10/9/2011

By  S K Mondal

Welding Definition Requirement for a high quality welding
y Welding is a process by which two materials, usually 1. A source of satisfactory heat and/or pressure,
metals, are permanently joined together by
coalescence, which is induced by a combination of 2. A means of protecting or cleaning the metal, and
temperature, pressure, and metallurgical conditions.
3 Caution to avoid,
3. avoid or compensate for,
for harmful
y The particular combination of these variables can
range from high temperature with no pressure to high metallurgical effects.
pressure with no increase in temperature.
y Welding (positive process)
y Machining (negative process)
y Forming, casting (zero process)

Classification of welding processes Weldability / Fabrication Processes

¾ Oxy fuel gas welding (OFW)
¾ Arc welding (Aw) y The weldability of a material will depend on the
¾ Resistance welding specific welding or joining process being considered.
¾ Solid state welding (friction welding, ultrasonic welding, y For resistance welding of consistent quality, it is
forge welding etc.) usually necessary to remove the oxide immediately
y Unique process before welding.
¾ Thermit welding y Fabrication weldability test is used to determine
¾ Laser beam welding mechanical properties required for satisfactory
¾ Electroslag welding performance of welded joint.
¾ Flash welding y The correct sequence of the given materials in
¾ Induction welding ascending order of their weldability is
¾ Electron beam welding Aluminum < copper < cast iron < MS Contd…

1

Case of Aluminium
y The oxide coating on aluminum alloys causes some
difficulty in relation to its weldability.
y It also has high thermal conductivity and a very short
temperature range between liquidus and solidus and when
liquid its viscosity is very low.
low
y Aluminium is poor absorber of laser light.
y During fusion welding, the aluminum would oxidize so
readily that special fluxes or protective inert‐gas
atmospheres must be employed.
y Friction welding and TIG welding is good for aluminium.
y For aluminium AC current plus high frequency is must.
Case of Stainless Steel
y Stainless steel is a difficult metal to weld because it
contains both nickel and chromium.
y The best method for welding stainless steel is TIG
welding.
y The electric arc is also preferred for welding stainless
steels. A heavily coated welding rod, which produce a
shielded arc, is employed.
y You must do a better job of pre‐cleaning.
y Using a low arc current setting with faster travel
speeds is important when welding stainless steel,
because some stainless steels are subject to carbide
precipitation.
Contd…..
IES 2010
Assertion (A): It is generally difficult to weld
Aluminum parts by normal arc welding process.
Reason (R): Hard and brittle Aluminum‐oxide film
is formed at the welded joints.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT the
correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
10/9/2011
Case of Cast Iron
y Cast iron is more difficult to weld because of its high
carbon content and brittleness (poor ductility)
y Massive carbon deposits have a tendency to form in
the areas adjacent to the weld, and high‐carbon
martensite tends to form in the heat affected zones.
heat‐affected zones
These microstructures are very brittle and may crack
spontaneously while welding is in progress or later
when load is applied to the workpiece.
y Cast iron can be joined by the oxyacetylene brazing
process and shielded metal‐arc welding (stick)
process.
y Some cases preheating and/or post heating is required.
Case of Stainless Steel
y The ferritic stainless steels are generally less weldable
than the austenitic stainless steel and require both
preheating and postweld heat treatments.
y Welds of ferritic stainless steel can be by
(i) autogenously (i.e.
(i e without the addition of filler
metal)
(ii) with an austenitic stainless steel
(iii) using a high nickel filler alloy.
(iv) Type 405 filler (low 11% Cr, low carbon and small
0.2% Al)
y Welding process: TIG, MIG, Shielded‐metal arc
welding and Plasma arc welding
IES‐2006
Assertion (A): Aluminium has poor weldability.
Reason (R): Aluminium has high thermal 
conductivity and high affinity to oxygen.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the 
correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the 
correct explanation of A 
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
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IES 2011 IES 2011
During plasma arc welding of aluminium, improved Consider the following statements.
removal of the surface oxide from the base metal is Cast iron is difficult to weld, because of
obtained with typical polarity of : 1. Low ductility
(a) DC Straight 2. Poor fusion 
(b) DC reverse 3. Tendency to crack on cooling
(c) AC potential Which of these statements are correct ?
(d) Reverse polarity of phase of AC potential (a) 1, 2 and 3 
(b) 1 and 2 only 
(c) 2 and 3 only 
(d) 1 and 3 only

IES‐2006 IES‐1999
Fabrication weldability test is used to determine The correct sequence of the given materials in 
(a) Mechanical properties required for satisfactory  ascending order of their weldability is
performance of welded joint (a) MS, copper, cast iron, aluminium
(b) Susceptibility of welded joint for cracking (b) Cast iron, MS, aluminium
Cast iron  MS  aluminium copper
(c) Suitability for joint design (c) Copper, cast iron, MS, aluminium
(d) Appropriate machining process (d) Aluminium, copper, cast iron, MS

IES 2010 IES 2010
Weldability of ferritic stainless steel used in Consider the following statements regarding
automotive exhaust system is improved by welded joints:
selecting stainless steel electrode having low 1. It is a permanent type of joint.
content of 2. It is reliable and economical for pressure vessel
construction.
construction
(a) Carbon (b) Nitrogen
3. It is free from fabricational residual stresses.
(c) Chromium (d) Carbon and Nitrogen
4. Such joints are suitable for static loading only.
5. Welding is a versatile and flexible metal joining process.
Which of the above statements are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only
(c) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 (d) 1, 2 and 5 only

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Gas Flame Processes:  y Combustion of oxygen and acetylene (C2H2) in a 
Welding, Cutting and Straightening welding torch produces a temp. in a two stage reaction. 
y Oxy‐fuel gas Welding (OFW): Heat source is the y In the first stage
flame produced by the combustion of a fuel gas and C2 H2 + O2 → 2CO + H2 + Heat
oxygen. This reaction occurs near the tip of the torch.
y In the second stage combustion of the CO and H2 and 
y OFW has largely been replaced by other processes but occurs just beyond the first combustion zone.
it is still popular because of its portability and the low 2CO + O2 → 2CO2 + Heat
1
capital investment.
2 2 → H2O + Heat
H2 +   O
Oxygen for secondary reactions is obtained from the 
y Acetylene is the principal fuel gas employed. atmosphere.

Three types of flames can be obtained by varying y A higher ratio, such as 1.5 : 1, produces an oxidizing
the oxygen/acetylene (or oxygen/fuel gas) ratio. flame, hotter than the neutral flame (about 3300oC)
y If the ratio is about 1 : 1 to 1.15 : 1, all reactions are but similar in appearance.
carried to completion and a neutral flame is produced. y Used when welding copper and copper alloys but
y Most welding is done with a neutral flame, since it will harmful when welding steel because the excess oxygen
have
h the
th least
l t chemical
h i l effect
ff t on the
th heated
h t d metal.t l reacts with
ith the carbon,
carbon decarburizing
decarburi ing the region
around the weld.

Oxy‐acetylene gas welding Oxidising flame
Oxy‐acetylene gas welding neutral flame

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y Excess fuel, on the other hand, produces a carburizing

flame.
y The excess fuel decomposes to carbon and hydrogen, Metal Flame
and the flame temperature is not as great (about MS N
3000oC). High carbon steel R
y Flames of this type are used in welding Monel (a Grey cast iron N, slightly oxidizing
Alloy steel N
nickel‐copper alloy), high‐carbon steels, and some Aluminium Slightly carburizing
alloy steels, and for applying some types of hard‐facing Brass Slightly oxidizing
material. Copper, Bronze N, slightly oxidizing
Nickel alloys Slightly carburizing
Lead N

Oxy‐acetylene gas welding Carburizing flame

IES 2009 Conventional
Explain the three types of oxy‐acetylene flames.
Indicate with the help of sketches the various
zones, respective temperature ranges and
applications of each type of flame.

[ 20 – Marks]

Uses, Advantages, and Limitations
y OFW is fusion welding.
y No pressure is involved.
y Filler metal can be added in the form of a wire or rod.

Diagram y Fluxes may be used to clean the surfaces and remove

contaminating oxide. The gaseous shield produced by
vaporizing flux can prevent oxidation during welding,
and the slag produced by solidifying flux can protect
the weld pool. Flux can be added as a powder, the
welding rod can be dipped in a flux paste, or the rods
can be pre‐coated.

Contd…

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y Exposer of the heated and molten metal to the various Oxy acetylene welding equipment

gases in the flame and atmosphere makes it difficult to
prevent contamination.
y Heat source is not concentrated, a large area of the
metal is heated and distortion is likely to occur.
y Flame welding is still quite common in field work, in
maintenance and repairs, and in fabricating small
quantities of specialized products.
y Oxygen is stored in a cylinder at a pressure ranging
from 13.8 MPa to 18.2 MPa .
y Due to high explosiveness of free acetylene it is stored
in a cylinder
y with 80‐85% p porous calcium silicate and
then filled with acetone which absorb upto 420 times
by its volume at a pressure 1.75 MPa .
y At the time of acetylene release if acetone comes with
acetylene the flame would give a purple colour.
y Another option is acetylene generator.
CaC2 + 2 H 2O → C2 H 2 + Ca (OH )2

IES 2010
Pressure Gas Welding The ratio between Oxygen and Acetylene
y Pressure gas welding (PGW) or Oxyacetylene gases for neutral flame in gas welding is
Pressure Welding is a process used to make butt (a) 2 : 1 (b) 1 : 2
joints between the ends of objects such as pipe
aand‐railroad
d a oad rail.
a . ((c)) 1 : 1 ((d)) 4 : 1
y The ends are heated with a gas flame to a
temperature below the melting point, and the soft
metal is then forced together under considerable
pressure.
y This process, therefore, is actually a 'form of solid‐
state welding.

GATE‐1994 GATE‐2003
In Oxyacetylene gas welding, temperature at the 
The ratio of acetylene to oxygen is inner cone of the flame is around
approximately………. for a neutral flames used in
(a) 3500°C 
gas welding.
(b) 3200
3200°C 
C 
(a)
( ) 1:1
(c) 2900°C 
(b) 1 : 2
(d) 2550°C
(c) 1 : 3
(d) 1.5 : 1

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IES 2010 GATE‐2002
Assertion (A): Oxidizing flame is used in gas
welding to join medium carbon steels having high The temperature of a carburising flame in gas
melting point. welding is that of a neutral or an oxidising flame.
Reason (R): In gas welding, oxidizing flame (a) Lower than
produces the maximum temperature compared to (b) Higher than
neutral and reducing flame. (c) Equal to
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the (d) Unrelated to
correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT the
correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

IES‐2009 IES‐1998
By which one of the following methods gray cast In oxy‐acetylene gas welding, for complete
iron is usually welded? combustion, the volume of oxygen required per
(a) TIG welding (b) MIG welding unit of acetylene is
(c) Gas welding (d) Arc welding ((a)) 1
(b) 1.5
(c) 2 
(d) 2.5

IAS 1994 IAS‐1995
In gas welding of mild steel using an oxy‐ Assertion (A): If neutral flame is used in oxy‐
acetylene welding, both oxygen and acetylene
acetylene flame. the total amount of acetylene cylinders of same capacity will be emptied at the same
consumed was 10 litre. The oxygen consumption time.
from the cylinder is Reason (R): Neutral flame uses equal amounts of
oxygen and d acetylene.
l
(a) 5 litre (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct 
(b) 10 litre explanation of A
(c) 15litre (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the 
correct explanation of A 
(d) 20 litre (c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

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Oxygen Torch Cutting (Gas Cutting)  y For thicker plates with specified contour, shearing

cannot be used and oxy‐fuel gas cutting (OFC) is
y Iron and steel oxidize (burn) when heated to a
useful.
temperature between 8000C to 10000C.
y Gas‐cutting is similar to gas welding except torch tip.
y High‐pressure oxygen jet (300 KPa) is directed against
a heated steel p
plate, the oxygen
yg jjet burns the metal and
blows it away causing the cut (kerf ).
y For cutting metallic plates shears are used. These are
useful for straight‐line cuts and also for cuts up to 40
mm thickness.
Fig‐ differences in torch tips for gas welding and gas cutting

Contd… Contd…

y Larger size orifice produces kerf width wider and larger

oxygen consumed.
y At kindling temperature (about 870oC), iron form iron
oxide.
y Reaction:
3Fe + 2O2 → Fe3O4 +6.67
+6 67 MJ/kg of iron
The other reactions:
2Fe + O2 → 2FeO + 3.18 MJ/kg of iron
4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3 + 4.9 MJ/kg of iron
y All exothermic reactions preheat the steel.

Contd…

y The drag lines shows the characteristics of the movement

y For complete oxidation 0.287 m3 oxygen/kg of iron is
of the oxygen stream.
required
y Due to unoxidized metal blown away the actual
requirement is much less.
y Torch tipp held verticallyy or slightly
g y inclined in the
direction of travel.
y Torch position is about 1.5 to 3 mm vertical from plate.
Fig‐ positioning of cutting torch in oxy‐ fuel gas cutting
y Drag is the amount by which the lower edge of the drag
line trails from the top edge.
y Good cut means negligible drag.

Contd… Contd…

8

y If torch moved too rapidly, the bottom does not get
sufficient heat and produces large drag so very rough
and irregular‐shaped‐cut edges.
y If torch moved slowly a large amount of slag is
generated and produces irregular cut.
Contd…
Difficulties
y Metal temperature goes beyond lower critical
temperature and structural transformations occur.
y Final microstructure depends on cooling rate.
y Steels with less than 0.3 % carbon cause no problem.
Contd…
10/9/2011
y Gas cutting is more useful with thick plates.
y For thin sheets (less than 3 mm thick) tip size should
be small. If small tips are not available then the tip is
inclined at an angle of 15 to 20 degrees.
Fig. Recommended torch position for cutting thin steel
Application
y Useful only for materials which readily get oxidized
and the oxides have lower melting points than the
metals.
y Widely used for ferrous materials.
y Cannot be used for aluminum, bronze, stainless steel
and like metals since they resist oxidation.
y For high carbon steel material around the cut should
be preheated (about 250 to 300oC) and may post heat
also necessary.
y Cutting CI is difficult, since its melting temp. is lower
than iron oxide.
y If chromium and nickel etc are present in ferrous
alloys oxidation and cutting is difficult.
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IES‐1992
The edge of a steel plate cut by oxygen cutting will
get hardened when the carbon content is
(a) Less than 0.1 percent
(b) Less than 0.3
0 3 percent
(c) More than 0.3 percent
(d) Anywhere between 0.1 to 1.0 percent

IES 2007 IES‐2001
Consider the following statements in respect of oxy‐ Oxyacetylene reducing flame is used while 
acetylene welding:
carrying out the welding on
1. The joint is not heated to a state of fusion.
2. No pressure is used. (a) Mild steel (b) High carbon steel
3.
3 Oxygen is stored in steel cylinder at a pressure of 14  (c) Grey cast iron (d) Alloy steels
MPa.
4. When there is an excess of acetylene used, there is a 
decided change in the appearance
of flame.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a)  1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4
(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 4

IES‐1992 IES‐2005
Thick steel plate cut with oxygen normally shows Consider the following statements:
signs of cracking. This tendency for cracking can 1. In gas welding, the torch should be held at an angle of 
be minimised by 30° to 45° from the horizontal plane.
2. In gas welding, the Size of the torch depends upon the 
((a)) Slow speed
p g
cutting
thickness of metal to be formed.
thi k   f  t l t  b  f d
(b) Cutting in two or more stages 3. Drag in gas cutting is the time difference between 
(c) Preheating the plate heating of the plate and starting the oxygen gas for 
cutting.
(d) Using oxy‐acetylene flame
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3

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Plasma Cutting
y Uses ionized gas jet (plasma) to cut materials resistant to
oxy‐fuel cutting,
y High velocity electrons generated by the arc impact gas
molecules, and ionize them.
y The ionized g g nozzle ((upto
gas is forced through p 5500 m/s),
/ ), and
the jet heats the metal, and blasts the molten metal away.
y More economical, more versatile and much faster (5 to 8
times) than oxyfuel cutting, produces narrow kerfs and
smooth surfaces.
y HAZ is 1/3 to ¼ th than oxyfuel cutting.
y Maximum plate thickness = 200 mm

Electric Arc Welding

Electric Arc Welding 

Fig. Basic circuit for arc welding

Principle of Arc y Work is negative and electrode is positive is reverse

y An arc is generated between cathode and anode when polarity (RPDC).
they are touched to establish the flow of current and y SPDC conditions are preferred.
then separated
p byy a small distance.
y DC arc‐welding
ldi maintain
i t i a stable
t bl arc and
d preferred
f d for
f
y 65% to 75% heat is generated at the anode. difficult tasks such as overhead welding.
y If DC is used and the work is positive (the anode of the y For a stable arc, the gap should be maintained.
circuit), the condition is known as straight polarity
(SPDC).
Contd… Contd…

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y Manual arc welding is done with shielded (covered)

Three modes of metal transfer during arc welding
electrodes
y Bare‐metal wire used in automatic or semiautomatic
machines.
y Non consumable electrodes (e.g tungsten) is not
consumed d by
b the
h arc andd a separate metall wire is used
d
as filler.
y There are three modes of metal transfer (globular,
spray and short‐circuit).

Major Forces take part in Metal Transfer
(i) gravity force

(ii) Surface tension

g
(iii) electromagnetic interaction

(iv) hydrodynamic action of plasma

JWM 2010 GATE‐1993
Assertion (A) : Bead is the metal added during In d.c. welding, the straight polarity (electrode 
single pass of welding. negative) results in
Reason (R) : Bead material is same as base metal. (a) Lower penetration
(a) Both A and R are individuallyy true and R is the (b) Lower deposition rate  
correct explanation of A (c) Less heating of work piece
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT the (d) Smaller weld pod
correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

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Arc welding equipments
1. Droopers: Constant current welding machines
¾ Good for manual welding
2. Constant voltage machines
¾ Good for automatic welding Fig. Machine with different settings

Contd… Fig. Characteristic curve of a constant voltage arc‐welding machine

Formula y Requires a large current (150 to 1000 A), voltage is

between 30 and 40 V, actual voltage across the arc
varying from 12 to 30 V.
V I
+ =1 y To initiate a weld,
ld the
h operator strike
k the
h electrode
l d and
d
OCV SCC start arc.

IES 2010
In arc welding, the arc length should be equal to
(a) 4.5 times the rod diameter
(b) 3 times the rod diameter
(c) 1.5 times the rod diameter
(d) Rod diameter

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IES‐2005 IES‐2001
Consider the following statements:
1. In arc welding, 65% to 75% heat is generated at the  In manual arc welding, the equipment should 
anode.
have drooping characteristics in order to maintain
2. Duty cycle in case of arc welding is the cycle of 
complete welding of work piece from the  (a) Voltage constant when arc length changes 
beginning.
3. Arc blow is more common with DC welding. (b) Current constant when arc length changes
Which of the statements given above are  (c) Temperature in the are constant 
correct?
(d) Weld pool red‐hot
(a) 1, 2 and 3  (b) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 3  (d) 1 and 3

IES‐2001 IES‐1998
In arc welding, d.c. reverse polarity is used to bear  The voltage‐current characteristics of a dc
greater advantage in generator for arc welding is a straight line
(a) Overhead welding between an open‐circuit voltage of 80 V and short‐
(b) Flat welding of lap joints circuit current of 300 A. The generator settings for
maximum arc power will be
(c) Edge welding
(a) 0 V and 150 A (b) 40 V and 300 A
(d) Flat welding of butt joints
(c) 40 V and 150 A (d) 80 V and 300 A

IAS‐1999 IAS‐1998
Open‐circuit voltage of 60 V and current of 160A Assuming a straight line V‐I characteristics for a 
were the welding conditions for arc welding of a dc welding generator, short circuit current as 400A 
certain class of steel strip of thickness 10 mm. For and open circuit voltage as 400 which one of the 
arc welding of 5mm thick strip of the same steel, following is the correct voltage and current setting 
the welding voltage and current would be for maximum arc power?
(a) 60 V and 80 A (a) 400 A and 100 V (b) 200 A and 200 V
(b) 120 V and 160 A (c) 400 A and 50 V (d) 200 A and 50 V
(c) 60 V and 40 A
(d) 120 V and 40 A

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Duty Cycle
y The percentage of time in a 5 min period that a
welding machine can be used at its rated output
2
without overloading. ⎛ I⎞
Required duty cycle, Ta = ⎜ ⎟ T
y Time is spent
p in setting
g up,
p metal chipping,
pp g cleaning
g ⎝ Ia ⎠
and inspection.
y For manual welding a 60% duty cycle is suggested and Where ,T = rated duty cycle
for automatic welding 100% duty cycle. I = rated current at the rated duty cycle
Io = Maximum current at the rated duty cycle

Contd…

Electrode Consumable Electrodes
1. Non‐consumable Electrodes ¾Provides filler materials.

2. Consumable Electrodes ¾Same composition.

¾This requires that the electrode be moved toward or
away from the work to maintain the arc and
Non‐consumable Electrodes
satisfactory welding conditions.
¾Made of carbon, Graphite or Tungsten.
¾Carbon and Graphite are used for D.C.
¾ Electrode is not consumed, the arc length remains 
constant, arc is stable and easy to maintain.

Contd… Contd…

Consumable electrodes are three kinds: Electrode coating characteristic

(a) Bare 1. Provide a protective atmosphere.
(b) Fluxed or lightly coated 2. Stabilize the arc.
(c) Coated or extruded / shielded 3. Provide a protective slag coating to accumulate
y For automatic welding,
welding bare electrode is in the form of impurities, prevent oxidation, and slow the cooling of
continuous wire (coil). the weld metal.
4. Reduce spatter.
5. Add alloying elements.
6. Affect arc penetration
7. Influence the shape of the weld bead.
8. Add additional filler metal.

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GATE‐1994 Electrode coatings
The electrodes used in arc welding are coated.  l. Slag Forming Ingredients. asbestos, mica, silica,
This coating is not expected to fluorspar, titanium dioxide, Iron oxide, magnesium
(a) Provide protective atmosphere to weld carbonate, Calcium carbonate and aluminium oxide.
(b) Stabilize the are
(c) Add alloying elements 2. Arc Stabilizing Ingredients. or ionizing agents:
(d) Prevents electrode from contamination potassium silicate, TiO2 + ZrO2 (Rutile), Mica,
Calcium oxide, sodium oxide, magnesium oxide,
feldspar (KAI Si3 O8)

Contd…

3. Deoxidizing Ingredients. Cellulose, Calcium 
carbonate, dolo‐ mite, starch, dextrin, wood flour, 
graphite, aluminium, ferromanganese.

4. Binding Materials Sodium silicate, potassium silicate, 
asbestos.

5. Alloying Constituents to Improve Strength of Weld

6. TiO2 and potassium compounds increase the melting 
rate of the base metal for better penetration.

7. Iron powder provides higher deposition rate.
Contd… Contd…

y The slag is then easily chipped. Binders

y AC arc welding used potassium silicate binders.
y Coatings are designed to melt more slowly than the
filler wire. y DC arc welding used sodium silicate binders.

y Potassium
otass u has
as a lower
o e ionization
o at o pote
potential
t a as co
compared
pa ed
with sodium.

16
 10/9/2011

IES 2007 IES‐1997
The coating material of an arc welding electrode Assertion (A): The electrodes of ac arc welding are
coated with sodium silicate, whereas electrodes used
contains which of the following? for dc arc welding are coated with potassium silicate
1. Deoxidising agent binders.
Reason (R): Potassium has a lower ionization
2.
2 Arc stabilizing agent potential
i l than
h sodium.
di
3. Slag forming agent (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct
explanation of A
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 only correct explanation of A
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1 and 3 only (c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

IES‐2002 Welding Flux
Match List I with List II and select the correct answer: Available in three forms
List I (Ingredients)  List II (Welding 
functions)
y Granular
A. Silica 1. Arc stabilizer y Electrode wire coating 
B. Potassium
i oxalate
l 2. De‐oxidizer
idi y Electrode core 
C. Ferro silicon  3. Fluxing agent
D. Cellulose  4. Gas forming material
Codes:A B C  D A B  C D
(a)  3  4  2  1  (b)  2  1  3  4
(c)  3  1  2  4  (d)  2  4  3  1

Welding Positions
Fig. The position of electrode for horizontal welding
Welding Current
y Welding current depends upon: the thickness of the 
welded metal, type of joint, welding speed, position of 
the weld, the thickness and type of the coating on the 
electrode and its working length.
y Welding current, I  = k. d, amperes;       d is dia. (mm)

Fig. Positioning of electrode for welding in vertically upward position

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Welding Voltage Arc Length
y The arc voltage depends only upon the arc length y For good welds, a short arc length is necessary,
because:
V = k1 + k2l   Volts 1. Heat is concentrated.
2. More stable
Where l is the arc length in mm and k1 and k2 are  3. More protective atmosphere.
constants,
k1 = 10 to 12; and k2 = 2 to 3

The minimum Arc voltage is given by
Vmin = (20 + 0.04 l)   Volt
Contd…

A long arc results in

y Large heat loss into atmosphere.
y Unstable arc.
y Weld pool is not protected.
y Weld has low strength,
strength less ductility,
ductility poor fusion and
excessive spatter.

Fig. Arc Power Vs Arc Length

Arc length should be equal to the  diameter of the electrode size  GATE‐2002, Conventional
The arc length‐voltage characteristic of a DC arc is given
by the equation: V = 24 + 4L, where V is voltage in volts
and L is arc length in mm. The static volt‐ampere
characteristic of the power source is approximated by a
Bead width should be equal to three diameter of the electrode size  straight line with a no load voltage of 80 V and a short
circuit current of 600A. Determine the optimum arc
length for maximum power.

18
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Arc blow in DC arc welding
y Arc blow occurs during the welding of magnetic
materials with DC.
y The effect of arc blow is maximum when welding
corners where magnetic field concentration is
maximum.
y The effect is particularly noticeable when welding with
bare electrodes or when using currents below or above
y Again the problem of arc blow gets magnified when
welding highly magnetic materials such as Ni alloys,
because of the strong magnetic fields set up by these
metals.
y Cause: Unbalanced magnetic forces.
Contd… Contd…

Effect of arc blow The effects of arc blow can be minimized with D.C.

welding by
y Low heat penetration.
y Shortening the arc.
y Excessive weld spatter.
y Reduce current
y Pinch effect in welding is the result of electromagnetic
y Reducing weld speed.
forces
y Balance magnetic field by placing one ground lead at
y Weld spatter occurs due to
each end of the work piece.
¾High welding current
y Wrapping the electrode cable a few turns around the
¾Too small an electrode arc
work piece.

Contd…

IES‐2001 IES‐2001
Arc blow is more common in Pinch effect in welding is the result of
(a) A.C. welding (a) Expansion of gases in the arc
(b) D.C. welding with straight polarity (b) Electromagnetic forces
(c)
( ) D.C. welding with bare electrodes
D C   ldi   ith b   l t d (c)
( ) Electric force
El t i  f
(d) A.C. welding with bare electrodes (d) Surface tension of the molten metal

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GATE‐1992 Gas shields
A low carbon steel plate is to be welded by the manual y An inert gas is blown into the weld zone to drive away
metal arc welding process using a linear V ‐ I
characteristic DC Power source. The following data are other atmospheric gases.
available :
y Gases are argon,
argon helium,
helium nitrogen,
nitrogen carbon dioxide and
OCV of Power source = 62 V
Short circuit current = 130 A a mixture of the above gases.
Arc length, L = 4 mm y Argon ionizes easily requiring smaller arc voltages.It is
Traverse speed of welding = 15 cm/s
good for welding thin sheets.
Efficiency of heat input = 85%
Voltage is given as V = 20 + 1.5 L
Calculate the heat input into the workprice Contd…

y Helium, most expensive, has a better thermal Carbon Arc welding

conductivity, is useful for thicker sheets, copper and y Arc is produced between a carbon electrode and the
aluminium welding, higher deposition rate. work.
y The arc in carbon dioxide shielding
g g
gas is unstable, y Shielding is not used.
used
least expensive, deoxidizers needed.
y No pressure
y It is a heavy gas and therefore covers the weld zone
y With or without filler metal
very well.
y May be used in "twin arc method", that is, between
two carbon (graphite) electrodes.

IES 2010 Tungsten Inert Gas welding (TIG)
Assertion (A): Straight polarity is always
recommended for Carbon‐electrode welding. y Arc is established between a non‐consumable
tungsten electrode and the workpiece.
Reason (R): Carbon arc is stable in straight polarity.
y Tungsten is alloyed with thorium or zirconium for
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
better current‐carryingy g and electron‐emission
correct explanation of A
characteristics.
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT the
y Arc length is constant, arc is stable and easy to
correct explanation of A
maintain.
(c) A is true but R is false
y With or without filler.
(d) A is false but R is true

Contd…

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 10/9/2011

y Very clean welds.

y All metals and alloys can be welded. (Al, Mg also)

y Straight polarity is used.

y Weld voltage 20 to 40 V and weld current 125 A for

RPDC to 1000 A for SPDC.

y Shielded Gas: Argon

y Torch is water or air cooled.

Fig. TIG

GATE 2011
Which one among the following welding processes 
used non – consumable electrode?
(a) Gas metal arc welding
(b) Submerged arc welding
(c) Gas tungsten arc welding
(d) Flux coated arc welding

IES 2010 GATE‐2002
In an inert gas welding process, the commonly used
gas is Which of the following arc welding processes does 
not use consumable electrodes?
(a) Hydrogen
(a) GMAW
(b) Oxygen
(b) GTAW
(c)
( ) Helium
H li or Argon
A
(c) Submerged Arc Welding
(d) Krypton
(d) None of these

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IES‐1994 IES‐2000
Which one of the following welding processes  Which one of the following statements is correct?
uses non‐ consumable electrodes?   (a) No flux is used in gas welding of mild steel
(a) TIG welding (b) Borax is the commonly used flux coating on 
(b) MIG welding welding electrodes
(c) Manual arc welding (c) Laser beam welding employs a vacuum chamber 
(d) Submerged arc welding. and thus avoids use of a shielding method
(d) AC can be used for GTAW process

Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) or MIG 
y A consumable electrode in a gas shield.
y Fast and economical.
y Arc is between workpiece and an automatically fed
bare‐wire electrode. y A reverse‐polarity dc arc is generally used.
y Argon, helium, and mixtures of the two can be used.
y Any metal can be welded but are used primarily with
the non‐ferrous metals.
y When welding steel, some O2 or CO2 is usually added
to improve the arc stability and reduce weld spatter.

Contd…

Fig. MIG

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IES 2007 IES‐1997
In MIG welding, the metal is transferred into the  Consider the following statements:
form of which one of the following? MIG welding process uses
(a) A fine spray of metal 1.  Consumable electrode      2. non‐consumable electrode   
(b) Molten drops 3.  D.C. power supply  4. A.C. power supply
(c) Weld pool Of these statements
(d) Molecules (a) 2 and 4 are correct
(b) 2 and 3 are correct
(c) 1 and 4 are correct
(d) 1 and 3 are correct

IES 2010 Submerged Arc welding (SAW) 
Assertion (A): Inert gas and bare electrode instead 
of flux coated electrode is used in the case of  y A thick layer of granular flux is deposited just ahead of
automatic TIG and MIG welding processes.
a bare wire consumable electrode, and an arc is
Reason (R): Better protection is provided by a cloud 
of inert gas than the cover created by the flux. maintained beneath the blanket of flux with onlyy a few
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the small flames being visible.
correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT the y A portion of the flux melts. Molten flux and flux
correct explanation of A provides thermal insulation, slows cooling rate and
(c) A is true but R is false
produce soft, ductile welds.
(d) A is false but R is true
Contd…

y Most suitable for flat butt or fillet welds in low

carbon steel (< 0.3% carbon).

y The process is not recommended for high‐carbon

g
steels, tool steels, aluminum, magnesium,
titanium, lead, or zinc.

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Characteristic of submerged arc welding Advantages
y High speeds,  y Wire electrodes are inexpensive.

y High deposition rates,  y No weld spatter.

y Deep penetration, 
Deep penetration   y Nearly 100% deposition efficiency.
Nearly 100% deposition efficiency

y High cleanliness (due to the flux action). y Lesser electrode consumption. 

Limitations IES 2011
The welding process in which bare wire is used as
y Extensive flux handling, electrode, granular flux is used and the process is
y Contamination of the flux by moisture.
characterized by its high speed welding, is known as:
(a) Shielded arc welding
y Large‐grain‐size
Large grain size structures.
structures (b) Plasma arc welding
y Welding is restricted to the horizontal position. (c) Submerged arc welding
(d) Gas metal arc welding
y Chemical control is important

24
 10/9/2011

IES‐2006 IES‐2005
In which of the following welding processes, flux  Which of the following are the major 
is used in the form of granules? characteristics of submerged arc welding?
(a) AC arc welding 1. High welding speeds.
(b) Submerged arc welding 2. High deposition rates.
3. Low penetration.
(c) Argon arc welding
4. Low cleanliness.
(d) DC arc welding
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 2 and 3  (b) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 3 and 4  (d) 1 and 2

IES‐2008 GATE‐1999
Assertion (A): Submerged arc welding is not For butt ‐welding 40 mm thick steel plates, when
recommended for high carbon steels, tool steels, the expected quantity of such jobs is 5000 per
aluminium, magnesium etc.
Reason (R): This is because of unavailability of month over a period of 10 year, choose the best
suitable fluxes, reactivity at high temperatures and suitable welding process out of the following
low
l sublimation
bli i temperatures. available
l bl alternatives.
l
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation
of A (a) Submerged arc welding
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct (b) Oxy‐acetylene welding
explanation of A
(c) Electron beam welding
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true (d) MIG welding

Atomic Hydrogen welding (AHW)
y Temperature of about 3700oC.
y An a.c. arc is formed between two tungsten electrodes
along which streams of hydrogen are fed to the y Hydrogen acts as shielding also.
welding zone. The molecules of hydrogen are
dissociated by the high heat of the arc in the gap y Used for very thin sheets or small diameter wires.
between the electrodes.
electrodes The formation of atomic
hydrogen proceeds with the absorption of heat: y Lower thermal efficiency than Arc welding.
H2 = 2H ‐ 421.2 k J / mol
y Ceramics may be arc welded.
y This atomic hydrogen recombines to form molecular
hydrogen outside the arc, particularly on the relatively y AC used.
cold surface of the work being welded, releasing the
heat gained previously:
2H = H2 + 421.2 k J / mol.
Contd…

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IES‐2005
In atomic hydrogen welding, hydrogen acts as
(a) A heating agent
(b) One of the gases to generate the flame
(c)
( ) An effective shielding gas protecting the weld
A   ff ti   hi ldi     t ti  th   ld
(d) A lubricant to increase the flow characteristics of 
weld metal

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Resistance Welding 
Principle
y Both heat and pressure are used.
Resistance Welding y Heat is generated by the electrical resistance of the
work pieces and the interface between them.
y Pressure is supplied externally and is varied
throughout the weld cycle.
y Due to pressure, a lower temperature needed than
oxy‐fuel or arc welding.

By  S K Mondal Contd…

y Overall resistance very low.

y They are not officially classified as solid‐state welding
by the American Welding Society. y Very high‐current (up to 100,000 A)

y Very rapid and economical. y Very low‐voltage (0.5 to 10 V) is used.

y Extremely
l well
ll suited
d to automated
d manufacturing.
f

y No filler metal, no flux, no shielding gases.

Contd… FIG. The fundamental resistance‐welding circuit

Fig. The desired temperature Fig. Typical current and

distribution across the pressure cycle for resistance
electrodes and the work welding. The cycle includes
pieces in lap resistance forging and post heating
welding. operations. Fig. The arrangement of the electrodes and the work in spot
welding, showing design for replaceable electrode tips.

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 8/26/2011

Advantages Limitations
1. Very rapid. 1. High initial cost.

2. Fully automation possible. 2. Limitations to the type of joints (mostly lap joints).

3.
3 Conserve material; no filler metal,
metal shielding gases,
gases or 3 Skilled maintenance personne1 are required:
3.
flux is required. 4. special surface treatment needed.
4. Skilled operators are not required.

5.Dissimilar metals can be easily joined.

6. High reliability and High reproducibility.

Application Different types
y The resistance welding processes are among the 1. Resistance spot welding
most common technique for high volume 2. Resistance seam welding
joining.
3 Projection welding
3.

4. Upset welding

5. Flash welding

6. Percussion welding

Resistance spot welding Heat input and Efficiency Calculations
y The process description given so far is called resistance
spot welding (RSW) or simply spot welding.
y This is essentially done to join two sheet‐metal jobs in
a lap
p jjoint, forming
g a small nugget
gg at the interface of
the two plates.

Contd…

2

Electric Resistance Welding
Joule’s law applicable
Q = I2 Rt, Joules
Example‐2
Calculate the melting efficiency in the case of
arc‐welding of steel with a potential of 20 V and
a current of 200 A. The travel speed is 5 mm/s
and .the
the cross
cross‐sectional
sectional area of the joint is 20
mm2. Heat required to melt steel may be taken
as 10 J/mm3 and the heat transfer efficiency as
0.85.
Example‐4
Two steel sheets of 1.0mm thickness are
resistance welded in a lap joint with a current of
10 000 A for 0.1 second. The effective resistance
of the joint can be taken as 100 micro ohms.
ohms The
joint can be considered as a cylinder of 5 mm
diameter and 1.5mm height. The density of steel
is 0.00786 g/mm3 and heat required for melting
steel is 10 J/mm3.
8/26/2011
Example‐1 
Calculate the melting efficiency in the case of arc
welding of steel with a potential of 20 V and current of
200 A. The travel speed is 5 mm/s and the cross‐
sectional area of the joint is 20 mm2. Heat required to
melt steel may be taken as 10 J/ and the heat transfer
efficiency as 0.85.
[PTU ‐2004]
Example‐3
Two steel plates each 1 mm thick are spot
welded at a current of 5000 A. The current flow
time is 0.1 s. The electrodes used are 5 mm in
diameter Determine the heat generated and
diameter.
its distribution in the weld zone. The effective
resistance in the operation is 200 μΩ.
Example‐5
How much heat would be generated in the spot
welding of two sheets of 1 mm thick steel that
required
q a current of 10000 A for 0.1 seconds?
An effective resistance of 100 μΩ. is assumed.
3
 8/26/2011

Example‐6
Two 1.2 mm thick, flat copper sheets are being spot
welded using a current of 6000 A and a current flow
time of t = 0.18 s. The electrodes are 5 mm in diameter.
Estimate the heat generated in the weld zone. Take
effective resistance as 150 μΩ.
Example‐7
Two steel sheets of 1.0‐mm thickness are resistance
welded in a projection welding with a current of 30
000 A for 0.005 second. The effective resistance of the
joint can be taken as 100 micro ohms. The joint can be
considered
d d as a cylinder
l d off 5 mm diameter
d and
d 1.5 mm
height. The density of steel is 0.00786 g/mm3 and heat
required for melting steel is 10 J/mm3.

Resistance seam welding y Welding current is a bit higher than spot welding, to

compensate short circuit of the adjacent weld.
y Weld is made between overlapping sheets of metal. y In other process a continuous seam is produced by
The seam is a series of overlapping spot welds. passing a continuous current through the rotating
electrodes with a speed of 1.5 m/min for thin sheet.
y The basic equipment is the same as for spot welding.
welding
except that the electrodes are now in the form of
rotating disks.

y Timed pulses of current pass to form the overlapping

welds.
Contd… Contd…

Projection welding
y Limitations of spot welding.
1. Electrode condition must be maintained
continually, and only one spot weld at a time.
2. For additional strength multiple welds needed.
y Projection welding (RPW) overcomes above
limitations.

Fig. Resistance seam welding
Contd…

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 8/26/2011

y Dimples are embossed on work pieces at the weld

locations and then placed between large‐area
electrodes, and pressure and current applied like spot
welding.
y Current flows through the dimples and heats them
and pressure causes the dimples to flatten and form a
weld.
y Projections are press‐formed in any shape.
y Multiple welds at a time.
y No indentation mark on the surface.
y Bolts and nuts can be attached to other metal parts.

Fig. Principle of 
projection welding, 
(a) prior to application of 
current and pressure 
(b) and after formation of 
welds
Contd…

Upset welding
y Made butt joint compared to lap joint.

y Pieces are held tightly and current is applied.

y Due to pressure joints get slightly upset and hence its

name.

y Useful for joining rods or similar pieces.

Contd… Contd…

y This is the process used for making electric resistance‐ Flash Welding

welded (ERW) pipes starting from a metal plate of suitable
thickness. y It is similar to upset welding except the arc rather than
y The plate is first formed into the shape of the pipe with the resistance heating.
help of the three roll set as shown in Fig. above. The ends
of the p
plate would then be forming g the butt jjoint. y One pieces is clamped with cam controlled movable
y The two rotating copper disc electrodes are made to
contact the two ends of the plate through which the platen and other with is fixed platen.
current is passed. The ends get heated and then forge‐
welded under the pressure of the rolls.
y The ends of the pieces to be upset welded must be perfectly
parallel. Any high spots if present on the ends would get
melted first before the two ends are completely joined.
Contd…

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 8/26/2011

y Two pieces are brought together and the power supply is Percussion Welding
switched on. Momentarily the two pieces are separated
to create the arc to melt the ends of the two pieces. y Similar to flash welding except arc power by a rapid
Then again the pieces are brought together and the
discharge of stored electrical energy.
power switched off while the two ends are fused under
force. Most of the metal melted would flash out y The arc duration is only
y 1 to 10 ms, heat is intense and
through the joint and forms like a fin around the joint. highly concentrated.
y Faster than upset welding.
y Small weld metal is produced, little or no upsetting, and
low HAZ.

y Application: Butt welding of bar or tube where heat

damage is a major concern.
Contd…

Other Welding 
h i
Technique

Thermit Welding y Temp. 2750°C produced in 30 seconds, superheating

y Heating and coalescence is by superheated molten the molten iron which provide both heat and filler
metal obtained from a chemical reaction between a metal.
metal oxide and a metallic reducing
g agent.
g y Runners and risers are provided like casting.

y Used mixture one part aluminum and three parts iron y Copper, brass, and bronze can be welded using a
oxide and ignited by a magnesium fuse. (1150°C). different starting mixture.
8Al+ 3Fe3O4 → 9Fe + 4Al2O3 + heat y Used to joint thick sections, in remote locations.

Contd…

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Electro Slag Welding y A 65‐mm deep layer of molten slag, protect and

y Very effective for welding thick sections. cleanse the molten metal.

y Heat is derived from the passage of electrical current y Water‐cooled copper molding plates confined the

through a liquid slag and temp.

temp 1760
1760°C
C liquid and moved upward.

y Multiple electrodes are used to provide an adequate

supply of filler.

Contd… Contd…

y Applications: Shipbuilding, machine manufacture,

heavy pressure vessels, and the joining of large
castings and forgings.

y Slow cooling
gpproduces a coarse g
grain structure.

y Large HAZ.

Contd…

Electron Beam Welding
y A beam of electrons is magnetically focused on the
work piece in a vacuum chamber.

y Heat of fusion is produced by electrons decelerate.

decelerate

y Allows precise beam control and deep weld

penetration.

y No shield gas (vacuum chamber used)

7
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Laser Beam Welding y Very thin HAZ and little thermal distortion.

y Used a focused laser beam provides power intensities y Filler metal and inert gas shield may or may not used.
in excess of 10kW/cm2 y Deep penetration.
y The high
high‐intensity
intensity beam produces a very thin column y No
N vacuum needed.
d d
of vaporized metal with a surrounding liquid pool.
y No direct contact needed.
y Depth‐to‐width ratio greater than 4: 1.

Contd… Contd…

y Heat input is very low, often in the range 0.1 to 10 J. Forge Welding

y Adopted by the electronics industry. y Blacksmith do this.

y Possible to weld wires without removing the y Borax is used as a flux.

polyurethane insulation.
insulation y The ends to be joined were then overlapped on the
anvil and hammered to the degree necessary to
produce an acceptable weld.

y Quality depends on the skill of the worker and not

used by industry.
Contd…

Friction Welding y Machine is similar to a centre lathe.

y Heat is obtained by the friction between the ends of y Power requirements 25 kVA to 175 kVA.
y The axial pressure depends on the strength and
the two parts to be joined. hardness of the metals being joined.
y One part is rotated at a high speed and other part is y Pressure 4
40 MPa for low‐carbon steels to as high
g as 45
450
MPa for alloy steels.
axially aligned and pressed tightly against it.

y Friction raises the temperature of both the ends. Then

rotation is stopped abruptly and the pressure is
increased to join.
Contd… Contd…

8
 8/26/2011

y Very efficient.
y Wide variety of metals or combinations of metals can
be joined such as aluminium to steel.
y Grain size is refined
y Strength is same as base metal.
metal
y Only round bars or tubes of the same size, or
connecting bars or tubes to flat surfaces can join.
y One of the components must be ductile.
y Friction welding is a solid state welding.

Fig‐ friction welding process
Contd…

Ultrasonic Welding (USW) • Restricted to the lap joint

• USW is a solid‐state welding.
• High‐frequency (10 to 200, KHz) is applied.
• Surfaces are held together under light normal
pressure.
• Temp. do not exceed one‐half of the melting point.
• The ultrasonic transducer is same as ultrasonic
machining.
• Weld thin materials‐sheet, foil, and wire‐‐or the
attaching thin sheets to heavier structural members.
• Maximum thickness 2.5 mm for aluminum and 1.0
mm for harder metals.
• Number
N b off metals t l andd dissimilar
di i il metal t l combinations
bi ti
and non metals can be joined such as aluminum to
ceramics or glass.
• Equipment is simple and reliable.
• Less surface preparation and less energy is needed.

Contd… Contd…

Explosion Welding
Applications
y Done at room temperature in air, water or vacuum.
y Joining the dissimilar metals in bimetallics

y Making microcircuit electrical contacts.
y Surface contaminants tend to be blown off the surface.

y Welding refractory or reactive metals
ld   f       l y Typical impact pressures are millions of psi.
psi
y Bonding ultrathin metal. y Well suited to metals that is prone to brittle joints
when heat welded, such as,
y Aluminum on steel

y Titanium on steel
Contd…

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 8/26/2011

y Typically the detonation velocity should not exceed

120% of the sonic velocity in the metal.
Important factors are,
y Critical velocity
y Critical angle
y The cladding plate can be supported with tack welded
supports at the edges, or the metal inserts.

Contd… Contd…

High velocity explosives, 4572‐7620 m/s.

y TNT Advantages,
y RDX
y PETN
y Can bond many dissimilar, normally unweldable
y Composition B metals
y Composition C4 y The lack of heating preserves metal treatment
y Datasheet
y The
Th process isi compact, portable,
bl andd easy to contain
i
y Primacord
Medium velocity explosives, 1524‐4572 m/s y Inexpensive
y Ammonium nitrate y No need for surface preparation
y Ammonium perchlorate
y Amatol
y Nitroguonidine
y Dynamites
y diluted PETN
Contd… Contd…

Disadvantages, Typical applications:
y The metals must have high enough impact resistance,
and ductility (at least 5%) y Very large plates can be cladded.
y The cladding plate cannot be too large. y Joins dissimilar metals.
y Noise and blast can require worker protection,
protection vacuum
chambers, buried in sand/water. (titanium to steel, Al to steel, Al to Cu etc.)

y Join tube to tube sheets of large heat exchangers. 

Contd… Contd…

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Autogeneous Welding
y Autogeneous welding or fusion of the parent
material in an inert gas shield without the use
of filler metals.

Micro Plasma Arc Weld (PAW)
y Similar to GTAW except the plasma caused by the arc
is constricted by a water‐cooled orifice

y Capable of high welding speeds where size permits

Brazing and Soldering
g g
y Argon is used as the shielding gas.

Brazing and Soldering
y Brazing is the joining of metals through the use of heat
and a filler metal whose melting temperature is above
450°C; but below the melting point of the metals being
joined.
Comparison with welding and the brazing process
1. The
Th compositionii off the
h brazing
b i alloy
ll isi significantly
i ifi l
different from that of the base metal.
2. The strength of the brazing alloy is substantially lower
than that of the base metal.
3. The melting point of the brazing alloy is lower than that
of the base metal, so the base metal is not melted.
4. Capillary action or capillary attraction draws the
molten filler metal into the joint, even against the flow of
gravity.

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Brazing process has several distinct 
y Corrosion prone
advantages:
1. All metals can be joined.

2. Suited for dissimilar metals.

3. Quick and economical.

4. Less defects.

Contd…

y Extremely clean surface needed.

Brazing metals are typically alloys such as, y Fluxes used are combinations of borax, boric acid,
y Brazing brass (60% Cu, 40%Zn)
chlorides, fluorides, tetra‐borates and other wetting
y Manganese bronze
y Nickel silver agents.
g
y Copper silicon
y Silver alloys (with/without phosphorous)
y Copper phosphorous

Contd… Contd…

y A popular composition is 75% borax and 25% boric

acid.

y Sodium cyanide is used in brazing tungsten to copper.

y Base materials not melted.

melted

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Braze Welding y Done with an oxyacetylene torch.

y Capillary action is not required.

y Edge preparation needed.

y Can join cast iron.

iron

Fig. Braze Welding
Contd…

Soldering Effective soldering generally involves six important

y By definition, soldering is a brazing type of operation
where the filler metal has a melting temperature
below 45
450°C.
y Strength of the filler metal is low.
y Soldering is used for a neat leak‐proof joint or a low
resistance electrical joint.
y Not suitable for high‐temp. application.
Contd…
steps:
(1) Design of an acceptable solder joint,
(2) Selection of the correct solder for the job,
(3) Selection of the proper type of flux,
(4) Cleaning the surfaces to be joined,
(5) Application of flux, solder, and sufficient heat to
allow the molten solder to fill the joint by capillary
action and solidify, and
(6) Removal of the flux residue, if necessary.

Solder Metals Solder Flux
y Ammonium chloride or rosin for soldering tin
y Most solders are alloys of lead and tin.
y Hydrochloric acid and zinc chloride for soldering
y Three commonly used alloys contain 60, 50, and 40%
galvanized iron
tin and all melt below 240
240°C
C.
y Some fluxes are corrosive and should be removed after
use

Contd…

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y Silver solders uses for higher‐temperature service, Difficulties with Grey Cast Iron

Electrical and Electronic purpose.
Soldering and brazing are difficult of grey cast Iron due
to surface contamination with graphite having a very low
surface energy.

Welding design and defect Residual stress
Welding Problem Causes y The residual stresses result from the restrained expansion
Cracking of weld metal High joint rigidity and contraction that occur during localized heating and
Cracking of base metal Excessive stresses cooling in the region of weld deposit.
Spatter Arc blow y The magnitude of residual stresses depends on the weldment
Distortion Poor joint selection design support and clamping of the components being
design,
Slag inclusion Improper cleaning in multi- welded, their materials, welding process used, part
pass welding dimensions, welding sequence, post weld treatment, size of
Porosity Excessive H2, O2, N2, in the the deposited weld beads, etc.
welding atmosphere or Damp y Residual stresses should not have a harmful effect on the
electrodes strength performance of weldments, reduces fatigue
Lamellar Tearing inclusions such as Mn Fe and S  strength, May cause distortion. This residual stress may
in the base metal and/or  result in the cracking of a brittle material and is not
residual stress important as far as a ductile material.

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IES‐2003
In resistance welding, heat is generated due to the 
resistance between
Resistance  (a) Electrode and workpiece

Welding (b) Asperities between touching plates

(c) Two dissimilar metals being in contact
(d) Inter atomic forces
Ans. (b)

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IES‐2001 GATE‐2008
The maximum heat in resistance welding is at the In arc welding of a butt joint, the welding speed is
(a) Tip of the positive electrode to be selected such that highest cooling rate is
achieved. Melting efficiency and heat transfer
(b) Tip of the negative electrode
efficiency are 0.5 and 0.7, respectively. The area of
(c) Top surface of the plate at the time of electric  the
h weld ld cross section is 5 mm2 and d the
h unit
contact with the electrode energy required to melt the metal is 10 J/mm3. If
(d) Interface between the two plates being Joined the welding power is 2 kW, the welding speed in
Ans. (d) mm/s is closest to
(a) 4 (b) 14 (c) 24 (d) 34
Ans. (b)
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GATE‐2006 GATE‐2007
Two metallic sheets, each of 2.0 mm thickness, are welded in a lap joint
In an arc welding process, the voltage and current configuration by resistance spot welding at a welding current of 10 kA and
welding time of 10 millisecond. A spherical fusion zone extending up to the full
are 25 V and 300 A respectively. The arc heat thickness of each sheet is formed. The properties of the metallic sheets are
given as:
transfer efficiency is 0.85 and welding speed is 8 ambient temperature = 293 K
melting temperature = 1793 K
mm/see. The net heat input (in J/mm) is latent heat of fusion = 300 kJ/kg
density = 7000 kg/m3
(a) 64 specific heat = 800 J/kg K
(b) 797 Assume:
(i) Contact resistance along sheet‐sheet interface is 500 micro‐ohm and along
electrode‐sheet interface is zero;
(c) 1103 (ii) No conductive heat loss through the bulk sheet materials; and
(d) 79700 (iii) The complete weld fusion zone is at the melting temperature.
The melting efficiency (in %) of the process is
Ans. (b) (a) 50.37 (b) 60.37 (c) 70.37 (d) 80.37
Ans. (c)

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GATE‐2005 GATE‐2001
Spot welding of two 1 mm thick sheets of steel Resistance spot welding is performed on two
(density = 8000 kg/m3) is carried out successfully plates of 1.5 mm thickness with 6 mm diameter
by passing a certain amount of current for 0.1 electrode, using 15000 A current for a time
second through the electrodes. The resultant weld duration of 0.25 seconds. Assuming the interface
nugget formed
f d is 5 mm in diameter
d andd 1.5 mm resistance to be
b 0.0001 , the
h heat
h generated
d to
thick. If the latent heat of fusion of steel is 1400 form the weld is
kJ/kg and the effective resistance in the welding (a) 5625 W‐sec (b) 8437 W‐sec
operation in 200 , the current passing through the (c) 22500 W‐sec (d) 33750 W‐sec
electrodes is approximately
Ans. (a)
(a) 1480A (b) 3300 A
(c) 4060 A (d) 9400 A Ans. (c)
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GATE‐2004 GATE‐1992
Two 1 mm thick steel sheets are to be spot welded For resistance spot welding of 1.5 mm thick steel
at a current of 5000 A. Assuming effective sheets, the current required is of the order of
resistance to be 200 micro‐ohms and current flow (a) 10 A
time of 0.2 second, heat generated during the (b) 100 A
process willll be
b
(c) 1000 A
(a) 0.2 Joule (b) 1 Joule
(d) 10,000 A
(c) 5 Joule (d) 1000 Joules
Ans. (d)
Ans. (d)

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GATE‐2010 IAS‐2003
Two pipes of inner diameter 100 mm and outer Assertion (A): Spot welding is adopted to weld two
diameter 110 mm each joined by flash butt overlapped metal pieces between two electrode points.
welding using 30 V power supply. At the interface, Reason (R): In this process when current is switched on,
1 mm of material melts from each pipe which has the lapped pieces of metal are heated in a restricted area.
a resistance of 42.4 Ω. If the unit melt energy is (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct
64.4 MJm‐3, then time required for welding in explanation of A
seconds is (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
correct explanation of A
(a) 1 (b) 5 (c) 10 (d) 20
(c) A is true but R is false
Ans. (c) (d) A is false but R is true
Ans. (a)

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2

Example‐1  Example‐2
Calculate the melting efficiency in the case of arc
welding of steel with a potential of 20 V and current of
200 A. The travel speed is 5 mm/s and the cross‐
sectional area of the joint is 20 mm2. Heat required to
melt steel may be taken as 10 J/ and the heat transfer
efficiency as 0.85.
[PTU ‐2004]
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Example‐3
Two steel plates each 1 mm thick are spot
welded at a current of 5000 A. The current flow
time is 0.1 s. The electrodes used are 5 mm in
diameter.
diameter Determine the heat generated and
its distribution in the weld zone. The effective
resistance in the operation is 200 μΩ.
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Example‐5
How much heat would be generated in the spot
welding of two sheets of 1 mm thick steel that
required
q a current of 10000 A for 0.1 seconds?
An effective resistance of 100 μΩ. is assumed.
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7/11/2011
Calculate the melting efficiency in the case of
arc‐welding of steel with a potential of 20 V and
a current of 200 A. The travel speed is 5 mm/s
and .the
the cross
cross‐sectional
sectional area of the joint is 20
mm2. Heat required to melt steel may be taken
as 10 J/mm3 and the heat transfer efficiency as
0.85.
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Example‐4
Two steel sheets of 1.0mm thickness are
resistance welded in a lap joint with a current of
10 000 A for 0.1 second. The effective resistance
of the joint can be taken as 100 micro ohms.
ohms The
joint can be considered as a cylinder of 5 mm
diameter and 1.5mm height. The density of steel
is 0.00786 g/mm3 and heat required for melting
steel is 10 J/mm3.
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Example‐6
Two 1.2 mm thick, flat copper sheets are being spot
welded using a current of 6000 A and a current flow
time of t = 0.18 s. The electrodes are 5 mm in diameter.
Estimate the heat generated in the weld zone. Take
effective resistance as 150 μΩ.
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 7/11/2011

Example‐7
Two steel sheets of 1.0‐mm thickness are resistance
welded in a projection welding with a current of 30
000 A for 0.005 second. The effective resistance of the
joint can be taken as 100 micro ohms. The joint can be
Other Welding 
considered
d d as a cylinder
l d off 5 mm diameter
d and
d 1.5 mm
height. The density of steel is 0.00786 g/mm3 and heat Technique
h i
required for melting steel is 10 J/mm3.

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IES‐2000 IAS‐2003
Consider the following processes: Which one of the following is not an electric 
1. Gas welding     resistance method of welding?
2. Thermit welding (a) Electro slag welding
33. Arc welding g (b) Percussion welding
4. Resistance welding (c) Seam welding
The correct sequence of these processes in increasing  (d) Flash welding
order of their welding temperatures is
(a) 1, 3, 4, 2 (b) 1, 2, 3, 4
(c) 4, 3, 1, 2 (d) 4, 1, 3, 2 Ans. (a)
Ans. (d)
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IAS‐2000 IES‐2004
Consider the following welding processes: Assertion (A): In electron beam welding process,
1. TIG welding  2. Submerged arc welding vacuum is an essential process parameter
Reason (R): Vacuum provides a highly efficient
3. Electro‐slag welding 4. Thermit welding shield on weld zone
Which of these welding processes are used for welding 
Whi h  f th   ldi       d f   ldi   (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
thick pieces of metals? correct explanation of A
(a) 1, 2 and 3  (b) 1, 2 and 4 (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
(c) 1,3 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4 correct explanation of A
Ans. (d) (c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
Ans. (d)
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IES‐2002 IES‐1993
In which one of the following welding techniques  Electron beam welding can be carried out in
is vacuum environment required? (a) Open air
(a) Ultrasonic welding (b) A shielding gas environment   
(b) Laser beam welding (c)
( ) A pressurized inert gas chamber
A  i d i t    h b
(c) Plasma arc welding (d) Vacuum
(d) Electron beam welding
Ans. (d)
Ans. (d)

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IAS‐2004 IES 2007
Which one of the following welding processes  Consider the following statements in respect of the 
consists of smaller Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)? laser beam welding:
1. It can be used for welding any metal or their 
(a) Arc welding (b) Electron beam welding combinations because of very high temperature of the 
(c) MIG welding (d) Thermit welding focal points.
focal points
2. Heat affected zone is very large because of quick 
heating.
Ans. (b)
3. High vacuum is required to carry the process.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Ans. (c)
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IES‐2006 IAS‐2007
Which one of the following welding processes  Consider the following welding processes:
consists of minimum heat affected zone (HAZ)? 1. Arc welding 2. MIG welding
(a) Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMA W) 3. Laser beam welding 4. Submerged arc
(b) Laser Beam Welding (LBW) welding
(c) Ultrasonic Welding (USW) Select the correct sequence in increasing order of Heat
(d) Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG) affected zone (HAZ) using the code
given below:
Ans. (b) (a) 1 ‐ 2 ‐ 3 – 4 (b) 1 ‐ 4 ‐ 2 – 3
(c) 3 ‐ 2 ‐ 4 – 1 (d) 4 ‐ 3 ‐ 2 – 1
Ans. (c)
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IAS‐1999 GATE‐2007
Match List I (Shielding method) with List II (Welding Which one of the following is a solid state joining 
process) and select the correct answer using the codes
given below the lists: process?
List I List II (a) Gas tungsten arc welding
A. Flux coating 1. Gas metal arc welding
(b) Resistance spot welding
B.
B Flux
Fl granules
l 2. Submerged
S b d arc welding
ldi
C. CO2 3. Shielded metal arc welding (c) Friction welding
D. Vacuum 4. Laser beam welding (d) submerged arc welding
5. Electron beam welding
Codes:A B C D A B C D
(a) 1 2 5 3 (b) 1 4 2 5 Ans. (c)
(c) 3 5 1 4 (d) 3 2 1 5
Ans. (d)
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IES 2011           S‐1 Contd…
Match List –I with List –II and select the correct answer 
GATE‐1992 using the code given below the lists:
In an explosive welding process, the………..  List‐I  List –II
(maximum/minimum) velocity of impact is fixed  A. Laser beam  1. Can be applied for welding or refractory metals 
by the velocity of sound in the………………  welding like niobium, tantalum, molybdenum and tungsten.
(flyer/target) plate material B. Electron  2. A sound and clean welded joint is created due to 
(a) Maximum; target beam welding rubbing of two parts against each other with 
adequate speed and pressure producing intense heat 
(b) Minimum; target raising temperature above melting point.
(c) Maximum; flyer C. Ultrasonic  3. Clean heat source created much away from job, a 
(d) Minimum; flyer welding narrow spot is heated, work chamber  operates in a 
high vacuum.
D. Friction  4. Clean heat source very quick heating, very small 
Ans. (c) welding focal spot, no vacuum chamber is required.
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IES 2011             From S‐1 IES‐2009
Codes : Match List‐I with List‐II and select the correct answer using the code given 
below the Lists:
A B C D A B C D List‐I List‐II
(Welding Process) (Application)
(a)  4  3 1 2 (b) 2 3 1 4 A. Laser welding 1. Uniting large‐area sheets
B. Friction welding  2. Repairing large parts
((c)) 4 1 3 4 ((d)) 2 1 3 4 C.
C Ultrasonic welding 3.
3 Welding a rod to a flat surface
D. Explosive welding  4. Fabrication of nuclear reactor 
Ans. (a) components                                                       
5. Welding very thin materials
Code:
(a) A B C D (b) A B C D
5  4  3  2 1 4 2 5

(c) A B C D (d) A B C D
1 3 4 2 5 3 4 1
Ans. (d)

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IAS‐2002 IAS‐2001
Match List I, (Welding) with List II (Application) and select the correct  Match List I (Welding processes) with List II (Features) and 
answer using the codes given below the Lists: select the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists:
List I List II
(Welding) (Application) List I List II
A. Explosive 1. Joining thick sheets A. Ultrasonic welding 1. Gas heated to ionized condition      
B. Ultrasonic 2. Manufacture of heat exchanges g for conduction of electric current
C. Thermit 3. Joining thin sheets or wires of  B. Electron beam welding  2. High frequency and high 
similar/dissimilar metals intensity vibrations
D. Projection 4. Joining hydraulic piston rods for  C. Plasma arc welding 3. Concentrated stream of high‐
agricultural machinery
energy electrons
5. Joining rails, pipes and thick steel 
sections 4. Exothermal chemical reaction
Codes:A B  C  D A  B  C  D Codes: A B C A B C
(a)  2  5  1  3 (b)  4  5  1  3 (a)  1 2 4 (b) 4 3 1
(c)  2  3  5  1 (d)  4  3 5  1 (c)  2 1 4 (d)  2 3 1
Ans. (c) Ans. (d)
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JWM 2010
Match List‐I with List‐II and select the correct answer 
using the code given below the lists :
List I  List II
A. Atomic  1. Two pieces are brought together and 
hydrogen welding  power supply is switched on

B. Plasma‐arc 
B  Plasma arc  2. Nugget is formed at the interface of 
2  Nugget is formed at the interface of 
Brazing and Soldering
g g
welding  two plates
C. Spot welding  3. Gas is ionized
D. Flash welding  4. Inert gas shielded arc welding

Code:A B C D A B C D
(a) 4 3 2 1 (b)  1  3 2 4
(c)  4 2 3 1 (d) 1 
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GATE‐2005 IES‐2006
The strength of a brazed joint Which one of the following is not a fusion welding 
(a) Decreases with increase in gap between the two  process?
joining surfaces
(a) Gas welding
(b) Increases with increase in gap between the two 
joining surfaces
j i i   f (b) Arc welding
(c) Decreases up to certain gap between the two  (c) Brazing
joining surfaces beyond which it increases (d) Resistance welding
(d) Increases up to certain gap between the two 
joining surfaces beyond which it decreases
Ans. (c)
Ans. (d)

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IES‐1994 IAS‐1996
Match List ‐ I with List ‐ II and select the correct answer  Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using 
using the codes given below the Lists: the codes given below the lists
List ‐ I (Filler)  List ‐ II (Joining process) List –I List‐II
A. Cu, Zn, Ag alloy  1. Braze welding. (Filler rod material)  (Joining process)
B. Cu, Sn, alloy  2. Brazing A. Mild steel 1. MIG welding
C. Pb, Sb, alloy  3. Soldering B. Bronze  2. Soldering
D.Iron oxide and aluminium powder 4. TIG welding of  C. Brass  3. Brazing
aluminium D. Lead and tin alloy  4. Thermit welding
Codes:A B C  D A B  C  D 5. Braze welding
(a)  2  1  3  ‐ (b)  1  2  4 ‐ Codes:A B C D A B C D
(c)  2  1  3  4  (d)  2 ‐ 3 4 (a)  1  5 3 2 (b) 4  3  2 5
(c)  4  3  5 2 (d)  1 3 5 4
Ans. (a) Ans. (a)
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IES‐2004 IES‐2003
Match List I (Welding problems) with List II (Causes) and select  Match List I(Welding Defects) with List  II (Causes) and 
the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists: select the correct answer using the codes given below the 
List I List II Lists:
A. Cracking of weld metal 1. Excessive stresses List‐I List II
B. Cracking of base metal 2. High joint rigidity (Welding Defects) (Causes)
C.
C Porosity 3.
3 Failure to remove slag  A Spatter
A. S 1. D
Damp electrodes
  l d
from previous deposit
D. Inclusions 4. Oxidation
B. Distortion 2. Arc blow
5. Excessive H2, O2, N2, in  C. Slag inclusion 3. Improper cleaning in 
the  welding atmosphere multi‐pass welding
Codes:A B C  D A B C D D. Porosity 4. Poor joint selection
(a)  2  1  5  3  (b)  3  4  2  1 Codes:A B C D A B C D
(c)  2  4  5  3  (d)  3  1  4  2 (a)  4 2 3 1 (b)  4 2 1 3
Ans. (a) (c)  2 4 1 3 (d)  2 4 3 1
Ans. (d)
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IES‐2004 GATE‐2003
Consider the following statements: Match the following
Work material Type of joining
The magnitude of residual stresses in welding
P. Aluminium 1. Submerged Arc Welding
depends upon
Q. Die Steel 2. Soldering
1. Design of weldment R. Copper Wire 3. Thermit Welding
2. Support and clamping of components
S d l f S. Titanium sheet 4. Atomic Hydrogen Welding
3. welding process used 5. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
4. Amount of metal melted / deposited 6. Laser Beam Welding
7. Brazing
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) P ‐ 2   Q ‐ 5   R ‐ 1  S ‐ 3
(a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3 (b) P ‐ 6 Q ‐ 3  R ‐ 4   S ‐ 4
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 3 (c) P ‐ 4 Q‐ 1   R ‐ 6   S ‐ 2
Ans. (b) (d) P ‐ 5   Q ‐ 4 R ‐ 2  S – 6
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IES‐2004 IES‐1992
Consider the following statements: Weld spatter occurs due to any of the following 
The size of the heat affected zone (HAZ) will increase with except
1. Increased starting temperature (a) High welding current
2. Increased welding speed (b) Too small an electrode
3. Increased thermal conductivity of the base metal (c) Arc
4. Increase in base metal thickness (d) Wrong polarity
Which of the statements given above are correct? Ans. (d)
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 3
(c) 1 and 4  (d) 2 and 3
Ans. (b)
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JWM 2010 IES‐1998
Assertion (A) : Spatter is one of the welding defects.
Reason (R) : In submerged arc welding process, An arc welded joint is shown in the above figure. 
The part labelled 'B' in the figure is known as
there is no spatter of molten metal.
(a) Weld preparation 
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
(b) Penetration 
correct explanation of A
(c) Reinforcement 
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
(d) Slag
correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true Ans. (c)
Ans. (b)
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IES‐2004 IAS‐2003
Assertion (A): A sound welded joint should not only Tool material not suited to resistance welding is
be strong enough but should also exhibits a good
amount of ductility (a) Aluminium oxide (b) Stellite
Reason (R): Welding process is used for fabricating (c) High speed steel (d) Masonite
mild steel components only
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct
Ans. (a)
explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
Ans. (c)
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GATE‐1996 IES 2011
Cold‐cracking in steel weldments depends on
Preheating before welding is done to
1. Carbon equivalent
(a) Make the steel softer
2. Heat input
(b) Bum away oil, grease, etc, from the plate surface
3. Effective thickness
(c) Prevent cold cracks 3. Hydrogen content in weld pool
 H d    i   ld  l
(d) Prevent plate distortion (a) 1, 2 and 3 only
Ans. (c) (b) 1, 2 and 4 only
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Ans. (d)
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GATE‐2001
Two plates of the same metal having equal
thickness are to be butt welded with electric arc.
When the plate thickness changes, welding is
achieved by
(a) Adjusting the current
(b) Adjusting the duration of current
(c) Changing the electrode size
(d) Changing the electrode coating
Ans. (a)

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