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Introduction of Heredity & Evolution 

Jump To Topic
You have seen in the previous chapter that new
generation individual could be obtained either by Introduction of Hered…
sexual or asexual method of reproduction.
But notice one thing that individuals produced due Some Important Terms
to asexual method of reproduction look exactly
Variation
similar, while the individuals obtained through
sexual method of reproduction shows certain
Introduction to Mend…
changes which we can call variations.
ese all changes arise because of a DNA, wonderful Mendel's laws of inhe…
molecule carrying information for our body design.
So Heredity is termed as passing on the traits from DNA
parents to their o fspring, by the means of asexual
or sexual reproduction. e o fspring acquire the Hereditary material in…
genetic information of their parents, while
Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics Determination of sex
of biological populations over successive
Evolution
generations. ese characteristics are the
expressions of genes that are passed on from parent
Origin of life
to o fspring during reproduction.
The oparin-haldane h…
Organic evolution
Lamarck's theory of e…
Darwinism
Type of variation
Genetic drift
biological concept of …
Gene Pool
Phylogenetic taxono…
Connecting links
Evidences from embr…
Evidences from paleo…

https://www.ntseguru.in/students/index/57974/58017/StudyMaterial/0 1/37
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Jump To Topic
Introduction of Hered…
Some Important Terms
Variation
Mendel's laws of inhe…
HEREDITY DNA
e transmission of characters [or traits] from
one generation to another generation. Hereditary material in…
OR
Determination of sex
e transmission of characters from the parents
to their o fsprings is Heredity.
Evolution
Origin of life
Organic evolution
Chromosomes:
A thread - like structure in the nucleus of a cell Lamarck's theory of e…
formed of DNA which carries the genes.
Darwinism
Hybrid plant:
A new form of plant resulting from a cross or Type of variation
breeding of di ferent varieties of a plant is known as
a hybrid plant. Genetic drift
Pure-breeding:
Characteristics that appear unchanged generation
Gene Pool
a ter generation.
O fspring:
Organisms produced as a result of sexual Connecting links
reproduction.
F1 Generation:
When two pure lines cross or breed to produce

progeny [or o fsprings] then their progeny is called 
F1 generation or rst lial generation. Jump To Topic
F2 generation: Introduction of Hered…

When the rst generation progeny cross or breed
among themselves to produce second progeny, then Some Important Terms
progeny is called lial generation or F2 generation.
Variation
Genotype:
e genetic constitution or makeup of an organism
is Genotype. Eg. TT, tt, Tt.
Genetics: DNA
e study of heredity and variation.
Hereditary material in…
Phenotype:
External and morphological appearance of an Determination of sex
organism for a particular character.
Evolution
Allele:
Origin of life
Alternative forms of genes which are located at the
same position [locus] on the homologous The oparin-haldane h…
chromosome.
Organic evolution
Character:
A recognizable feature of human beings or any other Lamarck's theory of e…
organisms are called characters. e. g. height,
complexion (skin colour) etc. Darwinism
Type of variation
Dominant characters:
Any character that appears in the F1 generation
Genetic drift
o fspring from a cross between parents having
contrasting characters. biological concept of …
Recessive characters: Gene Pool

Any character present in the parental generation
that does not appear or fail to express in the F1 Phylogenetic taxono…
generation.
Connecting links
Homozygous:
A condition in which the two members of an allelic
pair are similar e.g. TT, tt or RR etc. Evidences from paleo…
Heterozygous: 
A condition in which the two members of an allelic Jump To Topic
pair are dissimilar e.g. Tt or Yy etc.
Genes:
Unit of heredity which transfers characters from Some Important Terms
parents to their o fsprings during reproduction.
Gene → Protein → synthesis → Enzymes [Controls Variation
phenotype of a character]
Dominant gene:
e gene which decide the appearance of an
organism even in the presence of an alternative DNA
gene.
Recessive gene:
e gene which decides the appearance of an Determination of sex
organism only in the presence of another identical
gene. Evolution
Origin of life
Traits:
Various forms of a character are called traits.
Variations: Organic evolution

e di ferences in the characters [or traits] among
the individuals of a species are called variations. Lamarck's theory of e…
Darwinism
Type of variation
Variation
Genetic drift
During asexual reproduction, variation is caused
due to small inaccuracies in DNA copying. biological concept of …
During sexual reproduction, the variation
caused by- Gene Pool
(i) Chance of separation of chromosomes during

gamete formation (gametogenesis).
(ii) Crossing over during meiosis.
Connecting links
(iii) Mutations i.e. sudden and inheritable changes
in the sequence of DNA during gamete formation or Evidences from embr…
during growth of zygote.
ACCUMULATION OF VARIATION DURING

REPRODUCTION 
All the variations in a species do not have equal Jump To Topic
chances of survival in the environment in which
they are generated. Introduction of Hered…
Depending upon the nature of variations,
di ferent individuals would have di ferent kinds of Some Important Terms
advantages.
For instance, bacteria that can withstand heat Variation
will survive better in a heat wave than the others.
In other words, environmental factors select the Introduction to Mend…
variants and this selection forms the basis of

evolution.
e genetic information is present in the
DNA
gametes (egg and sperm) which fuse to form the
fertilized egg or zygote during sexual reproduction. Hereditary material in…
e zygote then develops into an organism of a
particular type. Determination of sex
Evolution
Origin of life
Introduction to Mendelism
G.J. Mendel is known as father of Genetics.
A paper of Mendel by the name of Experiment in Organic evolution
Plant Hybridization published in journal.
Mendel chose garden pea (Pisum sativum) as Lamarck's theory of e…
plant material for his experiments, since it has
following advantages: Darwinism
1. Cross pollination and fertilization can both be

Type of variation
easily done.
2. e pea plant was easy to grow.
Genetic drift
3. It can form large number of seeds in one cross.
4. Inheritance patterns could be studied up to two biological concept of …
generations in a year.
5. e lowers of pea plant are bisexual and self Gene Pool
pollinating.
6. It exhibits contrasting traits such as smooth and Phylogenetic taxono…
wrinkled seeds, short and tall height, axillary or
terminal lowers etc. Connecting links
7. Hybrids and their o fsprings are fertile ( ey can
reproduce and can result in next generation Evidences from embr…
individuals) i. e. continuous cross- fertilization and
self-fertilization is possible.

TRAITS CHOSEN BY MENDEL FOR HIS Jump To Topic
EXPERIMENT:
Variation
DNA
MONOHYBRID CROSS Evolution
Origin of life
F1 SELF POLLINATION Organic evolution
Darwinism
Type of variation
Genetic drift
Mendel further found that the phenotypic ratio of 3: biological concept of …

1 of dominant to recessive and a genotypic ratio of 1:
2: 1 of pure dominant, hybrid and pure recessive Gene Pool
forms.
e traits which remain hidden in F1 generation got Phylogenetic taxono…
expressed in F2 generation.
Connecting links
DIHYBRID CROSS POLLINATION

In dihybrid cross, Mendel crossed genetically pure
round yellow seeded (RRYY) pea plant with wrinkled Evidences from paleo…
green (rryy) pea plant.

All the plants of F1 generation were hybrid or 
heterozygous round yellow seeded (RrYy). Jump To Topic
DIHYBRID SELF POLLINATION OF F1 Introduction of Hered…

GENERATION
When the plant of F1 generation were allowed for Some Important Terms
self fertilization, then in F2 generation, four

Variation
di ferent types of plants appeared as follows:
Rounded Yellow - 9 Wrinkled Yellow - 3 Introduction to Mend…
Round Green -3 Wrinkled Green - 1
So, here phenotypic ratio will be 9: 3: 3: 1 Mendel's laws of inhe…
DNA
Evolution
Origin of life
Organic evolution
Darwinism
Results of Mendel's Experiments:
When the self pollination was made and F1 Type of variation
generation was obtained, it was found that the
resultant generation would express only one of the Genetic drift
trait and not the other.
e trait which is being expressed is called as biological concept of …
dominant, whereas the one which is not expressed
is called as recessive trait. Gene Pool
In the F1 generation of monohybrid cross,
obtained by self pollination, the dominant and the
recessive traits obtained, were in the ratio of 3:1 i.e.
Connecting links
75% of the o fsprings which appeared in F2
generation had dominant trait, while 25% had Evidences from embr…
recessive trait.

Mendel's laws of inheritance Jump To Topic
On the basis of the experiments performed and Introduction of Hered…

the result obtained, Mendel formulated three laws.
ey are: Some Important Terms
(1) e Principle of Dominance or Law of

Variation
Dominance:
When two homozygous individuals with one or Introduction to Mend…
more sets of contrasting character are crossed, the
characters that appear in the F1 hybrids are Mendel's laws of inhe…
dominant characters and those which do not appear
in F1 are recessive characters. DNA

(2) e Principle of Segregation or Law of
Segregation or Law of Purity of Gametes:
e law of segregation states that when a pair of
contrasting factors or genes or alleles are brought Evolution
together in a heterozygous condition, the two
remain together without being contaminated but Origin of life
when gametes are formed from them, the two
separate out from each other. The oparin-haldane h…
(3) e Principle of Independent Assortment or Organic evolution
Law of Independent Assortment:

If the inheritance of more than one pair of
characters is studied simultaneously, the factors or Darwinism
genes for each pair of characters assort
independently. Type of variation
Co-Dominance occurs when both the Genetic drift

genes/alleles in the genotype are equally dominant.
Multiple Alleles occur when more than two biological concept of …
genes/alleles determine a characteristic, such as in
ABO blood groups. Gene Pool
Connecting links
DNA Evidences from embr…

GENES:
e term gene was introduced by Johansson for 
Jump To Topic
Mendelian factor.
Gene determines the physical as well as
physiological characteristics.
Genes are transmitted from parents to their
o fsprings generation a ter generation.
Genes are located on chromosomes where they Variation
occupy speci c position called as locus.
Chemically gene is formed of DNA. Introduction to Mend…
DNA: Mendel's laws of inhe…

DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid is the genetic or
hereditary material in humans and almost all other DNA
organisms.
Most DNA is located in the nucleus (where it is
called as nuclear DNA).
But, a small amount of DNA can also be found in
the mitochondria (where it is called mitochondrial Evolution
DNA or mt DNA).
Origin of life
Composition of DNA:
(a) Sugar The oparin-haldane h…
(b) Phosphate
Organic evolution
(c) Nitrogenous bases- ey are purines &
pyrimidines.
Purines: Adenine and Guanine
Pyrimidines: Cytosine and ymine Darwinism
ese three are together called as nucleotides.
Nucleic acids are linear, unbranched polymers of Type of variation
nucleotides.
Genetic drift
Gene Pool
Connecting links


Jump To Topic
Variation
DNA
Evolution
Hereditary material in prokaryotes:
Origin of life
Bacterial Chromosomes:
In all bacteria and blue-green algae, the genetic The oparin-haldane h…
material is DNA.
It is present over the long circular chromosome. Organic evolution
In the bacteria, the chromosomes are made up
of double stranded DNA. Lamarck's theory of e…
is is lying naked in the centre of the
cytoplasm. Darwinism
Type of variation
Viral Chromosomes:
ey contain DNA or RNA.
Genetic drift
(a) RNA as genetic material: In most of the plant
viruses and bacteriophages biological concept of …
(b) DNA as genetic material: Mainly found in most
of the animal viruses, T3 and T4 bacteriophages Gene Pool
Eukaryotic chromosomes: Phylogenetic taxono…

e chromosomes are not the permanent parts
of the nucleus. Connecting links
e nucleus contains nucleoplasm.
e chromatin material is the main component
of the nucleoplasm.
e chromatin network of the interphase nuclei

condenses and separates, so as to form thread like 
bodies called chromosomes. Jump To Topic
Chromosomes play a vital role in heredity,
mutation, variation and evolutionary development Introduction of Hered…
of the species.
ese chromosomes are invisible in the nucleus Some Important Terms
but can be easily seen during cell division (whether
mitosis or meiosis). Variation
DNA
Evolution
Origin of life
e number of chromosomes is constant for a
particulars species. e somatic cells have 2 haploid Organic evolution
sets are called as diploid cells while germ cells have
haploid set (n) of chromosomes e.g. amoeba proteus Lamarck's theory of e…
= 500, frog = 26, rat = 42, man = 46, chimpanzee =
48, gorilla = 48 etc. Darwinism
Type of variation
Genetic drift
For the purpose of sexual reproduction, the
Gene Pool
animal may be either Monoecious or Dioecious.
In dioecious animals, the males and females are
separate and have di ferent primary sex organs for
the production of two di ferent kinds of gametes.
Connecting links
In monoecious, male and female sex organs are
present in the same individual. Evidences from embr…


Jump To Topic
Variation

As per this theory, the male and female
individuals would di fer in their chromosome DNA
constitution.
ere may be two types of chromosomes present Hereditary material in…
in such individuals-
(i) Autosomes or somatic chromosomes: ese bear Determination of sex
genes of characters of the body.

Evolution
(ii) Allosomes or sex chromosomes: ese determine
the sex.
Origin of life
e X chromosomes express the female
characters and Y chromosomes express the male The oparin-haldane h…
characters.
Organic evolution
a) XX-XY type:
In normal human beings (Homo sapiens), males are Lamarck's theory of e…
XY and females are XX.
us, males are with 44+ XY and females are with Darwinism
44+XX chromosomes.
Type of variation
Y chromosomes controls the sex.
Genetic drift
Gene Pool
Connecting links


Jump To Topic
Variation
DNA
NOTE: It is Y chromosome of a father, who Hereditary material in…

decides the sex of the child.
b) XX-XO or Protenor type:

Evolution
In male squash bug some of sperms are
containing 10 + X chromosomes but in ova the 10 + 0 Origin of life
(=10) chromosomes were noticed.
us, sperms are of two types - (10 + X), (10 + 0). The oparin-haldane h…
Organic evolution
Darwinism
If the X-carrying ovum is fertilized by an X-
carrying sperm, the resulting zygote; XX will
Type of variation
develop into a female.
If the sperm carrying no sex chromosomes Genetic drift
unites with the ovum, the zygote; XO will develop
into a male. biological concept of …
Gene Pool
Connecting links

c) ZO-ZZ Type: 
e females have only one sex chromosome and Jump To Topic
hence represented as ZO.
Females are heterogametic. Introduction of Hered…
Males carry two identical sex chromosomes
designated ZZ. Some Important Terms
erefore, males are homogametic.
On fertilization by a Z-carrying sperm, the Z- Variation
carrying ovum would develop into a male (ZZ) and
on fertilization, the Z-lacking ovum would develop Introduction to Mend…
into a female.
DNA
Evolution
Origin of life
ENVIRONMENTAL MECHANISM OF SEX
DETERMINATION The oparin-haldane h…
In marine worm, sex is undi ferentiated in larva
initially. Organic evolution
e larva which settle down in mud, grow up
into mature female while those which settle down Lamarck's theory of e…
near the proboscis of female and become parasite
develop into male. Darwinism
It has been demonstrated that female secrete
certain hormone which induces sex in larva. Type of variation
is mechanism is observed by F. Baltzer in
Genetic drift
Bonneli aviridis (marine worm).
Gene Pool
Connecting links


Jump To Topic
Variation
DNA

Evolution
Evolution can be de ned as sequence of gradual
changes of simple form of life to complex form of Evolution
life over the course of geological time.
Evolution is of two types: Origin of life
(i) Chemical evolution: It is the formation of the
complex organic compounds from simple The oparin-haldane h…
compound or element.
(ii) Organic evolution: It is the formation of Organic evolution
complex form of life from the simple form of life.

Darwinism
Type of variation
Origin of life
Genetic drift
ere are certain theories of Origin of life which are
as follows - biological concept of …
SPECIAL CREATION THEORY:
It is believed that God created Universe in six Gene Pool
days.
Connecting links


Jump To Topic
is theory was given by Father Saurez.

Variation
THEORY OF SPONTANEOUS GENERATION Introduction to Mend…

(ABIOGENESIS):
It is believed that all the living forms were Mendel's laws of inhe…
originated spontaneously from the inanimate
(showing no sign of life) substances. DNA
Von Helmont supported this theory by
performing certain classic experiments. Hereditary material in…
THEORY OF BIOGENESIS:
Francesco Redi (1668) was the founder of the Evolution
theory and Lazzaro Spallanzani (1765) con rmed it.
It was proposed by them that life can only be Origin of life
originated from pre-existing life.
It was later on supported by Louis Pasteur in The oparin-haldane h…
1867 with his famous Swan neck lask experiment.
Organic evolution
MODERN CONCEPT OF ORIGIN OF LIFE:
Haeckel proposed this theory and said that the
origin of life was a gradual process not a sudden
Darwinism
process.
Life originated from inorganic substances which Type of variation
were a fected by the external physical active forces.
is theory was elaborated by Oparin (1992). Genetic drift
Gene Pool
e oparin-haldane hypothesis Phylogenetic taxono…
Connecting links
Complex substances like carbohydrates, fats and
proteins were formed by C, H, N, S, P, Ni, Al, Fe, Cu, Evidences from embr…

Si in the bottom of sea and J. B. S. Haldane referred

these as hot dilute soup. 
Oxidation of aldehydes and ketones resulted in Jump To Topic
fat formation, formation of amino acids and
proteins. Introduction of Hered…
en, formation of nucleoproteins took place.
Variation
Organic evolution Introduction to Mend…
Experimental evidence for formation of simple Mendel's laws of inhe…

organic compounds (Oparin and Haldane theory)
was proposed by Stanley Miller who was student of DNA
Harold Urey.
e name of the experiment given was Millers
and Urey experiment. Determination of sex
ey mixed ammonia methane and hydrogen
gas in 2: 2: 1 ratio in a 5 liter lask. Evolution
Origin of life
Organic evolution
Darwinism
Type of variation
Genetic drift
is lask was managed to keep on the water
boiling. Gene Pool
Bigger lask was provided with two tungsten
electrodes. Phylogenetic taxono…
A current of 75,000 volts was operated for 7-8
days. Connecting links
Conclusion: Evidences from embr…

e gases thus produced were condensed by the

condenser and the connecting U tube was lled with 
red liquid. Jump To Topic
is luid contained glycine, alanine and aspartic
acid along with certain complex organic substances. Introduction of Hered…
is experiment proved that C, H, O and N can
form the di ferent biologically signi cant complex Some Important Terms
compound.
Variation
Lamarck's theory of evolution Mendel's laws of inhe…
He mainly focused on two aspects; Use & Disuse DNA

of Organs as well as Inheritance of Acquired
Characters. Hereditary material in…
Whenever there is a change in the environment,
organisms had to change their behavior to survive. Determination of sex
In order to do that they began to use an organ

Evolution
more.
If a gira fe stretched its neck for consuming
Origin of life
leaves, a "nervous luid" would low into its neck and
make it longer gradually. The oparin-haldane h…
Its o fspring would also inherit the longer neck,
and continued stretching would make it longer still Organic evolution
over several generations.
Meanwhile organs that organisms stopped using Lamarck's theory of e…
would shrink.
Darwinism
Type of variation
Genetic drift
Gene Pool
is is showing the stages of evolution in Gira fe
Connecting links

Darwinism

Charles Robert Darwin in his book origin of Jump To Topic
species, the theory presented by him called theory of
natural selection or Darwinism. Introduction of Hered…
is theory is based on six fundamental
propositions: Some Important Terms
1. ere is enormous rate of reproduction among
Variation
animals.
2. Limited food & shelter on the earth
3. Survival of ttest and continuous environmental
changes brings continuous natural selection which
leads to evolution of new species.
Charles Darwin explained the mechanism of DNA
origin of new species by nature selection.
But he failed to explain the mechanism of source Hereditary material in…
of heritable variations.
is was explained by Hugo de Varies a Dutch Determination of sex
botanist.
According to him, heritable variations arise Evolution
when there is a change in genes of the germplasm
(protoplasm of germ cell). Origin of life
He called it as mutation.
Organic evolution
Darwinism
Type of variation
Genetic drift
4. Variation in the organisms due to changing
Gene Pool
environment
Variations are the structural, functional or
behavioral changes from the normal characters
developed in living organisms. Connecting links
ere is an inbuilt tendency of occurring
variation during DNA duplication. Evidences from embr…
Variation may be inheritable or non inheritable.
Variations provide materials for evolution as

only inheritable variation participate in evolution. 
5. Struggle for existence is very important. Jump To Topic
6. Only useful characters of an organisms will be
inherited. Introduction of Hered…
Variation
Type of variation
Type of variation
Variations are of two types on the basis of nature Mendel's laws of inhe…
of cells in which variations occur.
(i) Acquired traits (ii) Inherited traits DNA
Evolution
Origin of life
Organic evolution
An Illustration: Consider the following example. Darwinism

A group of twelve red beetles living in bushes
with green leaves. Type of variation
Beetles in the population can generate variations
because these are reproducing sexually. Genetic drift
Crow can eat the beetles.
e more beetles the crow eat, the fewer beetles biological concept of …
are le t for reproduction.
Gene Pool
Connecting links


Jump To Topic
Variation
In the rst situation, a colour variation arises Introduction to Mend…

during reproduction, so that there is one beetle that
is green in colour instead of red. Mendel's laws of inhe…
is beetle, moreover, can pass the colour onto
its progeny, so that all its progeny beetles are green. DNA
Crows cannot see green-coloured beetles on the
green leaves of the bushes, and therefore cannot eat Hereditary material in…
them.
e progeny of green beetles is not eaten, while Determination of sex
the progeny of red beetles continues to be eaten.
Evolution
As a result, there are more and more green
beetles than red ones in the beetle population.
Origin of life
In a second situation, again, a colour variation
arises during reproduction, but now it results in a
beetle that is blue in colour instead of red.
is beetle can also pass the colour on to its Organic evolution
progeny, so that all its progeny beetles are blue.
Crows can see blue-coloured beetles in the green Lamarck's theory of e…
leaves of the bushes as well as they can see red ones,
and therefore can eat them. Darwinism
In the population, as it expands, there are a few
blue beetles, but most are red. Type of variation
But at this point, an elephant comes by, and
stamps on the bushes where the beetles live. Genetic drift
is kills most of the beetles. By chance, the few

beetles that have survived are mostly blue.
e beetle population slowly expands again, but
Gene Pool
now, the beetles in the population are mostly blue.
e frequency of an inherited trait changed over Phylogenetic taxono…
generations.
In the rst case, the variation became common Connecting links
because it gave a survival advantage i.e. it was
naturally selected. Evidences from embr…

In the second situation, the colour change gave

no survival advantage. 
It is the idea of genetic dri t, which provides Jump To Topic
diversity without any adaptations.
Genetic dri t Variation
e random changes in the gene frequency occur Introduction to Mend…

by chance alone.
e e fect of genetic dri t is very small in large Mendel's laws of inhe…
population and large in small populations.
Genetic dri t may occur due to death, emigration DNA
or immigration of many individuals in a small
population. Hereditary material in…
Evolution
biological concept of species
Origin of life
Members of species are capable of breeding with
one another and produce living, fertile o fspring but
Organic evolution
are unable to breed with members of other species
normally.
Darwinism
Type of variation
Gene Pool
Genetic drift
Sum of all the genes of all the members of a
species biological concept of …
Speciation occurs when the gene pool of a
population is somehow reproductively isolated from Gene Pool
other sister population of the parent species and
gene low no longer occurs between them. Phylogenetic taxono…
en a population splits into independent
species which become reproductively isolated from Connecting links
each other.
On the basis of period taken in speciation there
are two types of mechanism of speciation.

Jump To Topic
Phylogenetic taxonomy/Evidences of
evolution Introduction of Hered…
Phylogenetic taxonomy is branch of Some Important Terms

classi cation on the basis of evolutionary
Variation
relationship or on the basis of common ancestry.
TRACING EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIP
Studies on similarities in structure of di ferent Mendel's laws of inhe…
organisms suggests that present from have evolved
through a process of slow and gradual change called DNA
evolution.
ey include the following: Hereditary material in…
ANATOMY OF ORGANS Determination of sex
(A) HOMOLOGOUS ORGANS:

Evolution
Homologous organs are those structures which
are di ferent in appearance and perform di ferent
Origin of life
functions but have similar basic structure and
developmental origin. The oparin-haldane h…
is relationship is called homology.
Organic evolution
Darwinism
Type of variation
Genetic drift
Gene Pool
(B) ANALOGOUS ORGANS:
ose organs which have di ferent origin and Phylogenetic taxono…
structural plan but appear similar and perform
similar functions are called analogous organs. Connecting links
While this relationship is called convergent
evolution or analogy Evidences from embr…
e.g.: Wings of an insect and a bird, hand of man &
trunk of elephant.

Jump To Topic
Variation
DNA
Analogy in these organs is due to similar

adaptations to perform similar functions rather
than their common ancestry. Determination of sex
Evolution
Origin of life
Organic evolution
VESTIGIAL ORGANS:
ose organs which no longer have a function
are called vestigial organs. Darwinism
ese organs have reduced structurally as well as
functionally. Type of variation
It appears that these organs were once well
developed and functional in ancestors and later on Genetic drift
due to their less use, they became reduced
eg: Vermiform appendix, ear muscles, third eyelid biological concept of …
in man are reduced and function less.
Gene Pool
Connecting links

COMMON ANCESTRY AND INTER- 

RELATIONSHIP: Jump To Topic
Various organisms are inter connected their
resemblance suggest a common ancestry. Introduction of Hered…
Variation
DNA
Evolution
Connecting links
Origin of life
Some living organisms have characteristics of
two groups.
ey are known as connecting links.
Organic evolution
Eg: (i) Virus Between living and non living
(ii) Euglena Between plants and animals Lamarck's theory of e…
(iii) Archaeopteryx Between birds and reptiles
Darwinism
Reptilian character:
Jaws are provided with homodont teeth. Type of variation
Bones are not pneumatic.

Genetic drift
Scales are present.
Gene Pool
Connecting links


Jump To Topic
Variation
DNA
Birds like character: Determination of sex

Beak is present
Evolution
Forelimbs are modi ed as wings
Tail bear two rows of feathers.
Origin of life
Organic evolution
Evidences from embryology

A comparative study of the stages of embryonic Darwinism

development in animals reveals that in their early
stages, they were very similar. Type of variation
ese embryonic stages re lect their ancestry.
e embryological stages of an organism give us Genetic drift
an idea about the stages of its evolution.
For example, when we study the human embryo, biological concept of …
we nd that at a certain stage, it has gills.
is suggests that, sh is one of the earliest Gene Pool
ancestors in the evolution of mammals including
human beings.
Connecting links


Jump To Topic
Variation
DNA
Evidences from paleontology
Fossil:
e remnants of animals and plants of ancient Determination of sex
period are found in the rocks.
ese remnants are known as fossils. Evolution
e study of fossils is known as paleontology
Origin of life
Organic evolution
Formation of fossils:
1) When an animal or plant is pressed under the Darwinism
stones, then the less permanent parts are preserved
by minerals due to petri cation or change into Type of variation
stones.
Genetic drift
2) Animals are also preserved intact in amber,
asphalt or oil.
3) Moulds or casts of animals are formed in minerals
by the petri cation of animals and their decayed
Gene Pool
part is replaced by minerals forming their external
characters. Phylogenetic taxono…
e.g. leaves, wings of insects, jelly shes etc.
Connecting links
Determination of Age of fossil:
Age of rock can determine the age of fossils. Evidences from embr…

is can be calculated by the radioactive

substances present in it. 
Following methods are used to determine the Jump To Topic
age of fossils.
(a) Uranium-lead method: Introduction of Hered…
238
U is a radioactive element and very slowly
changes into P b206 , Ca40 , K etc. Some Important Terms
If the quantity of lead in the fossil is known, the
age of fossil can be calculated. Variation
(b) Radioactive carbon method:

Radioactive C 14 is converted gradually into
nitrogen. Mendel's laws of inhe…
Half life period of C 14 is 5568 years.
e amount of C 14 is calculated in the fossil rock DNA
and age can be calculated.
Evolution
Molecular phylogeny
Origin of life
Ancestors of di ferent organism including
humans can be traced by studying change in their
DNA.
Organic evolution
A change in DNA means a change in its protein
sequences. Lamarck's theory of e…
e ancestry or phylogeny determined by
comparative study of DNA sequences is called Darwinism
molecular phylogeny.
Studies in molecular phylogeny help in the Type of variation
classi cation of organisms.
Genetic drift
Human evolution Gene Pool
Evolutionary history of man has been guilt from Phylogenetic taxono…

the paleontology (fossil studies) and molecular
biology (especially DNA changes). Connecting links
For example: It is not true that human beings
have evolved from chimpanzees.

Rather both human beings and chimpanzees

have common ancestors a long time ago. 
at common ancestor is likely to have been Jump To Topic
neither human nor chimpanzee.
e two resultant species have probably evolved Introduction of Hered…
in their separate ways to give rise to the current
forms. Some Important Terms
Anthropology: e scienti c study of tracing of
human evolution is called anthropology. Variation
Scientists involved in studying human evolution
are called anthropologists. Introduction to Mend…
Studies have revealed that human evolution
started in Africa and earliest human type was Mendel's laws of inhe…
Australopithecus Africans.
DNA
e rst human evolved in East Africa where
genetic foot prints of earliest members of human
species Homo sapiens can be traced.
A couple of hundred thousand years ago some of Determination of sex
own ancestors le t across the planet from Africa.
Evolution
Origin of life
Organic evolution
Darwinism
Type of variation
Blood groups in human Genetic drift
Blood groups represent the presence of speci c
antigens in the blood. Chemically they are
Gene Pool
glycolipids. ABO system of blood is universally
accepted. e other system is rhesus system which Phylogenetic taxono…
is found in the rhesus monkey .
Connecting links
ABO SYSTEM
It is divided into four types which can easily be Evidences from embr…
represented by a table:
Blood groups and their possible combinations

in blood transfusions 
Jump To Topic
Variation
DNA
Evolution
Origin of life
RHESUS SYSTEM:
Landsteiner and Weiner (1940) found certain Organic evolution
speci c antigen in RBCs of rhesus monkey.
e name was given to this antigen as rhesus Lamarck's theory of e…
factor (Rh factor).
Later on it was shown that most human beings Darwinism
(85%) also have this factor and said to be Rh positive,
while only 15 % are Rh Negative, Type of variation
93% Indian population is Rh+, while the rest 7%
Genetic drift
is Rh−.
Rh+ and Rh− bloods are incompatible and biological concept of …
cannot be mixed, thus they cannot be given to a
patient having di ferent Rh factor. Gene Pool
Connecting links
Anticoagulants
Normally the blood does not clot in the blood
vessels but when the blood is drawn outside the Evidences from paleo…
coagulation starts.
During transfusion it is essential to prevent 
coagulation by some substances. Jump To Topic
ere are certain substances or processes which
can prevent the blood coagulation, these are - Introduction of Hered…
(a) Heparin - best and powerful anticoagulant
(b) Anti-thromboplastin Some Important Terms
(c) Anti-thrombic activity
(d) Oxalates and citrates Variation
(e) De brination
Signi cance of blood groups DNA
e study of blood groups is important for the Hereditary material in…

following elds-
1. It is very important in blood transfusion, if Determination of sex
di ferent blood group is transfused in the man then

Evolution
the antigen present in the transfused blood will act
as a foreign protein and antibodies will be produced
Origin of life
against the antigen and blood clumping will be
caused in the blood vessels may lead to death. The oparin-haldane h…
2. It helps in solving the disputed parentage
problems in medico legal cases. Organic evolution
3. Hemolytic disease of the new born.
4. Relationships of blood groups and susceptibility Lamarck's theory of e…
to various diseases.
(a) Mother has blood type AB and Father has blood Darwinism
type O. e possible blood types of the children are:
Type of variation
Genetic drift
1/2 the children will be A blood type, and the other 12
will be B blood type. biological concept of …
(b) Mother has A blood type and Father has AB blood
type. e possible children's blood types are: Gene Pool
Connecting links
Half of the children will have blood group type A,
and the other half will have blood group type AB. Evidences from embr…


Jump To Topic
5. Half will have blood type A, one fourth will have
blood type AB, and one forth will have blood type B. Introduction of Hered…
Variation
Some known chromosomal
abnormalities Introduction to Mend…
DNA
Evolution
Origin of life
Organic evolution
Darwinism
Type of variation
Genetic drift
Gene Pool
Parts of chromosomes
(i) Chromonemata: Every chromosomes is made
up of coiled thread like structure known as Connecting links
chromonemata. is forms the two arms i. e.
chromatids of the chromosome. Evidences from embr…
(ii) Chromomeres: ese are present on
chromonemata at equal distance. ese are in the

form of protruberances. e number and the 
position of chromomeres over a chromosome is Jump To Topic
xed and it expresses the position of gene.
(iii) Primary Constriction and Centromere: A Introduction of Hered…
very faintly stained structure is visible in metaphase
of telophase which is known as primary Some Important Terms
constriction. It has centromere or kinetochore in it.
Variation
DNA
Evolution
Origin of life
Organic evolution
(iv) Secondary constriction: e chromosomes Darwinism
also contain another constriction which is

Type of variation
somewhat away from center and is known as
secondary constriction.
Genetic drift
(v) Satellite: e terminal part of the chromosomes
beyond secondary constriction is satellite. biological concept of …
(vi) Telomeres: ese are the speci c terminals
which are functionally di ferent and show di ferent Gene Pool
polarity.
Each chromosome contains a centromere.
According to the position of centromere the Connecting links
chromosomes may be of the following types.

(a) Telocentric - Centromere on the proximal end.
(b) Acrocentric - Centromere near to one end. Evidences from paleo…
(c) Submetacentric -Centromere near to centre

forming two unequal arms. 
(d) Metacentric - Centromere in the center forming Jump To Topic
two equal arms.
Variation
DNA
Concepts In Brief
Heredity- e passing of traits from the parents to
o fspring is called heredity.
Genotype - e complete set of genes in an
Evolution
organisms genome is called genotype.
Phenotype - e observable characters in an Origin of life
organism make the phenotype.
Acquired Traits- Traits which are acquired due to The oparin-haldane h…
interaction with the environment are called
acquired traits. Acquired traits are not inheritable. Organic evolution
Inheritable Traits- Traits which can be expressed
in subsequent generations are called inheritable
traits. Such traits bring a change in the genotype of
Darwinism
the organism and hence become inheritable.
Accumulation of Variations during Type of variation
Reproduction: Asexual reproduction involves a
single parent and is hence not ideal for the transfer Genetic drift
of variations. Some minor variations do occur due
to inaccuracies in DNA replication. Sexual biological concept of …
reproduction, on the other hand, is ideal for the
variations because two parents are involved in it. Gene Pool
Rules of Inheritance: Gregor Johann Mendel

conducted experiments on pea plants and proposed
the rules of inheritance.
Connecting links
Monohybrid Cross: e cross in which just one
pair characters are studied is called monohybrid Evidences from embr…
cross. e ratio of number of tall plants to that of
short plants in F2 generation was 3: 1. Evidences from paleo…
e Law of dominance: In a heterozygous allelic

pair of gene if one gene is dominant over the other. 
e other gene will not be expressed. is gene will Jump To Topic
be called as recessive gene.
e Law of Segregation: Every individual Introduction of Hered…
possesses a pair of alleles for a particular trait.
During gamete formation, a gamete receives only Some Important Terms
one trait from the alleles.
Dihybrid Cross: e cross in which two pairs of Variation
characters are studied is called dihybrid cross. In his
second experiment, Mendel used dihybrid cross.
Law of Independent Assortment: Alleles of
di ferent characters separate to form gametes and
reunite to form individuals of next generation DNA
independently.
Sex Determination in Humans: When a sperm Hereditary material in…
with X chromosome fertilizes the egg, the resulting
zygote would develop into a female child. When a Determination of sex
sperm with Y chromosome fertilizes the egg, the
resulting zygote would develop into a male child. Evolution
Evolution: e change in inherited traits in

Origin of life
biological population over subsequent generations
is called evolution.
Darwins eory of Evolution: Charles Darwin
wrote his famous book Origin of Species. Organic evolution
Some salient points of Darwins theory are as
follows: Lamarck's theory of e…
Natural Selection: - Di ferent individuals of a
particular species have di ferent traits. ose with Darwinism
more suitable traits are selected by the nature.
Type of variation
Survival of the Fittest: ose organisms which are
the ttest are able to survive, while others will die
Genetic drift
out.
Molecular Origin of Life: Stanley L. Miller and biological concept of …
Harold C. Urey, conducted the Miller-Urey
experiment in 1953 to demonstrate how the life Gene Pool
would have originated on the earth. ey created an
environment in laboratory which re lects the Phylogenetic taxono…
environment of earth as it was during the time of
origin of life. Water, methane, ammonia and Connecting links
hydrogen were used in that experiment. e liquid
was heated to initiate evaporation and electrodes
were used to create electric discharge. At the end of
two weeks, some organic molecules were formed in

the setup. Some amino acids and sugar were also 
formed. is proved the hypothesis of J. B. S. Jump To Topic
Haldane that life originated from inorganic raw
materials. Introduction of Hered…
Speciation: e process of origin of a new species is
called speciation. Some Important Terms
Evolution and Classi cation
e classi cation of organisms on the basis of Variation
evolutionary relationship is called as phylogenetic
classi cation. e kingdom is the highest taxa, Introduction to Mend…
while the species is the lowest taxa.
Homologous Organs: Organs which have common
design but serve di ferent functions in di ferent
DNA
animals are called homologous organs. For example;
the forelimbs of all lizard, human, frog, bat etc. Hereditary material in…
Analogous Organs: Organs which have di ferent
design but serve a common function in di ferent Determination of sex
animals are called analogous organs. Wings of birds
and wings of bat are good examples of a pair of Evolution
analogous organs.
Fossils: e preserved remains of animals or plants Origin of life
or other organisms from the distant past are called

fossils.
Evolution by Stages: Organic evolution
Evolution of complex organs and thus of complex
organisms has happened in stages. EYES OF Lamarck's theory of e…
PLANARIA: Planaria is the rst animal which shows
eye like structure. e dark spots on planaria are Darwinism
light sensitive spots but a planaria cannot
distinguish between two di ferent objects. Eyes of Type of variation
insects are compound eyes which are made up of
thousands of optical surfaces. Human eyes are the Genetic drift
most advanced; because humans can recognize
colours and have very good depth perception.
Gene Pool
Evolution Vs Progress:
Evolution does not mean progress in every case. Phylogenetic taxono…
is can be proved by example of bacteria. Bacteria
are the simplest and one of the oldest organisms on Connecting links
the earth. eir simple body design does not make
them weak from any angle. Evidences from embr…
Human Evolution: e modern humans are called
Homo sapiens. Many scienti c investigations have

shown that the modern humans evolved in Africa. 
Jump To Topic
Variation
DNA
Evolution
Origin of life
Organic evolution
Darwinism
Type of variation
Genetic drift
Gene Pool
Connecting links


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5/3/2019 NTSE Guru - A platform for all your NTSE needs

Introduction of Heredity & Evolution 

Evidences from embr…

Evidences from paleo…

Some Important Terms

Mendel's laws of inhe…

When two pure lines cross or breed to produce

F2 generation: Introduction of Hered…

Recessive characters: Gene Pool

Variations: Organic evolution

(i) Chance of separation of chromosomes during

ACCUMULATION OF VARIATION DURING

variants and this selection forms the basis of

1. Cross pollination and fertilization can both be

Some Important Terms

Mendel's laws of inhe…

Hereditary material in…

MONOHYBRID CROSS Evolution

F1 SELF POLLINATION Organic evolution

Mendel further found that the phenotypic ratio of 3: biological concept of …

DIHYBRID CROSS POLLINATION

green (rryy) pea plant.

DIHYBRID SELF POLLINATION OF F1 Introduction of Hered…

self fertilization, then in F2 generation, four

Hereditary material in…

On the basis of the experiments performed and Introduction of Hered…

(1) e Principle of Dominance or Law of

Hereditary material in…

(3) e Principle of Independent Assortment or Organic evolution

Law of Independent Assortment:

Co-Dominance occurs when both the Genetic drift

DNA Evidences from embr…

Evidences from paleo…

DNA: Mendel's laws of inhe…

Evidences from embr…

Evidences from paleo…

Some Important Terms

Mendel's laws of inhe…

Hereditary material in…

Eukaryotic chromosomes: Phylogenetic taxono…

e chromatin network of the interphase nuclei

Mendel's laws of inhe…

Hereditary material in…

Evidences from paleo…

Some Important Terms

Mendel's laws of inhe…

genes of characters of the body.

Evidences from embr…

Evidences from paleo…

Some Important Terms

Mendel's laws of inhe…

NOTE: It is Y chromosome of a father, who Hereditary material in…

b) XX-XO or Protenor type:

Evidences from embr…

Evidences from paleo…

Hereditary material in…

Evidences from embr…

Evidences from paleo…

Some Important Terms

Mendel's laws of inhe…

Hereditary material in…

complex form of life from the simple form of life.

Evidences from embr…