by the used of calming zone. Calming
zone is the area of unperforated plate strips at inlet and outlet sides of the plate. Width of
each zone usually in dimension of 1.5 m below, 7.5 mm diameter and 100 mm above. The
widht for support ring of sectional plates will normally lies between 50 to 75 mm and the
support ring should not extend into the downcomer area. A strip of un pperforated plate
will be left round the edge of cartridge type trays in order to stiffen the plate.plate geometry
will determine the area of unperforated. Relationshipp between weir chord length, chord
height and the angle subtended by the chord is presented in Figure 8.38. Based on Figure
8.38, at Lw/Dc = 0.76, θc= 98°.
Thus angle subtended by the edge of the plate = 180 – 98 = 82°.
8-133
Figure 8.38: Relation Between Angle Subtended by Chord, Chord Height and Chord
Length (R.K. Sinnot, 1999)
i) Holes size and plate thickness
Sized of hole vary from 2.5 to 12 mm and the preferred is 5 mm. Larger size is required
for fouling system. Typical plate thickness used for carbon steel is 5 mm and 3 mm for
stainless steel.
ii) Hole Pitch, lp
Hole pitch describe the distances between hole centre and it should not be less than 0.2
hole diameters. The normal range usually between 2.5 to 4.0 diameters as at this range,
the pitch will give the number of active holes required for the total hole area sppecified.
Triangular pattern is preferred for pitch design. For triangular pitch, total hole area, Ah as
a fraction of the perforated area, Ap can be expressed in the Equation 8.38.
𝐴ℎ 𝑑ℎ
𝐴𝑝
= 0.9 [ 𝑙𝑝 ]2 (8.38)
iii) Mean Length of Unperforated Strips
mean length of unperforated strips = (Dc – 50mm) × 𝜋 × angle subtended by the edge of
the plate / 180°
8-134
mean length of unperforated strips = (1.6 – 50 mm/ 1000 mm)× 𝜋 × 98° / 180°
= 2.65
iv) Area of Unperforated Edge Strips
Area of unperforated edge strip = weir height × mean length, unperforated edge strips
Area of unperforated edge strips = 50 mm/ 1000 mm × 2.65 m
= 0.133 m
v) Mean Length of Calming Zone
App mean length of calming zone = weir length + width of unpperforated strips
App mean length of calming zone = 1.22 m + 50 mm /1000 mm
= 1.27 m
Area of calming zone = 2 × weir height × mean length of calming zone
= 2 × 50 mm/ 1000 mm × 1.27 m
= 0.127 m2
vi) Total Area for Perforations, Ap
Ap = Aa – area of unperforated edge strips – area of calming zone
Ap = 1.52 m – 0.133 – 0.127
= 1.26 m2
Relation between hole area and pitch as been shown in Figure 8.27. Based on Figure 8.39,
at Ah/Ap = 0.15/1.26 = 0.12, Ip/Dh = 2.73. Since Ip/Dh value is within the range of 2.5 to 4.0
thus it is acceptable.
8-135
Figure 8.39: Relation between Hole Area and Pitch (R.K.Sinnot, 1999)
8.4.1.30 Number of Holes
Area of one hole = 𝜋(dh2)/4
= 𝜋(0.0052)/4
= 1.9635E-5 m2
Number of hole per plate = Ah/ area of one hole
= 0.15/ 1.9635E-5
= 8 843 holes
8.4.1.31 Colum Size
Column diameter, dc = 1.6 m
Column area, Ac = 2.02 m
Tray height = no stages x tray spacing = (46-1) x 0.5 =22.5 m
8-136
Column height = 22.5 + 1.2 + 1.8 (1.2 m should be added at top of column for vapor
release and 1.8 should be added at bottom for liquid level and reboiler return)
Column height = 26 m
Length/diameter ratio = 26/1.6 = 16 m
Length to diameter ratio of a tower should be not more than 30 and referably below 20
(ICARUS, 1998). As the calculated ratio is 16 m which is below than 20 m thus the design
calculated is acceptable.
8-137
Table 8.54: Summary Chemical Design of Distillation Colum (T-103)
Parameter Value
Feed temperature 354 K
Distillate temperature 329 K
Bottom temperature 361 K
Type of column Tray tower
Tray type Sieve plate tray
Dew point temperature 330 K
Bubble point temperature 372.54 K
Bubble feed point temperature 407.71 K
Q value 1.12> 1 (subcooled liquid)
Minimum reflux ratio 0.5653
Plate efficiencies 46%
Minimum number of stages 11.88
Number of theoritical stages 21
Number of actual stages 46
Number of stage above fee, Nr 22
Number of stage below feed, Ns 24
Reflux ratio, R 0.85
Plate spacing 0.5
Maximum allowable vapor velocity, Ûv 0.6338 m/s
Column area 2.02 m2
Column diameter 1.6 m
Column height 26 m
Liquid flow pattern Cross flow (single pass) plate
Downcomer area, Ad 0.24 m2
Net area, An 1.76 m2
Active area, Aa 1.52 m2
Hole area, Ah 0.15 m2
Weir length, lw 1.22 m
Weir height 50 mm = 0.05 m
Hole diameter, dh 5 mm = 0.005 m
Plate thickness 5 mm = 0.005 m
Minimum design vapour velocity, Uh (min) 5.3472 m/s
Actual minimum vapour velocity 5.9659 m/s
Plate pressure drop 26.61 mm liquid
½ (plate spacing + weir height) 260 mm
Downcamer liquid back up, hbc 164.3 mm
Residence time 11.4 s
Entrainment 0.09 (below 0.1)
8-138
8-139
8.5 Sequencing Batch Reactor(SBR)
8.5.1 Introduction
SBR technology that involved periodic discontinuous process with activated sludge is
suitable to treat various types of wastewater including domestic wastewater, specific
organic pollutants, heavy metal and various types of industrial wastewater by using diverse
types of reactor configurations (Cui et al. 2013). SBR is suitable to be used for for IPA and
acetone wastewater treatment since periodic operation imposes suitable oxygen gradients
on the microorganisms that overwhelm natural variations in the waste strength and
composition as mention by Woolard (1997). Higher efficient transfer rate of dissolved
oxygen in flocs was proposed as the main reason for the higher IPA and acetone removal
ability in sequencing batch reactor. Besides that, SBR system also suitable to apply for
wastewater stream that contain nickel metal catalyst because of its flexible operation,
controllable in reaction time and has perfect quiescent settling in yielding high efficiency in
biochemical oxygen demand and suspended solid removal about 89–98% and 85–97%
respectively (Malakahmad, A., et al., 2013).
8.5.2 SBR process description
The complete operation of SBR divided into a number of cycles that will bw carried per day
in a single reactor or basin. The duration for each cycle is about 3-6 hours and each cycle
comprises of the following phase which are repeated.
1. Fill
2. Aeration
3. Settling
4. Decanting
The following operation are performed during these steps
i. The wastewater is filled into the basin up to a predetermined operating level.

ii. The wastewater is aerated by the diffuse aeration system as per designed duration.
iii. After the aeration is completed, the biomass or MLVSS is allowed to settle down
by keeping the basin flow quiescent (motionless).
iv. After settling duration is over, the supernatant (clarified effluent) is removed from
the surface of the basin by using a decanter.
v. Excess or surplus sludge
8-140
Figure 3.40: Schematic diagram of a typical cycle of SBR Process.
8.5.1 Chemical Design Calculation of SBR
8.5.1.1 Primary Influent Parameter
Table 8.55: Primary Influent Parameter of Wastewater Discharged from the Process
Plant
BOD 699 mg/L
COD 1500 mg/L
TSS 272 mg/L
TKN 22 mg/L
TP 5 mg/L
Temp. 81ºC
Table 8.56: Desired Effluent Parameter Comply with Sewage Discharged of Standard A
by the Department of Environment
BOD5 < 10 mg/L
COD < 50.0 mg/L
TSS < 10.0 mg/L
TKN <5.0 mg/L
TP <1.0 mg/L
8-141
Considered following design data:
 Filling & aeration period – 2.0 hr
 Settling period – 0.5 hr
 Decantation period -0.5 hr
 Total cyclic time -3.0 hr
 Total number of basin -4
 No. of basin receiving the flow simultaneously- 2
 No. of basin aerated simultaneously- 2
 No. of basin decanted simultaneously- 2
 MLSS in aeration tank – 4000 mg/L
 MLVSS aeration tank –3200 mg/L
 F/M ratio -0.12
8.5.1.2 Flowrate Design, Q
For the design of flowrate, it is recommended that the peak flow (maximum daily flow,
Qpeak) is used. The Qaverage can get from manual mass balance.
An appropriate peaking factor must be determined by the design engineer based on the
operational characteristics of the manufacturing processes employed in the industry. For
the industrial wastewater treatment practice, the peaking factor chosen is 2.5.
Based on mass balance values, the overall wastewater effluent is 3695.272 kg/h.
3695.272 𝑘𝑔 24 ℎ 1 𝐿 1 𝑚3
× × ×
ℎ 𝑑 1 𝑘𝑔 1000 𝐿
= 88.687 m3/d
Qpeak is computed from the relationship:
Qpeak = Qaverage x peaking factor (2.5)
Where,
Qpeak = Maximum peak flow (m3/d)
8-142
Qaverage = Average flow (m3/d)
Therefore,wastewater flowrate in day, Qpeak:
Qpeak = 88.687 m3/hr × 2.5 (peaking factor)
= 221.718 m3/day
8.5.1.3 Tank Design
The effective part of the tank (the volume between the lowest operating level and the
highest level, allowing for at least 0.5 m of freeboard) should be sized to contain the volume
of the peak hourly flow received during that portion of the SBR(s) cycle time when there
will be no forward flow or the volume of one batch, whichever is larger. In addition to this,
side stream/recycle flows should be included in the sizing.
Total volume of the basin
V= flow (𝑚3 /d) * Bod (mg/L) / MLVSS *f/m
𝑚3 𝑚𝑔
221.718 𝑑 ×699 𝐿
= 𝑚𝑔
3200 ×0.12𝑑−1
𝐿
= 403.596 m3
Volume of each basin
Number of basin = 4
403.596𝑚3
Volume of each basin = = 100.899 m3 ≈ 101 m3
4
Area of each basin
Depth of basin = 3 m × 0.5(freeboard) = 1.5 m
Therefore, depth of basin = 3 m + 1.5 m = 4.5 m
8-143
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 100.899 𝑚3
Area of each basin = = = 22.422 m2
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 4.5 𝑚
Width of basin
Providing length = 10 m
22.422 𝑚2
Width of basin = = 2.242 m ≈ 2.3 m
10 𝑚
Size of each basin
= 4.5 m ×10 m × 2.3 m
= 103.5 m3
Hydraulic retention time (HRT) for the basin
= V/Q
101 𝑚3
=
221.718 𝑚3 /𝑑
24 ℎ
= 0.46 d ×
𝑑
= 10.9 h ≈ 11 h
8.5.1.4 Design of Anoxi Zone for removal of nitrogen (TKN) by Denitrification
Flow rate of anoxic zone of each basin
V=Q×T
Q = V/T
Q = (101) m3/ (11) h
Q = 9.182 m3/h ≈ 9.2 m3/h
Providing recirculation ratio (𝑄𝑟 ) of 25% of flow rate
Flow rate to anoxic zone to each basin
8-144
= Q + 𝑄𝑟
= 9.2 + (0.25 × 9.2) m3/h
= 11.5 m3/h ≈ 12 m3/h
Providing HRT = 1 hour
Volume of anoxic zone
= Q + 𝑄𝑟 × HRT
= (12) m3/h × 1 h
= 12 m3
Providing depth = 4.5 m
Providing length = 5 m
Width of anoxic zone
12𝑚3
= = 0.53 m
4.5 𝑚 ×5 𝑚
Total volume provided for anoxic zone
= 4.5 m × 5 m × 0.53 m
= 11.93 m3 ≈ 12 m3
8.5.1.5 Determination of 𝑶𝟐 required at given flow condition
O2 for BOD removal
 1.2 kg 𝑂2 / kg BOD
 Inlet BOD = 699 mg/L
 Outlet BOD = 10 mg/L
 BOD removed = 689 mg/L
 Note: g/m3 = mg/L
8-145
Kg of BOD removed
= BOD × Q
= (689) g/m3 × 221.718 m3/day
= 152763.702 g/day
= 152.764 kg/d
Safety factor theoretical kg 𝑂2 required per kg of BOD - 10%
1.2 ×110
= = 1.32
100
Kg of O2 required for BOD load
= (safety factor) × (kg of BOD removed)
= 1.32 × 152.764 kg/d
= 201.648 kg/d
O2 for N2 removal
 Inlet Total kjeldhal nitrogen (TKN) = 22 mg/ L
 Outlet ammonical nitrogen = 1 mg/L
 Outlet nitrate nitrogen = 10 mg/L
 4.6 kg O2/NH3-N kg
NH3-N Removed in day
= (Inlet TKN) – (Outlet Ammonical Nitrogen)
= 22 mg/L – 1 mg/L
= 21 mg/L
Kg of N𝐻3 -N Removed in day
8-146
= Q × (NH3-N Removed in day)
= (221.718) m3/day × (21) g/m3
= 4656.078 g/d
= 4.66 kg/d
Kg O2 required for NH3-N removed
= 4.6 × (Kg of N𝐻3 -N Removed in day)
= 4.6 × 4.66 kg/d
= 21.436 kg/d
NO3-N generated
 Assuming 75 % of nitrification occurs
= Q × (NH3-N Removed in day) × 0.75
= (221.718) m3/day × 21 g/m3 × 0.75
= 3492.059 g/d
= 3.492 kg/d
Amount of in NO3-N treated water
= Q × (Outlet nitrate nitrogen)
= (221.718) m3/day × 10 g/m3
= 2.22 kg/d
Quantity of nitrate–nitrogen that is denitrified
= (NO3-N generated) – (Amount of in NO3-N treated water)
= 3.492 kg/d - 2.22 kg/d
= 1.272 kg/d
Total kg of 𝑂2 required /day
8-147
= (Kg of O2 required for BOD load) + (Kg O2 required for NH3-N removed)
= 201.648 kg/d + 21.436 kg/d
= 223.084 kg/d
 Safety factor = 10%
Therefore, Total kg of 𝑂2 required /day
kg
223.084 d ×110
= = 245.392 kg/d
100
8.5.1.6 Determination of quantity of air required at standard condition
 Total oxygen required (actual) 𝑂2 required, AOR = 245.392 kg/d
 Total 𝑂2 required at standard condition, SOR, for the field condition is given by
equation:
𝐴𝑂𝑅
SOR =
(𝛽𝐶 ′ −𝐶)/(𝐶𝑆𝑊 )×𝑓×𝛼×1.024𝑇−20
β = salinity correction factor = 0.95
α = oxygen transfer correction factor =0.65
ƒ =fouling factor = 0.90
𝐶′𝑠𝑤 = solubility of oxygen in tap water at 25 ℃ = 8.40 mg/L
𝐶𝑠𝑤 = solubility of oxygen in tap water at 20 ℃ = 9.17 mg/L
C = DO Concentration in aeration basin = 2.0 mg/L (Assumed)
T = Operating temperature in aeration basin = 81 ℃
245.392 kg/d
SOR = 0.95×(8.4−2)𝑚𝑔/𝐿
[ (9.17)𝑚𝑔/𝐿 ]×0.90×0.65×1.024(81−20)
245.392
=
1.648
= 148.90 kg/d
 Standard oxygen transfer efficiency of diffuser per meter depth = 5.6 % / m
8-148
 Liquid level of aeration basin = 4.5 m
 Height at which diffuser are kept = 0.4 m
Effective aeration depth
= Liquid level of aeration basin - Height at which diffuser are kept
= 4.5 m - 0.4 m
= 4.1 m
SOTE (Standard oxygen transfer efficiency) the above aeration depth
= (Standard oxygen transfer efficiency of diffuser) × (Effective aeration depth)
= 5.6 % /m × 4.1 m
= 22.96%
Air required at field condition per basin (consider 4 basin)
 Fraction of 𝑂2 in air = 23.2 %
 Specific gravity of air = 1.204
= 245.392 kg/d ÷ 4
= 61.438 kg/d
61.438×100×100
=
22.96×23.2×1.204
= 957.97 Nm3/h/basin
Air required per hours per basin
 Hours of aeration time per basin per day= 12 hrs /d/basin
957.97
=
12
= 79.831 Nm3/h/basin
8-149
Number of operating blower at any time in basin – 2
= Air required per hours per basin / 2
= 79.831 / 2
= 39.92 Nm3/h
Calculation for air blower
Assume 70 % of capacity of at standards condition and blowers are capable 1.5 kg per
kWh at standard condition.
61.438
So, power required = = 58.512 kWh
0.7×1.5
Sludge generates & wasted calculation
 Sludge generated = 0.80 kg/kg BOD
 Kg of BOD removed in a day = 152.764 kg/d
Sludge generated per day
= (Sludge generated) × (Kg of BOD removed in a day)
= 0.80 × 152.764
= 122.211 kg/d
Sludge generated per basin
 Number of basin = 4
= 122.211 kg/d ÷ 4
= 30.6 kg/d/basin
8-150
Total volume of sludge wasted
 Consistency of sludge solids = 0.8 %
 Specific Gravity of sludge = 1.5
 Density of water = 1000 kg/m3
122.211×100
=
1000×1.5×0.8
= 10.184 m3/d
Sludge wasted per basin
= 10.184 m3/d ÷ 4
= 2.55 m3/d
Sludge wasted per cycle per basin
 Number of cyclic per day per basin = 8
30.6 kg/d ÷ 8 = 3.83 kg/d
2.55 m3/d ÷ 8 = 0.32 m3/d
8.5.1.7 Pump capacity
 Assuming pump running period per cycle = 15 min
Pump capacity
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒×60
=
𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
2.55×60
=
15
= 10.2 m3/h
Provide 2 pump (1 working + 1 standby) by each capacity of 10.2 m3/h
8-151
8.5.1.8 Chemical Design Specification Data
Table 8.57: Chemical Design Specification data
Parameter Value
Inlet Flowrate 221.718 m3/day
Tank volume 101 m3
Area of each basin 22.422 m2
Size of each basin 103.5 m3
Hydraulic retention time (HRT) 11 h
Kg of BOD removed 152.764 kg/d
Kg of O2 required for BOD load 201.648 kg/d
Total 𝑂2 required at standard 148.90 kg/d

condition, SOR
Sludge generated per day 122.211 kg/d
Total volume of sludge wasted 10.184 m3/d
Pump capacity 10.2 m3/h
8.5.2 Mechanical Design of SBR
8.5.2.1 Introduction
In this section, the mechanical design of SBR will be covered. The mechanical design is
based on determination of material of construction, design pressure, pipe diameter used,
type of flange, and vessel support. The drawing in the design shows the important
dimensions of the SBR such as the depth, wall thickness, and others important dimensions
of the SBR.
8.5.2.2 Material of contruction
For the construction of SBR, Fibre Reinforced Plastics (FRP) was choosen as the main
material to be used for the construction. An FRP structure typically consists of an
unsaturated polyester (UP) resin applied to a mould in combination with reinforcement,
most commonly glass fibre, to form a part that is rigid, highly durable and low in weight.
FRP provides an unrivalled combination of properties:
8-152
 Light weight
 High strength-to-weight ratio (kilo-for-kilo it’s stronger than steel)
 Design freedom
 High levels of stiffness
 Chemical resistance
 Good electrical insulating properties
 Retention of dimensional stability across a wide range of temperatures
With its excellent resistance to corrosion and chemical attack, FRP is widely used in the
chemical industry for the construction of pipe work and for chemical storage vessels, fume
scrubbers and many other high performance applications. Vinyl ester and epoxy vinyl ester
resins have been developed to give high levels of chemical resistance even in the most
aggressive environments. Besides from its excellent resistant to corrosion and chemicals,
FRP provide a cost effective choice in for the industrial application. Table 8.58 below show
the properties of FRP.
Table 8.58: Properties of Fibre Reinforced Plastics (FRP)
Properties Value
Maximum pressure (bar) 10
Maximum allowable stress (psi) 9500
Operating temperature ( ̊ C) 1-50
Density (kg/m3) 1522.3
8.5.2.3 Design pressure
A suitable design pressure need to be calculated to determine the maximum pressure that
the tank can withstand during operation. The calculated design pressure will be added with
10% normal working pressure for the purpose of safety. For SBR tank, the working
pressure is assumed at the ambient pressure which is at 1 bar.
So, the design pressure above 10% of operating pressure is:
= 1 × 1.1
= 1.1 bar
8-153
= 0.11 N/mm2
8.5.2.4 Design temperature
The normal operating temperature to be used for designing the SBR tank is at the ambient
temperature which is at 32oC. Safety factor of 10% from the operating temperature will be
considered during the calculation of design temperature.
So, the design temperature for clarifier tank is:
= 32 × 1.1
= 35.2 oC
8.5.2.5 Wall thickness
Minimum wall thickness is required for designing of SBR tank to ensure that the tank can
withstand its weight or loads build up in the tank. Assumption was made for the wall
thickness and the value obtained is 6.5 mm (Molded Fiber Glass, 2016) for the wall
construction of SBR. Corrosion allowance of 2 mm must be considered in the during the
calculation.
Twall = 6.5 mm + 2 mm = 8.5 mm
8.5.2.6 Pipe diameter
Density = 937.94 kg/m3
Mass flowrate, G: 3695.27 kg/h = 61.59 kg/s
doptimum = 0.664(61.59)0.51 (937.94)-0.36
= 0.462 m
= 462 mm
8.5.2.7 Design of flange
Standard flanges are available in a range of types, sizes and materials, and are used
extensively for pipes, nozzles and other attachment to tanks. The standard flange
8-154
dimensions can be obtained from ASME B16.5 Annex F. The flange used for SBR tank
was assumed to be the same for the inlet and outlet pipe.
Table 8.59: Standard flange dimensions in inches for welding-neck flanges based on
ASME B16.5 Annex F
Flange Nominal Outside Thickness Diameter Diameter Length

Class Pipe Size, Diameter of Flange, of Hub, X of Through
Inch of Flange, tf Beginning Hub, Y
O Chamfer,
A
150 24 32 1.81 26.12 24.00 5.94
8.5.2.8 Type of support
There are two types of support that can be used for designing the SBR tank. Figure 8.41
shows the type of support available to be used for SBR.
Figure 8.41: Type of supports. (a) Conical skirt supports. (b) Supported on leg bracket
supports
Skirt supports are used for tall vertical columns while bracket supports are used for all
types of vessel. The supports must be designed to carry weight of the SBR. The function
of supports is designed to allow easy access to the SBR and fittings for inspection and
maintenance. For this design support of SBR tank, the suitable type of support to be used
based from the justification is bracket support.
8-155
8-156
REFFERENCES
[1] Robert E. Treybal, Mass Transfer Operations, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 3rd ed. 1981.
[2] Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 8th ed. 1997.
[3] R. K. Sinnott, Coulson & Richardson’s Chemical Engineering: Chemical

Engineering Design (vol. 6), Butterworth-Heinemann, 3rd ed. 1999
[4] Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, McGraw-Hill Companies, 7th ed. 1997.
[5] Henry Z. Kister, Distillation Design, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1st ed. 1992.
[6] Christie J.G., Pearson New International Edition: Transport Process & Separation
Process Principles (Includes Unit Operations), Pearson Education Limited, 4th
Edition. 2014.
[7] NPTEL-Chemical Engineering Design Handbook. 2014.
[8] Retrieved from

http://encyclopedia.che.engin.umich.edu/Pages/SeparationsChemical/Absorbers/
Absorbers.html
[9] E.Edwards, J. (2008, August 08). Design and Rating Shell and Tube Heat
Exchangers. Retrieved from
http://www.chemstations.com/content/documents/Technical_Articles/shell.pdf
8-157

Chapter 8a

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 8a

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CHAPTER 8

CHEMICAL AND MECHANICAL DESIGN

8.1 Plug Flow Reactor, R-101

8.1.1 Chemical Design for PFR, R-101

8.1.1.1 Design Method

Below is the step taken for the chemical design of reactor:

Figure 8.1: Flowchart for designing a reactor

Table 8.1: Reactor Design Summary Equipment Specification Sheet

Table 1: Reactor Design Summary Equipment Specification Sheet

Reactor Type = Isothermal

Conversion of Methanol = 99%

Operating Temperature = 623 K

Operating Pressure = 1 bar

Molar Feed rate = 223.701 kmol/hr

Reaction Rate, k = 351000 s-1 at 623 K

6. Total Reactor Volume

Total volumetric flow rate entering the reactor is:

7. Tube Length Suitable Checking

Table 8.2: Dimension of Standard Steel Pipe

Length of pipe selected = 4.5 m

Where; (E.Edwards, 2008)

Table 8.3: Raney-Nickel catalyst information

Volume catalyst used = 0.65 x 0.0039427 m3 x 1372 tubes

Initially, simple jacket is chosen because;

Data heat of reaction from energy balance:

Mole flow rate of Isopropanol = 223.701kmol/h

Table 8.4: Enthalpy table for reactor (R-101) Subtance

Energy balance in jacket

Area for molten salt in reactor,

Specific heat for molten salt, CP = 1.53 J/g.K = 1.53 kJ/kg.K

5.789 kW= ṁCp ∆T

8.1.2 Mechanical Design for PFR, R-101

8.1.2.1 Thickness of vessel reactor

For safety factor = 1.5 x operating pressure

Pi = 1.5 x 0.1 N/mm2

Material of construction = carbon steel, SA-516

E = maximum allowable joint efficiency

Corrosion allowances of the wall thickness = 2 mm

Vessel thickness = 0.7 mm + 2 mm

8.1.2.2 Head and column thickness

For standard ellipsoidal head:

Vessel head thickness, t = corrosion allowance + e’

As a conclusion, ellipsoidal heads type is selected because it shows economical

8.1.2.3.1 Weight load of shell

Ws = 240 x Cv x Dm x (Lv + 0.8Dm) t

= 1.20 m + 2.7 x 10-3 m

Cv = Internal fitting factor

= 1.08 (vessel with few internal fitting)

8.1.2.3.2 Weight of load pipe

Hence, for 1372 tubes,

WP = Number of pipes ×weight of pipe ×length ×9.81

8.1.2.3.3 Weight of insulation material (Wi)

Fiberglass (density = 100kg/m3) is used as insulated material. The thickness is 90 mm.

Approximate volume of insulation = π x Dm x 60 x 10-3 x Lv

= π ×1.2027 m×90×10-3 m×4.50m

= 1.020 m3 x 100 kg/m3 x 9.81

Double this to allow for fittings etc

8.1.2.3.4 Weight load of fluid (shell side)

Wfs = mass flowrate (shell side) x 9.81

= 3.78 kg/s x 9.81

8.1.2.3.5 Weight load of fluid (tube side)

Wft = mass flowrate (tube side) x 9.81

= 14968.7 kg/hr x 1 hr/3600 s x 9.81

8.1.2.3.6 Weight of catalyst