ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Outline of Lecture: Module 1

I.THE HUMAN ORGANISM

A. Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology
B. Structural and Functional Organization
C. Characteristics of Life
D. Homeostasis
E. Terminology and the Body Plain

II.CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE

A. Basic Chemistry
B. Chemical reactions
C. Acids and Bases
D. Inorganic Chemistry
E. Organic Chemistry

III. CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

A. Cell Structure
B. Functions of the Cell
C. Cell Membrane
D. Movement through Cell Membrane
E. Organelles
F. Whole-cell Activity
G. Cellular Aspects of Aging

IV.TISSUES, GLANDS, and MEMBRANES

A. Epithelial Tissue
B. Connective Tissue
C. Muscle Tissue
D. Nervous Tissue
E. Membranes
F. Inflammation
G. Tissue Repair
H. Tissue and Aging
I. HUMAN ORGANISM D. Homeostasis
 It is a condition in which functions, fluids and
A. Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology other factors of the internal environment are
maintained despite fluctuations in the
 Anatomy- Is the scientific discipline that internal/external environment.
investigates the structure of the body.  *Set point- normal values/
Examines the relationship between the parameter
structure of a body part and its function.
 Negative Feedback- acts to resist or reverse the
 Physiology- Scientific discipline that deals with process when conditions go outside of the
the processes or functions of living things. range.

 2 Basic Approaches to study anatomy  Positive Feedback- encourages and intensifies a

- Systematic Anatomy change in the body’s physiological condition,
- Regional Anatomy actually driving it farther out of the normal
range. This type of feedback is normal for the
B. Structural and Functional Organization body, provided there is a definite endpoint.

 Chemical Level- involves how atoms interact to E. Terminology and the Body Plan
form molecules
 Cell Level- basic functional and structural unit  Anatomical Position: refers to a person standing
 Tissues Level- group of cells upright
 Organ Level- two or more tissues; perform one  Supine: When lying face downward
or more common function  Prone: When lying face downward
 Organ System Level- group or organs that has  Anterior: In front of, front
common function or set of functions.  Posterior: After, behind, following, toward the
 Organism rear
 Distal: Away from, farther from the origin
C. Characteristics of Life  Proximal: Near, closer to the origin
 Dorsal: Near the upper surface, toward the back
 Organization- specific relationships of individual  Ventral: Toward the bottom, toward the belly
parts of organism  Superior: Above, over
 Metabolism- use of energy to perform vital  Inferior: Below, under
functions  Lateral: Toward the side, away from the mid-line
 Responsiveness- ability to sense change in the  Medial: Toward the mid-line, middle, away from
environment the side
 Growth  Caudal: Toward the back, toward the tail
 Development- growth+ differentiation  Bilateral: Involving both sides of the body
 *Differentiation- change in  Unilateral: Involving one side of the body
structure and function from  Ipsilateral: On the same side of the body
generalized to specialized
 Reproduction –formation of new cells or new
organisms

 Contralateral: On opposite sides of the body

 Parietal: Relating to a body cavity wall
  Visceral: Relating to organs within body cavities
 Axial: Around a central axis
 Intermediate: Between two structures
 Body Parts and Regions( Fig 1)
Fig 1
 Central region of the body: Head, neck and trunk
 Trunk- further subdivided into thorax, abdomen,
pelvis
 Upper Limb- arm, foream, wrist, hand
 Lower limb- thigh, leg ankle and foot
 Abdomen- divided into quadrants or regions (Fig
2)
Fig 2
Quadrants- 4 Regions-9
 Body Cavities
- Three large cavities of the body
 Thoracic cavity- contains the trachea, bronchi,
lungs, esophagus, heart and great blood
vessels, thymus gland, lymph nodes, and nerves
 Mediastinum- separates to L and
R
-Contains: Trachea, Esophagus,
BV, Thymus, Heart
 Diaphragm- separates thoracic
cavity form abdominal cavity
 Abdominal cavity- contains stomach, liver,
gallbladder, pancreas, spleen, small intestines,
and most of the large intestine
 Pelvic Cavity- contains the end of the large
intestine, rectum, urinary bladder, and internal
reproductive organs
 Abdominopelvic cavity
 Serous Membranes
- Sac that encloses/ covers a certain organ
in the body specifically in the trunk area
-Parts-
 Parietal membrane: lines the wall of the cavity
 Visceral membrane: is in contact with the
internal organs
 Serous fluid: secreted by the serous membrane
and protects organs against friction
 3 Serous membrane lined cavities in the
thoracic cavity
- 1(One) Pericardial Cavity- surrounds the
heart
 visceral pericardium, parietal
pericardium; pericardial fluid
- 2 (Two) Pleural Cavity- surrounds the
lungs
 visceral pleura, parietal pleura,
peural fluid
  Elements and Atoms

 Serous Membrane lined cavity in the  Elements: unique substances that cannot be
Abdominopelvic cavity/peritoneal cavity- broken down by ordinary chemical means
visceral peritoneum, parietal peritoneum,
peritoneal fluid.  Each element has unique physical and chemical
properties
 Planes – Physical properties: those detected with
our senses
– Chemical properties: pertain to the way
atoms interact with one another

 Atoms: more-or-less identical building blocks

for each element

 Atomic Structure

 The nucleus consists of neutrons and protons

– Neutrons:
• No charge
• Mass= one atomic mass unit
(amu)
– Protons:
• Positive charge
• Mass of 1 amu
 Electrons are found orbiting the nucleus
– Electrons:
• Negative charge
 Sagittal plane: divides the body into left and • Mass of 1/2000 amu
right parts
 Transverse plane: divides the body into superior
and inferior parts
 Frontal (coronal) plane: divides the body into
anterior and posterior parts

II. CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE

A. Basic Chemistry

 Matter, Mass and Weight

 Matter- anything that occupies space

 Mass- amount of matter in an object
 Weight- gravitational force acting on an object
of a given mass
 Atoms are electrically neutral because the
number of protons in atoms equals the number
of electrons
Covalent bond: the sharing of electrons
-Covalent bonds are formed by the sharing of two or
more electrons
-Electron sharing produces molecules
 Atomic number: equal to the number of protons
 Mass number: equal to the mass of the protons
and neutrons
 Atomic weight: average of the mass numbers of
all isotopes
 Isotope: atoms with same number of protons
but a different number of neutrons
 Electrons and Chemical Bonds
 Chemical Bonds- sharing or transferring their
outermost electrons
 Electron shells (energy levels) surround the
nucleus of an atom
– Bonds are formed using the electrons in
the outermost electron shell
 Valence shell: outermost energy level
containing chemically active electrons
 Octet rule: except for the first shell, which is full
with two electrons, atoms interact in a manner
to have eight electrons in their valence shell
 Electronegativity- ability of atom’s nucleus to
pull electrons towards it.
 Types of Chemical Bonds
Bonds Between Atoms:
 Ionic bond: formed when one atom loses an
electron and another accepts that electron
-Ionic bonds form between atoms by the
transfer of one or more electrons
-Ions: charged atoms resulting from the gain or
loss of electrons
– Anions: negatively charged ions due to
gaining one or more electrons
– Cations: positively charged ions due to
losing one or more electrons
-Ionic compounds form crystals instead of
individual molecules
-Example: NaCl (sodium chloride)
– single covalent bond: sharing of a pair of
electrons (H — H)
– double covalent bond: sharing of two
pairs of electrons (O ═ C ═ O)
– polar covalent bond: an unequal sharing
of electrons between two atoms
resulting in a slightly positive charge on
one side than the other
– nonpolar covalent bond: An equal
sharing of electrons of two atoms
resulting in even charged distribution
among atoms of molecule
Bonds Between Molecules
 Hydrogen bonds: The attraction of oppositely
charged ends of one polar molecule to another
polar molecule
 Molecules and Compounds
 Molecule: two or more atoms held together by
chemical bonds to form a structure that behaves
as an independent unit
 Compound: two or more different kinds of
atoms chemically combined
– covalent compound: a molecule
– ionic compound: organized array of ions
 Dissociation
 Separation of ions in an ionic compound by polar
water molecules
 Dissociated ions are called electrolytes because  Reversible Reaction
they can conduct electricity
 Molecules that do not dissociate in water are  All chemical reactions are theoretically
called nonelectrolytes reversible
A + B  AB
B. Chemical reactions AB  A + B
 If neither a forward nor reverse reaction is
 Occur when chemical bonds are formed, dominant, chemical equilibrium is reached
rearranged, or broken
– Reactants: substances that enter a  Energy and Chemical Reactions
chemical reaction
– Products: substances that result from  Energy
the chemical reaction  The capacity to do work (put matter into
 Written in symbolic form using chemical motion)
equations  Types of energy
 Chemical equations contain: – Potential: stored (inactive) energy that
– Number and type of reacting substances could do work
– Products produced – Kinetic: energy that does work by
– Relative amounts of reactants and causing the movement of an object
products  Can be neither created nor destroyed
 Easily converted from one form to another
 Synthesis Reaction – Mechanical: directly involved in moving
matter
 Combination of reactants to form a new larger – Chemical: stored in the bonds of
product chemical substances
– Anabolism- all synthesis reaction that – Electrical: results from the movement of
occurs in the body charged particles
– Dehydration reaction: a synthesis – Radiant or electromagnetic: travels in
reaction in which water is a product waves (i.e., visible light, ultraviolet light,
and
 Decomposition Reaction X-rays)
 Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) stores and
 Breakdown of larger reactants into smaller provides energy
products – Source of immediately usable energy for
– Catabolism- decomposition reactions the cell
that occur in the body
– Hydrolysis reaction: a decomposition  Factors Influencing Rate of Chemical Reactions
reaction that uses water
 Concentration: higher reacting particle
 Exchange Reaction concentrations produce faster reactions
 Temperature: chemical reactions proceed
 Combination of decomposition reaction and quicker at higher temperatures
synthesis reaction  Catalysts: increase the rate of a reaction
without being chemically changed
– Enzymes are biological catalysts
 Particle size: the smaller the particle the faster
the chemical reaction
C. Acids and Bases
 Acids release H+ and are therefore proton
donors
HCl  H+ + Cl –
 Bases release OH– and are proton acceptors
NaOH  Na+ + OH–
 Acid-Base concentration is measured using a pH
scale
pH Scale
 Ranges from 0 to 14
 Indicates the H+ concentration of a solution
– Neutral solutions have an equal number
of H+ and OH– and a pH of 7.0
– Acidic solutions have more H+ than OH–
and a pH of less than 7.0
– Basic (alkaline) solutions have fewer H+
than OH– and a pH greater than 7.0
 The normal PH range for human blood 7.35- 7.45
 Salts are formed by the reaction of an acid and a
base
 Buffers are chemicals that resist changes in pH
when acids or bases are added
Example: Carbonic acid-bicarbonate system
– Carbonic acid dissociates, reversibly
releasing bicarbonate ions and protons
– The chemical equilibrium between
carbonic acid and bicarbonate resists pH
changes in the blood
D. Inorganic Chemistry
 – Lipids
Mostly concerned with non-carbon-containing
substances but does include such carbon-
containing substances as CO, CO2, and HCO3-
 Inorganic Compounds
 Oxygen(O2)- is involved with the extraction of
energy from food molecules to make ATP
 Carbon Dioxide(CO2)- is a by-product of the
breakdown of food molecules
 Water(H2O)- has many important properties for
living organisms and is essential for life
Properties of Water
Stabilizes body temperature
– The high heat capacity of water allows it
to absorb and release large amounts of
heat before changing temperature
Protection
– acts as a lubricant or cushion
Chemical reactions
– Most of the chemical reactions
necessary for life do not take place
unless the reacting molecules are
dissolved in water
– Water also directly participates in many
chemical reactions
Transport
– Polar solvent properties: dissolves ionic
substances, forms hydration layers
around large charged molecules, and
serves as the body’s major transport
medium
E. Organic Chemistry
Substances contain carbon, are covalently
bonded, and are often large
Usually have carbon-carbon or carbon-hydrogen
bonding
 Organic Compounds
Molecules unique to living systems
They include:
– Carbohydrates
– Proteins
– Nucleic Acids
 Carbohydrates
– Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
• Ratio of 1:2:1 (C:H:O)
– Their major function is to supply a source of – Contain C, H, O, N, and some S
cellular food – Building block of proteins- amino acids
– Composed of 20 basic types of amino acids
Examples: bound together with peptide bonds
– Monosaccharides – glucose and fructose o Dipeptide: Two amino acids
– Disaccharides – sucrose and lactose o Tripeptide: Three amino acids
– Polysaccharides – starch and glycogen o Polypeptide: Many amino acids
 Lipids – Proteins are polypeptides of hundreds of amino
acids
– Dissolve in nonpolar solvents, such as alcohol or Amino Acids
acetone, but not in polar solvents, such as water Organic acids containing
– Contain C, H, and O, but the proportion of • amino group (-NH2)
oxygen in lipids is less than in carbohydrates • a carboxyl group (COOH)
– Buiding blocks of fats- glycerol and fatty acids • a hydrogen atom
Fatty acids A side chain designated by the symbol R
Saturated: only single covalent bonds between attached to the same carbon atom as the
carbons hydrogen
Unsaturated: one or more double covalent Functions of Proteins
bonds between carbons  regulate chemical reactions (enzymes)
Monounsaturated fats  structural proteins provide the framework for
Polyunsaturated fats many of the body’s tissues
Trans fats  responsible for muscle contraction
– Examples of Fats:  Fibrous proteins
 Fats or triglycerides: energy  Extended and strand-like
 Phospholipids: structural proteins
components of cell membranes  Examples: keratin, elastin,
 Eicosanoids: regulate collagen, and certain contractile
physiological processes fibers
 Steroids: regulate physiological  Globular proteins
processes  Compact, spherical proteins with
Examples of Lipids Found in the Body tertiary and quaternary
 Fats: found in subcutaneous tissue and around structures
organs  Examples: antibodies, hormones,
 Phospholipids: chief component of cell and enzymes
membranes Denaturation
 Steroids: cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D, sex Disruption of hydrogen bonds, which changes
hormones, and adrenal cortical hormones the shape of proteins and makes them nonfunctional
 Eicosanoids: prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and Enzymes
thromboxanes  Speed up chemical reactions by lowering the
 Fat-soluble vitamins: vitamins A, D, E, and K activation energy
 Lipoproteins: transport fatty acids and  Most are globular proteins that act as biological
cholesterol in the bloodstream catalysts
 Are chemically specific
 Proteins  Frequently named for the type of reaction they
catalyze
– Macromolecules  Names usually end in -ase
 Chemical events of the body are regulated  plays a role in communication between
primarily by mechanisms that control cells
– concentration of enzymes – Separates intracellular substances from
– activity of enzyme extracellular substances
 intracellular: inside cells
III. CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR  extracellular (intercellular): between
FUNCTIONS cells

 Fluid Mosaic Model

A. Cell Structure
 Lipid bilayer
 The cell is the basic structural and functional unit
– double layer of lipids with imbedded,
of life
dispersed proteins
 Each cell is a highly organized unit
 Bilayer consists mainly of phospholipids and
– Plasma membrane: forms the outer
cholesterol (20%)
boundary of the cell
– Phospholipids have hydrophobic
– Cellular organelles: each performs
(nonpolar tails) and hydrophilic (polar
specific functions
heads) bipoles
– Nucleus: contains the cell’s genetic
– Cholesterol gives the membrane added
material and directs cell activities
strength and flexibility
– Cytoplasm: the material between the
plasma membrane and nucleus
D. Movement through Cell Membrane
B. Functions of the Cell
– Ions and molecules move across plasma
membranes by:
1. Metabolize and release energy
 chemical reactions that occur within cells
 Diffusion
 release of energy in the form of heat
helps maintain body temperature
 The movement of a solute from an area of
2. Synthesize molecules
higher concentration to an area of lower
 cells differ from each other because they
concentration within a solvent
synthesize different kinds of molecules
- at equilibrium, there is a uniform
3. Provide a means of communication
distribution of molecules
 achieved by chemical and electrical
 Lipid-soluble molecules diffuse directly through
signaling
the plasma membrane
4. Reproduction and Inheritance
 Most non-lipid-soluble molecules and ions do
 mitosis
not diffuse through the plasma membrane
 meiosis
 Some specific non-lipid-soluble molecules and
ions pass through membrane channels or other
C. Cell Membrane
transport proteins
– Plays a dynamic role in cellular activity
 Leak channels
 encloses cell
 Gated Channels
 supports the cell contents
 a selective barrier that regulates what  Osmosis
goes into and out of the cell
 Diffusion of water (a solvent) across a selectively
permeable membrane, such as the cell
membrane, from a region of higher water
concentration to one of lower water
concentration
– Osmotic pressure: the force required to
prevent the movement of water across a
selectively permeable membrane
– Isosmotic solutions: have the same
concentration of solute particles as a
reference solution
– Hyperosmotic solutions: have a greater
concentration of solute particles than a
reference solution- cell shrinkage
– Hyposmotic solutions: have a lesser
concentration of solute particles than a
reference solution- lysis d/t swelling
 Mediated Transport
 Process by which transport proteins mediate, or
assist in, the movement of ions and molecules
across the plasma membrane
 Characteristics:
 Specificity: selectiveness
 Competition: similar molecules
or ions compete for a transport
protein
Saturation: rate of transport
cannot increase because all
transport proteins are in use
 Facilitated diffusion
– Is a carrier mediated transport process that
moves substances across the cell membrane
from area of higher concentration to an area of
lower concentration at that substance
– No ATP usage
– Ex. Transfer of glucose into cells
 Active Transport
– Atp usage
– Ex. Sodium-Potassium Pump
1. Three sodium ions (Na+) and adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) bind to the Na+-K+ pump,
which is an ATP-powered pump.
2. The ATP breaks down to adenosine diphosphate
(ADP) and a phosphate (P) and releases energy.
That energy is used to power a shape change in
the Na+-K+ pump. Phosphate remains bound to
the Na+-K+-ATP binding site.
3. The Na+-K+ pump changes shape, and the Na+
are transported across the membrane.
4. The Na+ diffuses away from the Na+-K+ pump.
5. Two potassium ions (K+) bind to the Na+-K+
pump.
6. The phosphate is released from the Na+-K+ pump
binding site.
7. The Na+-K+ pump resumes its original shape,
transporting K+ across the membrane, and the K+
diffuses away from the pump. The Na+-K+ pump
can again bind to Na+ and ATP.
 Secondary Active Transport
– Symport of Na+ and Glucose
1. A Na+-K+ pump (ATP-powered pump)
maintains a concentration of Na+ that is
higher outside the cell than inside.
2. Sodium ions move back into the cell
through a carrier protein (symporter)
that also moves glucose. The
+
concentration gradient for Na provides
energy required to move glucose against
its concentration gradient.
 Vesicular Transport
 Transport of large particles and macromolecules
across plasma membranes
– Endocytosis: the movement of materials
into cells by the formation of a vesicle
 Phagocytosis: the
movement of solid
material into cells
 Pinocytosis: the uptake
of small droplets of
liquids and the materials
in them
 Receptor-mediated
endocytosis: involves
plasma membrane
 receptors attaching to Microvilli Extensions Increase surface area
molecules that are then on Cell of certain cells
taken into the cell surface
– Exocytosis: the secretion of materials
from cells by vesicle formation
E. Organelles
F. Whole-cell Activity
Organelle Location Function (s)
Nucleus Center of Contains DNA and  Gene Expression
cell nucleoli; RNA
synthesis  DNA
Ribosomes Cytoplasm protein synthesis – DNA serves as master blueprint for
Rough ER Cytoplasm Many ribosomes protein synthesis
attached; protein – DNA controls enzyme production and
synthesis cell activity is regulated by enzymes
Smooth ER Cytoplasm lipid synthesis; (Proteins)
detoxification – Genes are segments of DNA carrying
Golgi App Cytoplasm Modifies protein instructions for a polypeptide chain
structure; packages
proteins in secretory  Protein Synthesis
vesicles
Secretory cytoplasm Contains materials  Two step process
Vesicles produced in the cell; 1. Transcription
formed by golgi app; • cell makes a copy of the gene
secreted by exocytosis necessary to make a particular
Lysosomes Cytoplasm Contains enzyme that protein: messenger RNA (mRNA)
digest material taken • mRNA then travels from the
into the cell nucleus to the ribosomes where
Peroxisome Cytoplasm Breaks down fatty the information is translated into
acids, amino acids, and a protein
hydirgen peroxide 2. Translation
Mitochondrion Cytoplasm Aerobic respiration; • requires both mRNA and transfer
ATP synthesis RNA (tRNA)
Microtubule Cytoplasm Supports cytoplasm; • tRNA brings the amino acids
assist in cell division necessary to synthesize the
and form components protein to the ribosome
of cilia and flagella
Centrioles cytoplasm Facilitate movement of  Cell Cycle
chromosomes during
cell division 2 Phases:
Cilia Cell Move subs. over 1. Interphase/Nondividing phase- DNA replication
surface surfaces of certain 2. Cell Division- through Mitosis
cells Stages of Mitosis
Flagella Sperm cell Propel sperm cells i. In prophase, each chromosome consist of 2
surface chromatids joined at the centromere
 ii. In metaphase, the chromosomes align in the A. Epithelial Tissue
center of the cell
iii. In anaphase, chromatids separate at the
centromere and migrate to opposite poles
iv. In telophase, the two new nuclei assume
their normal structure and cell division is
completed, producing two new daughters.
 Following telophase, cytoplasm division is
completed, and two separate daughter cells are
produced. ,
G. Cellular Aspects of Aging
– Covers surfaces
– Has little extracellular material
– Usually has a basement membrane
– Has no blood vessels
– Epithelial cells
– Have a free, or apical, surface (not attached
to other cells)
– A lateral surface (attached to other cells)
– A basal surface (attached to the basement
membrane)

1. Cellular Clock  Epithelial Tissue Functions

2. Death Genes
3. DNA damage 1. Protecting underlying structures
4. Free Radicals – Example: outer layer of skin and oral
5. Mitochondrial Damage mucosa
2. Acting as barriers
– Example: outer layer of skin
IV. TISSUES, GLANDS, and MEMBRANES 3. Permitting the passage of substances
– Example: epithelium in the lungs
 TISSUES 4. Secreting substances
– Example: mucous glands and sweat
– Tissues are collections of similar cells and the glands
extracellular matrix surrounding them 5. Absorbing substances
– Histology is the study of tissues – Example: epithelial cells of the intestine
– The four primary tissue types are
 Epithelial tissue  Epithelial Tissue Classification
 Connective tissue
 Muscle tissue Epithelia are classified according to the number of
 Nervous tissue cell layers and the shape of the cells
– Primary tissue types are derived from the
embryonic germ layers  Simple Epithelium- has one layer of cells
 Endoderm  Simple Squamous- flat and thin
– Forms the lining of the digestive tract
and its derivatives
 Mesoderm
– Forms tissues such as muscle, bone, and
blood vessels
 Ectoderm
– Forms the outermost layer of skin and
the nervous system
  Simple Cuboidal cubelike

 Simple Columnar tall and thin  Structural and Functional Relationships

• Cell Layers and Cell Shapes

– Simple epithelium is involved with:
• Diffusion
• Secretion
• Absorption
– Stratified epithelium serves a protective role
– Squamous cells function in:
• Diffusion
 Stratified epithelium- has more than one cell • Filtration
layer – Cuboidal or columnar cells, which contain
 Stratified Squamous- non keratinized cellular organelles
(moist) and keratinized • Secrete
 Stratified Cuboidal-rare • Absorb
 Stratified Columnar-rare – Free Cell Surfaces
• A smooth, free surface reduces
friction
 Pseudostratified epithelium- has one layer, but
• Example: Lining of blood
appears to have two or more layers
vessels
• Microvilli are cylindrical
extensions of the cell membrane
that increase surface area (cells
involved in absorption of
secretion)
• Example: Lining of the
small intestines
• Cilia propel materials over the
cell surface
• Example: Lining of the
 Transitional epithelium- is stratified epithelium nasal cavity and trachea
that can be greatly stretched (from cuboidal to
squamous)
 Glands in Epithelial Tissue B. Connective Tissue

 A gland is a single cell or a multicellular structure  Consist of cells seperated from each other by
that secretes abundant extracellular matrix
 Functions
– Endocrine glands- do not have ducts; Secrete 1. Enclosing and separating
hormones directly into the blood 2. Connecting tissues to one another (Ex.
– Exocrine glands- have ducts; Secretions are Ligaments and Tendons)
released onto a surface or into a cavity 3. Supporting and moving (Ex. Bones and
cartilage)
Structure of Exocrine Glands 4. Storing (Ex. Adipose tissue and Bones)
Simple: have one duct 5. Cushioning and insulating (Ex. Adipose
Compound: have ducts that branch repeatedly tissue)
Tubules: ducts end in small tubes 6. Transporting (Ex. Blood)
Acini: ducts end in saclike structures 7. Protecting (Ex. Blood and Bones)
Alveoli: ducts end in hollow sacs
 Connective Tissue Cells

 Specialized cells of various connective tissues

produce the extra cellular matrix
– End in suffixes that identify the cell
functions
• Blast (germ) cells form the matrix
• Cyte (cell) cells maintain it
• Clast (break) cells break it down

Exocrine Glands and Secretion Types  Classification of Connective Tissue (6)

Merocrine – no loss of cellular material
(Ex. sweat glands) Mesenchyme:
Apocrine – part of the cell pinches off – embryonic connective tissue that gives
(Ex. mammary glands) rise to six major categories of connective
Holocrine – entire cell is shed tissue
(Ex. sebaceous glands)  Loose, or areolar, connective tissue is the “loose
packing” material of the body
Sweat glands and mammary glands – Fills the spaces between organs
Classified by: – Holds organs in place
-Structure  Adipose tissue (fat)
-How products leave the cell – Stores energy
– Pads and protects parts of the body
– Acts as a thermal insulator
 Dense connective tissue consists of a matrix
containing densely packed fibers
– Collagen fibers (Ex. tendons, ligaments,
and dermis of the skin)
Elastic fibers (Ex. elastic ligaments and in the
walls of arteries)
 Cartilage provides support Smooth
– Hyaline cartilage (Ex. covers ends of • Forms the walls of hollow organs
bones and forms costal cartilages) (except the heart) and also is
– Fibrocartilage (Ex. disks between found in the skin and the eyes
vertebrae) • Involuntary, not striated, and
– Elastic cartilage (Ex. external ear) have a single nucleus
 Bone has a mineralized matrix
– forms most of the skeleton of the body
• Compact bone has more matrix D. Nervous Tissue
than spaces
• Cancellous bone has more spaces  Brain, SC, Ganglia/ Spinal Nerves
then matrix  Specialized to conduct action potentials
 Blood has a liquid matrix (electrical signals)
– Found in blood vessels - Neurons- conduct action potentials
– Produced in hemopoietic tissue (red - Neuroglia -support the neurons; surround
bone marrow) neurons
 Neurons have 3 parts:
- Cell Body- contains the nucleus
C. Muscle Tissue - Dendrites-
- Axon
Main fxn: to contract, or shorten, making
movement possible E. Membranes
– Length of muscle cells is greater than the
diameter  Mucous membranes line cavities that open to
– Sometimes called muscle fibers because the outside of the body
they often resemble tiny threads – Digestive, respiratory, urinary, and
reproductive tracts
 Three types of muscle tissue – Contain glands
– Secrete mucus
Skeletal  Serous membranes line trunk cavities that do
• Meat of animals not open to the outside of the body
• Constitutes ~40% of a person’s – pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal
body weight cavities
• Attaches to the skeleton and – Do Not contain glands
allows for movement – Secrete serous fluid
• Voluntary, multinucleated, and  Synovial membranes line freely movable joints
striated (banded)
Cardiac F. Inflammation Process
• Muscle of the heart
• Connected to one another by  Function of the inflammatory response is to
intercalated disks (contain gap mobilize body’s defenses isolate and destroy
junctions) harmful agents
• Involuntary, striated, and usually  Five symptoms:
have one nucleus per cell – Redness
– Heat
– Swelling
 – Pain
– Disturbance of function
 Chronic inflammation results when the agent
causing injury is not removed or something else
interferes with the healing process

G. Tissue Repair

 Tissue repair is the substitution of viable cells for

dead cells by:
– Regeneration: the new cells are the same
type as those that were destroyed and
normal function is usually restored
– Fibrosis: replacement, a new type of tissue
develops that eventually causes scar
production and the loss of some tissue
function.

H. Tissue and Aging

 Cells divide more slowly as people age

 Injuries heal more slowly
 Extracellular matrix containing collagen and
elastic fibers becomes less flexible and less
elastic
 Consequently:
– Skin wrinkles
– Elasticity in arteries is reduced
– Bones break more easily