Grading Period: Third Week 6: Feb.

21 - 24, 2022

I. INTRODUCTION
Good day future Biologist! Welcome to our sixth week of Correspondence Learning Modality.
Last week, we discussed the concepts of heredity and variations which serve as the basis in
studying how hereditary characteristics can be passed on from parents to offspring with the use of
the concepts of Punnet square in determining or predicting the expected results of a genetic cross
by considering all the combinations of gametes.

Today, we will discuss further the contribution of Gregor Mendel in studying heredity,
particularly the laws of heredity which can lead us further to understand how traits can be passed
on from parents to offspring. So, let’s start!

Attached to this 6th week module is the weekly Study and Assessment Guide.

DATE TOPIC
ACTIVITIES OR TASKS
Chapter 5  Read on the topic about
 The Legacy of Mendel the Legacy of Mendel, the
 The Physical Basis of Heredity Physical and Chemical
Feb. 21 - 24,  The Chemical Basis of Heredity Basis of Heredity, and the
2022  The Central Dogma of Molecular Central Dogma of
Biology Molecular Biology
Guided discussion
Laboratory Activity
For this week, the following shall be your guide for the different lessons and tasks that you need to
accomplish. Be patient, read it carefully before proceeding to the tasks expected of you. GOOD
LUCK!
Content Chapter 11
 The Legacy of Mendel
 The Physical Basis of Heredity
 The Chemical Basis of Heredity
 The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
Learning Competencies  Describe the location of genes in chromosomes and explain
their role for specific traits,
 Illustrate how human traits are inherited using different
patterns of inheritance,
 Describe how sex chromosomes determine the gender of
an individual,
 Explain how fertilization produces a diploid zygote out of
haploid gametes,
 Compare and contrast DNA and RNA structure,
 List the steps involved in DNA replication,
 Trace how RNA is formed by transcription,

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  Relate the DNA base codes to the 20 amino acids that make
up proteins,
 Appreciate the traits or characteristics inherited from
parents
Activities  Guided Discussion
 Performance Task (Laboratory Activity)
Essential Questions  Why are there variations in organisms produced by the
same parents?
 How and when did humans know the traits are inherited
from parents?
 Why are pure-breeding organisms used to study genetic
inheritance?
 Why are nucleic acids essential in heredity?
 How are mutations advantageous and disadvantageous?
Value Statement “Show appreciation for inherited traits.”

“Develop a sense of uniqueness despite variation and diversity.”

References Textbook:
Ramos, Anna Cherylle M. et.al., (2019) Exploring Life Through
Science, Phoenix Publishing House Inc.

Ramos, Anna Cherylle M. et.al., (2019) Exploring Life Through

Science, Laboratory Manual Phoenix Publishing House Inc.

Online References:
Griffiths, Anthony J.F., et.al., Heredity, 2019
https://www.britannica.com/science/heredity-genetics
Retrieved on Jan. 26, 2022

Rivard, Laura PhD. , Mendelian Genetics, 2019

https://knowgenetics.org/mendelian-genetics/
Retrieved on Jan. 26, 2022

Cobb, M., 60 years ago, Francis Crick changed the logic of

biology, 2017
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5602739/
Retrieved on Jan. 26, 2022

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 II. LEARNING CONTENT

In the previous lesson, you have learned the concepts of heredity and how these concepts
affect your life as a living organism. To begin with our discussion, give at least 3 inherited
characteristics you have gained from your parents. Write your answers on the space provided as if
you are reciting. __________________________________________________________________

Then, compare these inherited characteristics to your other siblings. Take a look at these
characteristics and observe them as to where did you get them, either from your father, mother,
grandfather, and even your grandmother. Different organisms have different characteristics or
traits. This is what our lesson for today has something to do with this concept. To start, let’s begin
the discussion by answering the question below.

How does genetics explain inherited traits? Please write your answers on the space provided as if
you are reciting. __________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________

The Legacy of Mendel

Mendel’s contribution to the study of heredity is not only the publication of his
experiments but also his brilliant hypotheses about the mode of inheritance of traits observed.
If you have a good internet connection, kindly watch this video clip to have a better understanding
of Mendelian Theory. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3f_eisNPpnc . Please consider the
following guide questions below.
1. Why did Mendel use Pea plants of all plants available in the garden of the monastery?
_____________________________________________________________________________
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2. What were the principles he theorized while doing the experiments on pea plants?
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Mendel’s hypotheses accurately predicted the results of his crosses and also accounted for
the genetic ratios he observed. To date, the hypotheses of Mendel are referred to as the Laws of
Heredity. The generalizations proposed by Mendel are often called Mendelian Postulates. These
postulates are sets of genetic laws and rules that explain factors affecting heredity.
1. Rules of Units Factors in Pairs – Mendel proposed that the observed characteristics of the
garden peas were due to the presence of a pair of hereditary factors, which control the
expression of a trait. They are responsible for the transmission of characters from parents
to offspring. In modern genetics, these factors are segments of DNA located specific locus
(plural: loci referred to as genes. Considered as the first postulate of Mendel, the rule of
unit factors states that genetic characters are controlled by unit factors that exist in pairs in
individual organisms.
These genes are located in homologous chromosomes, which separate during gamete
formation through meiosis. The unit factors or genes found in chromosomes may be
composed of hundreds to thousands of DNA bases arranged in a definite sequence, which
will code for proteins to form specific observable traits called phenotypes.

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 2. Principle of Dominance and Recessiveness – when Mendel performed the pure-breeding
parental crosses, they obtained only one phenotype in the F 1 generation. He called the
alleles of the trait that is expressed as the dominant allele (capital letter), while the allele
that is marked but reappears in the F 2 generation is the
recessive allele (small letter). Today, the rule of
dominance and recessiveness, states that one factor in a
pair may mask the expression of the other. A dominant
allele is always expressed regardless of a partner allele
(another dominant or recessive), while the expression of
a recessive allele is always masked (not expressed) when
paired with a dominant allele. Recessive alleles are
expressed only when paired with another recessive allele
(homozygous recessive condition).

The table shows common human traits that are controlled

by a single gene with two contrasting alleles, one
dominant and one recessive. ------------------------

3. Law of Segregation – during Mendel's time, the concepts of chromosomes and cell division
were not yet known. Despite this, he was able to postulate that the inherited traits could
be traced back to the production of egg and sperm cells during the process of meiosis. He
postulated that the egg cell and the sperm cell carry hereditary factors. Since an offspring is
the result of fertilization of an egg by a sperm cell, the resulting offspring receives one
factor from each parent. The law of segregation describes the behavior of the
chromosomes during meiosis. The law of segregation states that the two alleles of one
trait segregate during gamete formation. This law is observed during the anaphase I stage
of meiosis where homologous chromosomes separate and go to opposite poles.
4. Law of Independent Assortment – Mende performed several crosses involving different
traits of garden peas. When Mendel performed a cross involving two pairs of traits (a type
of cross called a dihybrid cross), he concluded that the inheritance of one trait is not
affected by the inheritance of another trait. This generalization is called the law of
independent assortment, which states that the alleles of different genes separate
independently from each other during gamete formation.

The Physical Basis of Heredity

How is genetic information copied from your parents and transmitted to you? Please write your
answers on the space provided as if you are reciting. _____________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
The genetic material of a gene (factor of inheritance according to Mendel) is located in a
chromosome, which in turn is found in the nucleus of a cell. A chromosome is made up of arms
called chromatids and a proteinaceous mass that binds the chromatid arms called the
centromere.
Chromosomes may be classified according to centromere location: metacentric
(centromere exactly at the center), submetacentric (centromere is near the center), acrocentric

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 (centromere is submedianly located), and telocentric (centromere at one end of the chromatid
arm).
Homologous chromosomes are pairs of paternal and maternal chromosomes of the same
type, size, banding pattern, and genetic loci. Homologous chromosomes pair during prophase I up
to metaphase I of meiosis.
The genetic history of an individual starts with the formation of gametes (sex cells) within
his or her parents. Inside the primary sex organs (testis and ovary) of the parents are primordial
cells with a diploid number of chromosomes (two sets of chromosomes). In humans, the diploid
(2n) number of chromosomes is 46. These cells will undergo meiosis to produce cells with a
haploid (n) number of chromosomes. The meiotic process that takes place inside the testis is
called spermatogenesis, resulting in the formation of spermatozoa or sperm cells. Within the
ovary, oogenesis takes place, producing ova (ovum) or egg cells.
The two successive cell divisions provide an opportunity for the organism to generate
variations through the process of crossing over (exchange of genetic materials between
homologous chromosomes) and the random alignment of the homologous chromosomes at the
equatorial plate during metaphase I.
With the concept you’ve learned about chromosomes, kindly answer this question and write your
answers on the space provided.
How is sex determined? ____________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________

The Chemical Basis of Heredity

Why are nucleic acids essential in heredity? Write your answer below as if you are reciting.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________

Every human body cell contains 23 pairs of

chromosomes or a total of 46 chromosomes. A single
chromosome contains many genes joined together like
beads on a string. The genes are packed in bundles of
these chromosomes. Human body cells contain about
20 000 to 25 000 genes.
A gene is a distinct portion of the DNA
responsible for an inherited trait. Genes are coded
instructions for everything that must happen in the
body, including how you function and how you look.
Normally, one gene controls one trait; but some traits
recoded by more than one gene. Collectively, DNA is a type of nucleic acid contained in your cells.
Nucleic acids are organic compounds that function as storage of genetic information, which
is transmitted from one generation to the next in all living organisms. It is the physical carrier of
inheritance that is passed on from parents to offspring.
Nucleic acids also function in protein synthesis as they carry the code needed in the
formation of specific proteins. There are two types of nucleic acids found in living organisms –
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Both types are made up of basic building
blocks called nucleotides. A nucleotide is made up of a five-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and

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 a nitrogenous base. The nitrogenous bases are
either the double-ringed purines, guanine (G),
adenine (A); or the single-ringed pyrimidines:
cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U).
James Watson and Francis Crick described
the structure of DNA as a double helix of repeating
nucleotides that are made up of sugar (deoxyribose),
a nitrogenous base that is either a purine (adenine
and guanine) or a pyrimidine (thymine and
cytosine), and a phosphate group. The pairing of nitrogenous bases is so specific that only adenine
pairs with thymine, while only cytosine only pairs with guanine. Thus, a gene refers to a specific
sequence of nitrogenous bases that codes for a specific protein. DNA can be compared to a
blueprint of guidelines that the body must follow to exist and function properly. RNA helps to
carry out the blueprint's guidelines. RNA can perform a variety of functions and is thus more
diverse, while DNA can carry complex information for longer periods and is thus more stable.

Differences between DNA and RNA

DNA RNA
Sugar Deoxyribose (C5H10O4) Ribose (C5H10O5)
Strand Double-stranded Single-stranded
Nitrogenous bases Adenine, Cytosine, Thymine, Guanine Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine, Uracil
Location Mostly in the nucleus, but may also be Mostly in the cytoplasm, but may
found in the cytoplasm and also be found in the nucleus
mitochondria
Function Blueprint of biological guidelines that Assist in carrying out DNA’s
living organisms must follow to exist blueprint guidelines
and function properly.

After knowing the concepts of heredity and one of the main words that best describe heredity is
the DNA. Give at least 3 ways to appreciate these concepts by giving insights about this quote.
“Genes are like a story, and the DNA is the language that the story is written in.” – Sam Kean.
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The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
Recall that a gene is a portion of DNA. Specifically, a gene’s function is to control the
production of proteins inside the cells of
organisms. A gene is made up of a series of bases
(e.g., CATGCAGTA) arranged in a specific order. In
reality, a single gene may contain about several
hundred to a million or more of these base
sequences. The order of the nitrogenous bases in a
specific gene is the genetic code that gives
instructions on the type of protein that will be
produced.

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 In genetics language, the genetic material found inside the nucleus, called the genotype,
must be expressed as an observable characteristic, the phenotype.
In biochemistry language, the previous statement would mean the production of proteins
(phenotype) using DNA (genotype) as a code. The process is summarized in the “central dogma of
molecular biology.” The flow of genetic information is from DNA to messenger RNA (mRNA) to
protein. The series of processes involved in the production of proteins is called protein synthesis,
which is composed of replication, transcription, and translation.

Replication: How DNA Copies Itself

Cells need to make identical copies of their
genetic material for growth and repair. Replication
happens before cell division. Without replication,
the new cell may not have the capability to
function properly. The complementarity of the
nitrogenous bases makes it possible for the DNA to
copy itself.
One way to imagine the process of
replication is to examine a cell prior to cell division
– a cell at the interphase stage of the cell cycle. Recall that during the Gap 1 stage of interphase,
every chromosome in a cell is composed of one chromatid each. Only during the S phase is when
the sister chromatid synthesized, resulting in chromosomes with two chromatids or sister
chromatids. The S phase, or synthesis phase, is the process of replication.
During replication, the two DNA strands connected by hydrogen bonds separate each
other. Each old strand of the parent DNA is then used as a template for the construction of the
new strand in the daughter DNA. This process is called semiconservative replication because one
of the two old strands is conserved in each daughter's DNA.

Transcription: Making Working Copies of the Genes

An architect protects the original blueprint of a
building in a safe place by giving only copies of the
blueprint to his on-site workers. Similarly, the DNA
instructions are kept inside a safe place – that is, the
nucleus. Since the DNA does not leave the nucleus, it
only sends the copies of the blueprint of particular
genes out of the nucleus to direct the assembly of a
particular protein.it is the RNA’s job to make blueprint
copies of the DNA’s instructions. Recall that RNA is
similar to DNA except for thymine being replaced by uracil.
Three kinds of RNA are involved in the process of protein synthesis – messenger RNA
(mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA).
Transcription begins inside the nucleus when the DNA unzips between its base pairs. A
portion of the DNA serves as a template for mRNA formation. The enzyme RNA polymerase
initiates the DNA transcription, ensures that the right sequences are transcribed, and produces a
complementary strand.

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 The form the RNA strand, mRNA bases pair up with the existing DNA bases. This process is
similar to replication in that cytosine pairs with guanine. But uracil, and not thymine, pairs with
adenine. Note that only one of the two strands of DNA is transcribed into mRNA. This strand is
called the coding strand or the sense strand. The coding strand contains the genetic code of
proteins that need to be synthesized. When transcription is finished, the mRNA leaves the nucleus
with the copy of the genetic instructions and enters the cytoplasm.

Translation: Making the Protein

The translation is the last stage in gene
expression, which leads to the synthesis of
protein. Specifically, translation is the process
involved when the genetic information is used to
create amino acids and the corresponding
proteins. Inside the cytoplasm, the mRNA
attaches to a ribosome to provide the code for
the specific protein that will be made. The three-
base code in the mRNA is called a codon.
During the process, the ribosomes move along the mRNA strand, through which more
codons will be read and translated. The tRNA attaches to the mRNA inside the ribosome. Acting as
an interpreter, the bases on the tRNA, called anticodon, “read and translate” the message by
pairing up an equivalent three-letter code to the codons of the mRNA.
The tRNA is shaped like a three-leafed clover containing the anticodon at one end and an
attached amino acid at another end. As the codon is read, tRNA brings the appropriate amino acid
to the ribosome. Each amino acid is
represented by certain codons.
The universal language that
translates the gene and amino acids are
the genetic code, which matches the
three-letter combination of the four
nitrogenous bases to its equivalent
amino acid. For example, the codon GUA
(with an anticodon CAU) codes for the
amino acid valine. A codon (mRNA) is
complementary to an anticodon (tRNA).
The amino acids are then joined
by peptide bonds to form proteins. The
protein chain grows as more amino acids
are attached. In humans, only 20 amino acids are used to produce a protein. After the translation
is completed, further processing is needed before the protein becomes functional. After these
processes, the protein is used by the body for various structural and physiological functions. These
proteins will interact with other proteins and molecules in the cells to create, and observable
characteristics, which is called a phenotype (e.g., eye color, skin color, and hair type).

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 GENERALIZATION:
The legacy of Mendel starts with the publication of his experiments with the use of his laws
of heredity which include the Law of Unit Factors in Pairs, Principle of Dominance and Recessive,
Law of Segregation, and the Law of Independent Assortment.
 Law of Unit Factors in Pairs – Mendel observed characteristics of the peas which control
the expression of a trait. They are responsible for the transmission of characters.
 Principle of Dominance and Recessive – alleles are the contrasting forms or expressions of
a trait that exhibit dominance and recessive. It is also stated that one factor in a pair may
mask the expression of the other.
 Law of Segregation - states that the two alleles of one trait segregate from each other
during gamete formation.
 Law of Independent Assortment – states that different genes are not affected by each
other or separate independently from each other during gamete formation.
Human genetics could be studied using a pedigree analysis or karyotyping.
DNA genotype is expressed as proteins, which provide the basis of phenotypic traits.
DNA and RNA are both nucleic acids chemically made up of a long chain of nucleotides,
each nucleotide consisting of a phosphate group, a sugar and a nitrogenous base.
DNA is a double-stranded molecule, while RNA is a single-stranded molecule. DNA is
responsible for storing and transferring genetic information, while RNA directly codes for amino
acids and acts as a messenger between DNA and ribosomes to make proteins.
Transcription produces genetic messages in the form of ribonucleic acid (RNA), which uses
DNA as a template.
During translation, RNA is ultimately used as a code to produce the desired protein as
dictated in the code of DNA found in the nucleus of the cell.
The three-base code in mRNA is referred to a codon, which corresponds to one amino acid,
the basic building block of proteins.

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