06-04-2018

PH-1201
Unit 8
Lecture-17 (two classes)
Quantum Mechanics
What we learned in the last class?
Black body radiation
Photoelectric Effect
Quantum theory of light
What we are going to learn today
Particle property of wave
Compton Effect
Wave property of Particle
de-Broglie’s hypothesis
Davisson-Germer experiment
Particle property of wave
• Compton Effect
• Quantum theory of light tells us that light can be treated as photon with
energy 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈. It possesses definite momentum.
• Hence, collision of photon and an electron can be treated like collision
between two billiard balls .
• An X-ray photon with frequency 𝜈
• Is scattered by an electron at rest.
• After collision, the electro gains
some energy and frequency of
the X-ray photon decreases to 𝜈

Relativistic collision Conservation of momentum

• From the knowledge of special theory of • Along x axis
relativity we know 𝐸 = 𝑚 𝑐 + 𝑝 𝑐 • Initial momentum
• For photon 𝑚 = 0 +0
• 𝐸 = 𝑝𝑐
• Final momentum 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 + 𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (along x axis)
• 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 =
• ⇒ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 + 𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ⇒ 𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
• ⇒𝑝= = =
• Similarly, along y axis 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙
• 𝑝 𝑐 = (ℎ𝜈) −2 ℎ𝜈 ℎ𝜈 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 + (ℎ𝜈 )

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Energy Consideration Compton Shift

• 𝐸 =𝑇+𝑚 𝑐 also 𝐸 = 𝑚 𝑐 +𝑝 𝑐 • 𝑚 𝑐 ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈 = ℎ𝜈 ℎ𝜈 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
• ⇒𝑚 𝑐 +𝑝 𝑐 = 𝑇+𝑚 𝑐 • 𝜈−𝜈 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 as 𝜈 =
• ⇒ 𝑝 𝑐 = 𝑇 + 2𝑚 𝑐 𝑇
• Again 𝑇 = ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈 • − = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
• ⇒ 𝑝 𝑐 = ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈 + 2𝑚 𝑐 ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈
• ⇒ 𝑝 𝑐 = ℎ𝜈 + ℎ𝜈 − 2(ℎ𝜈)(ℎ𝜈 ) + 2𝑚 𝑐 ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈 • = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
• We already have
• 𝑝 𝑐 = (ℎ𝜈) +(ℎ𝜈 ) − 2 ℎ𝜈 ℎ𝜈 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 • ∆𝜆 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 𝜆 = (Compton wavelength)
• Comparing ⇒ 2 ℎ𝜈 ℎ𝜈 − 2𝑚 𝑐 ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈 = 2 ℎ𝜈 ℎ𝜈 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
• 𝜟𝝀 = 𝝀𝒄 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 = 0.024 𝐴 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛

Experimental setup Quiz

• What is maximum amount of Compton shift?

• What is the Compton wavelength for a Proton ?

• Why do we see original wavelength present for all

angle of scattering?

• What will be Compton shift of visible light scattered

by an electron?

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Connection between wave and particle

Wave property of particle
nature
• Plank’s Law-1900 • We know 𝐸 = 𝑚 𝑐 + 𝑝 𝑐
Particle
• Photoelectric Formula-1905 • For photon 𝑚 = 0 ⇒ 𝐸 = 𝑝𝑐
property of
• Bohr’s atomic model-1913 Wave • Planck’s Law 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈
• Compton Effect-1923 • Hence, for photon (particle associated to
electromagnetic wave) 𝑝𝑐 = ℎ𝜈 =
1924: Louis de Broglie (Ph.D Thesis)
Made a hypothesis that
• 𝑝=
matter possess both wave and particle nature.
Won Nobel Prize in Physics in the year 1929 after experimental
verification in 1927

de-Broglie Hypothesis The converse is also true

• de-Broglie generalized this relation for any
particle.
• Wave property can be associated to any particle • Particle nature can be associated to a wave
with momentum 𝑝. The corresponding with wavelength 𝜆. Momentum of the
wavelength is given as corresponding particle is
• 𝑝=
•𝜆 =

• 𝜆= = 1−

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Davisson-Germer Experiment Summary

• For a given energy, the scattered intensity
• Diffraction of particles became maximum at a particular direction
• Apparatus (1927)
• Classical prediction:
Uniform scattering in all directions
• Experimental Observation:

Verification
Interpretation Using de-Broglie’s hypothesis
• Bragg’s law • 𝜆= 𝑇 = 54𝑒𝑉 ≪ 0.511 𝑀𝑒𝑣
• 2𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
𝜃
• Non relativistic formula is applicable
• (𝑛 = 1)
• 𝑑 for Nickel = 0.91 𝐴 • 𝑇= ⇒ 𝑝 = 2𝑚𝑇
• For Bragg’s reflection • 𝜆= =
.
= 1.66𝑋10 𝑚
. .
• 2𝜃 + 50 = 180
• 𝜃 = 65 • 𝝀 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟔 𝑨𝟎
• 𝜆 = 2𝑋0.91𝐴 𝑋𝑠𝑖𝑛65 =1.65𝐴
De Broglie: Nobel Prize in Physics-1929 for this result

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Wave particle Duality Wave Particle Duality

• Diffraction (manifestation of Wave nature)
• Momentum conservation in Collision
– (manifestation of particle nature)
Photon-Electron Collision

• Red Laser on Mobile Screen Electron beam on Graphite

How to describe matter wave

• Henceforth, we shall describe any entity in the • A wave
universe as matter-wave • 𝜑 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 → 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒
1.00

0.75

0.50

0.25 Infinite extent in space

and in time
,t)

0.00
(x


-0.25

-0.50

-0.75

-1.00
0 1 2 3 4 5
x

Particles have finite extent : Plane wave does not

represent a matter-wave

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Superposition of plane waves Matter-wave

• Let’s take two plane waves with nearly equal ∆ ∆
frequency and wave vector • 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 2𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 cos 𝑡− 𝑥
• 𝜑 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 • = 𝑎(𝑥, 𝑡) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 ; 𝑎 𝑥, 𝑡 = 2𝐴 cos
∆
𝑡−
∆
𝑥
• 𝜑 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔 + ∆𝜔)𝑡 − (𝑘 + ∆𝑘)𝑥 Low frequency envelope
• Let’s take superposition of these two waves
2.0

1.5

1.0

• 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝜑 𝑥, 𝑡 + 𝜑 𝑥, 𝑡 0.5

,t)
0.0

x
2𝜔 + ∆𝜔 2𝑘 + ∆𝑘 ∆𝜔 ∆𝑘


(
-0.5

= 2𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡− 𝑥 cos 𝑡− 𝑥 -1.0

2 2 2 2 -1.5

-2.0

∆𝜔 ∆𝑘
0 5 10 15
x

≈ 2𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 cos 𝑡− 𝑥 Formation of Wave packet : finite extent

2 2

De-Broglie wave
Wave Packet 2.0

1.5

• Superposition of infinite number of plane

1.0

0.5
,t)

0.0
x

waves with slightly different frequency


(

-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

-2.0
0 5 10 15
x

∆ ∆
𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑎(𝑥, 𝑡) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 ; 𝑎 𝑥, 𝑡 = 2𝐴 cos 𝑡− 𝑥

The wave groups have finite extent and hence,

qualify to represent a de-Broglie matter wave

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Wave and group velocity Energy-Momentum of a de-Broglie wave

• Velocity of the wave 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑎(𝑥, 𝑡) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥
• Energy of the particle
• or phase velocity is given as 𝑣 =
• Velocity of the wave group = velocity of the envelope • 𝐸 = ℏ𝜔 ⇒ 𝜔 = = ⇒ω=
ℏ ℏ
∆ ∆ ℏ
• 𝑎 𝑥, 𝑡 = 2𝐴 cos 𝑡− 𝑥
∆
• 𝑣 =
∆ • Momentum of the particle
• For superposition of closely spaced large number of
waves • 𝑝 = ℏ𝑘 ⇒ 𝑘 = = ⇒𝑘=
ℏ ℏ
∆ ℏ
• 𝑣 = =
∆

Phase velocity Velocity of de-Broglie wave

• ω= ;𝑘 = • Velocity of the wave group or group velocity

ℏ ℏ • 𝑣 = = 𝑋

• Phase velocity/wave velocity 𝑣 = = >𝑐 • ω= ⇒ = 𝑋

ℏ
ℏ

• 𝑘= ⇒ = 𝑋
• Hence, the phase velocity does not represent ℏ
ℏ

the velocity of a real particle as particle velocity

cannot exceed the velocity of light in vacuum • 𝑣 =𝑣
• Particle moves with the wave group

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Uncertainty in position Uncertainty in momentum

• The wave group represents the particle
∆𝑥
• De-Broglie’s hypothesis 𝑝 = = ℏ𝑘 ; ℏ =
𝜆
2.0 𝜆
1.5

1.0
• ∆𝑝 = ℏ∆𝑘
0.5
,t)

0.0

(x

-0.5

• We have ∆𝑥 =
-1.0

-1.5
⇒ ∆𝑘 =
-2.0
0 5 10 15
∆ ∆
x

∆ ∆
𝑎 𝑥, 𝑡 = 2𝐴 cos 𝑡− 𝑥
The particle may be located any where within a wave group • ∆𝑝 = ℏ∆𝑘 = ℏ ∆ = ∆ ⇒ ∆𝑝∆𝑥 = ℎ
∆
Uncertainty in position ∆𝑥 = = =
∆

Uncertainty principle Significance of uncertainty principle

• We have considered super position of only two
waves. Actually, to have a finite extent we need to
consider superposition of infinite waves. In that
case we get
• ∆𝑝∆𝑥 = = ℏ ; This uncertainty comes due to
wave representation of particle and hence,
minimum and irreducible.
• So the uncertainty principle reads as
• 𝜟𝒑𝜟𝒙 ≥ ℏ
• 𝜟𝒑𝜟𝒙 ≥ ℏ
Product of uncertainty in momentum and uncertainty in
position is always greater than or equal to ℏ.
In a simultaneous measurement of position and momentum if
one of the quantities (say momentum)is measured with 100%
accuracy (∆𝑝 = 0) then uncertainty in the other
quantity(position in this case) will be infinity.
Hence, this principle tells us that momentum and position of a
matter-wave cannot be measured simultaneously with 100%
accuracy.

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Gamma ray Microscope Uncertainty principle

• Thought experiment • Here we have considered the particle property
of gamma ray but not the wave property of
electron.
• This consideration modifies the previous
relation to 𝚫𝒑𝚫𝒙 = ℏ
Collision occurs : means the • Again these are the inherent and irreducible
𝒉 electron is located within an
𝒑𝒆 , extent of 𝝀 Momentum gets uncertainties showing up due to the very
𝝀 transferred measurement process. With additional
Uncertainty in position 𝚫𝒙 = 𝝀
uncertainties the principle becomes
𝒉 𝒉 𝚫𝒑𝚫𝒙 ≥ ℏ
𝚫𝒑 = = ⇒ 𝚫𝒑𝚫𝒙 = 𝒉
𝝀 𝚫𝒙

Other form of uncertainty Uncertainty in Energy-Time

• 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 ⇒ ∆𝐸 = ℎ∆𝜈
• We have a duality relation 𝑝 =
• In a frequency measurement we count number
– Corresponding uncertainty principle of waves for a given time interval
𝚫𝒑𝚫𝒙 ≥ ℏ • As the time interval increases the uncertainty in
frequency measurements decreases.
• We have another duality relation 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = • ∆𝜈 = ⇒ ∆𝐸 = ⇒ ∆𝐸∆𝑡 = ℎ
∆ ∆
– We may expect to have a corresponding
• For more realistic calculations we get
uncertainty relation between Energy and time
– (conjugate variables) • 𝜟𝑬𝜟𝒕 ≥ ℏ

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Application of uncertainty principle Bohr Radius of hydrogen atom

• Explain why electrons are not found within
atomic nucleus? • Total energy 𝐸 = −
• Energy of electron~1𝑒𝑉
ℏ
• Uncertainty principle 𝛥𝑝𝛥𝑥 ≥ ℏ ⇒ 𝛥𝑝~
• ~1𝑒𝑉 → 𝑝~ 2𝑋9.11 × 10 × 1.6 × 10
ℏ ℏ
• 𝑝~5.5 × 10 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 • ∆𝑥~𝑟 ⇒ 𝛥𝑝~ Also, 𝑝~𝛥𝑝~
• ∆𝑝~𝑝 = 5.5 × 10 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠
ℏ
• 𝛥𝑝𝛥𝑥 ≥ ℏ; • 𝐸= − ; for ground state =0
ℏ . ×
𝛥𝑥~ = = ~10 𝑚~1𝐴 ℏ ℰ
× . × . ×
• − + =0⇒𝑟 = = 0.53𝐴
• Size of nucleus ~1 𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖 = 10 𝑚
• Hence, nucleus cannot contain electrons.

Ground state energy of Hydrogen de-Broglie wavelength for electron in

atom the first Bohr orbit
ℏ ℏ
• 𝐸= − • 𝜆= 𝑝~𝛥𝑝~

• For ground state 𝑟 =

ℰ • 𝜆= = 2π𝑟
• Ground state energy
ℏ
• 𝐸 = − =− = −13.5𝑒𝑉

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For higher states Problem

• 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆 • Give an estimate for ground state energy of a
quantum mechanical harmonic oscillator
• 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝑛
• 𝑝𝑟 = 𝑛ℏ
• 𝐿 = 𝑛ℏ

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