4100 AWL/Thomas_ch02p073-146 8/19/04 11:00 AM Page 84

84 Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity

2.2 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws

HISTORICAL ESSAY* In Section 2.1 we used graphs and calculators to guess the values of limits. This section
presents theorems for calculating limits. The first three let us build on the results of Exam-
Limits
ple 8 in the preceding section to find limits of polynomials, rational functions, and powers.
The fourth and fifth prepare for calculations later in the text.

The Limit Laws

The next theorem tells how to calculate limits of functions that are arithmetic combina-
tions of functions whose limits we already know.

THEOREM 1 Limit Laws

If L, M, c and k are real numbers and
lim ƒsxd = L and lim gsxd = M, then
x:c x:c

1. Sum Rule: lim sƒsxd + gsxdd = L + M

x:c
The limit of the sum of two functions is the sum of their limits.
2. Difference Rule: lim sƒsxd - gsxdd = L - M
x:c
The limit of the difference of two functions is the difference of their limits.
3. Product Rule: lim sƒsxd # gsxdd = L # M
x:c
The limit of a product of two functions is the product of their limits.

To learn more about the historical figures and the development of the major elements and topics of calcu-
lus, visit www.aw-bc.com/thomas.

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2.2 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws 85

4. Constant Multiple Rule: lim sk # ƒsxdd = k # L

x:c
The limit of a constant times a function is the constant times the limit of the
function.
ƒsxd L
5. Quotient Rule: lim = , M Z 0
x:c gsxd M
The limit of a quotient of two functions is the quotient of their limits, provided
the limit of the denominator is not zero.
6. Power Rule: If r and s are integers with no common factor and s Z 0, then
lim sƒsxddr>s = L r>s
x:c
provided that L r>s is a real number. (If s is even, we assume that L 7 0.)
The limit of a rational power of a function is that power of the limit of the func-
tion, provided the latter is a real number.

It is easy to convince ourselves that the properties in Theorem 1 are true (although
these intuitive arguments do not constitute proofs). If x is sufficiently close to c, then ƒ(x)
is close to L and g(x) is close to M, from our informal definition of a limit. It is then rea-
sonable that ƒsxd + gsxd is close to L + M; ƒsxd - gsxd is close to L - M; ƒ(x)g(x) is
close to LM; kƒ(x) is close to kL; and that ƒ(x)>g(x) is close to L>M if M is not zero. We
prove the Sum Rule in Section 2.3, based on a precise definition of limit. Rules 2–5 are
proved in Appendix 2. Rule 6 is proved in more advanced texts.
Here are some examples of how Theorem 1 can be used to find limits of polynomial
and rational functions.

EXAMPLE 1 Using the Limit Laws

Use the observations limx:c k = k and limx:c x = c (Example 8 in Section 2.1) and the
properties of limits to find the following limits.
x4 + x2 - 1
(a) lim sx 3 + 4x 2 - 3d (b) lim (c) lim 24x 2 - 3
x:c x:c x2 + 5 x: -2

Solution

(a) lim sx 3 + 4x 2 - 3d = lim x 3 + lim 4x 2 - lim 3 Sum and Difference Rules

x:c x:c x:c x:c
= c 3 + 4c 2 - 3 Product and Multiple Rules
4 2
lim sx + x - 1d
x4 + x2 - 1 x:c
(b) lim = Quotient Rule
x:c x2 + 5 lim sx 2 + 5d
x:c
lim x 4 + lim x 2 - lim 1
x:c x:c x:c
= Sum and Difference Rules
lim x 2 + lim 5
x:c x:c
c4 + c2 - 1
= Power or Product Rule
c2 + 5

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86 Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity

(c) lim 24x 2 - 3 = 2 lim s4x 2 - 3d Power Rule with r>s = 1
2
x: -2 x: -2
= 2 lim 4x 2 - lim 3 Difference Rule
x: -2 x: -2
= 24s -2d2 - 3 Product and Multiple Rules
= 216 - 3
= 213
Two consequences of Theorem 1 further simplify the task of calculating limits of polyno-
mials and rational functions. To evaluate the limit of a polynomial function as x ap-
proaches c, merely substitute c for x in the formula for the function. To evaluate the limit
of a rational function as x approaches a point c at which the denominator is not zero, sub-
stitute c for x in the formula for the function. (See Examples 1a and 1b.)

THEOREM 2 Limits of Polynomials Can Be Found by Substitution

If Psxd = an x n + an - 1 x n - 1 + Á + a0 , then
lim Psxd = Pscd = an c n + an - 1 c n - 1 + Á + a 0 .
x:c

THEOREM 3 Limits of Rational Functions Can Be Found by Substitution

If the Limit of the Denominator Is Not Zero
If P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials and Qscd Z 0, then
Psxd Pscd
lim = .
x:c Qsxd Qscd

EXAMPLE 2 Limit of a Rational Function

x 3 + 4x 2 - 3 s -1d3 + 4s -1d2 - 3 0
lim = = = 0
x: -1 x2 + 5 s -1d2 + 5 6
This result is similar to the second limit in Example 1 with c = -1, now done in one step.

Identifying Common Factors Eliminating Zero Denominators Algebraically

It can be shown that if Q(x) is a Theorem 3 applies only if the denominator of the rational function is not zero at the limit
polynomial and Qscd = 0 , then point c. If the denominator is zero, canceling common factors in the numerator and de-
sx - cd is a factor of Q(x). Thus, if nominator may reduce the fraction to one whose denominator is no longer zero at c. If this
the numerator and denominator of a
happens, we can find the limit by substitution in the simplified fraction.
rational function of x are both zero at
x = c , they have sx - cd as a common
factor. EXAMPLE 3 Canceling a Common Factor
Evaluate
x2 + x - 2
lim .
x:1 x2 - x

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2.2 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws 87

y Solution We cannot substitute x = 1 because it makes the denominator zero. We test the
2
y x  x2 numerator to see if it, too, is zero at x = 1. It is, so it has a factor of sx - 1d in common
x2  x with the denominator. Canceling the sx - 1d’s gives a simpler fraction with the same val-
(1, 3) ues as the original for x Z 1:
3

x2 + x - 2 sx - 1dsx + 2d x + 2
2
= = x , if x Z 1.
x - x xsx - 1d
x
–2 0 1 Using the simpler fraction, we find the limit of these values as x : 1 by substitution:
x2 + x - 2 x + 2 1 + 2
(a) lim = lim x = = 3.
x:1 x2 - x x:1 1
y
See Figure 2.8.
yx2
x
(1, 3) EXAMPLE 4 Creating and Canceling a Common Factor
3
Evaluate
2x 2 + 100 - 10
lim .
–2 0 1
x x:0 x2

Solution This is the limit we considered in Example 10 of the preceding section. We

(b) cannot substitute x = 0, and the numerator and denominator have no obvious common
factors. We can create a common factor by multiplying both numerator and denominator
FIGURE 2.8 The graph of
by the expression 2x 2 + 100 + 10 (obtained by changing the sign after the square root).
ƒsxd = sx 2 + x - 2d>sx 2 - xd in
The preliminary algebra rationalizes the numerator:
part (a) is the same as the graph of
g sxd = sx + 2d>x in part (b) except 2x 2 + 100 - 10 2x 2 + 100 - 10 # 2x 2 + 100 + 10
2
=
at x = 1 , where ƒ is undefined. The x x2 2x 2 + 100 + 10
functions have the same limit as x : 1 2
x + 100 - 100
x A 2x 2 + 100 + 10 B
(Example 3). =
2

x2
x 2 A 2x 2 + 100 + 10 B
= Common factor x2

1
= . Cancel x2 for x  0
2x + 100 + 10
2

Therefore,
2x 2 + 100 - 10 1
lim = lim
x:0 x2 x:0 2x 2 + 100 + 10
Denominator
1
= not 0 at x
0;
20 + 100 + 10
2
substitute
1
= = 0.05.
20
This calculation provides the correct answer to the ambiguous computer results in Exam-
ple 10 of the preceding section.

The Sandwich Theorem

The following theorem will enable us to calculate a variety of limits in subsequent chap-
ters. It is called the Sandwich Theorem because it refers to a function ƒ whose values are

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88 Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity

y sandwiched between the values of two other functions g and h that have the same limit L at
a point c. Being trapped between the values of two functions that approach L, the values of
h ƒ must also approach L (Figure 2.9). You will find a proof in Appendix 2.
f
L

THEOREM 4 The Sandwich Theorem

g
Suppose that gsxd … ƒsxd … hsxd for all x in some open interval containing c,
x
except possibly at x = c itself. Suppose also that
0 c
lim gsxd = lim hsxd = L.
x:c x:c
FIGURE 2.9 The graph of ƒ is Then limx:c ƒsxd = L.
sandwiched between the graphs of g and h.

y 2 The Sandwich Theorem is sometimes called the Squeeze Theorem or the Pinching Theorem.
y1 x
2
EXAMPLE 5 Applying the Sandwich Theorem
2
y  u(x) Given that
x2 x2
1 1 - … usxd … 1 + for all x Z 0,
2 4 2
y1 x
4
find limx:0 usxd, no matter how complicated u is.
x
–1 0 1
Solution Since
FIGURE 2.10 Any function u(x) lim s1 - sx 2>4dd = 1 and lim s1 + sx 2>2dd = 1,
whose graph lies in the region between x:0 x:0
y = 1 + sx 2>2d and y = 1 - sx 2>4d has the Sandwich Theorem implies that limx:0 usxd = 1 (Figure 2.10).
limit 1 as x : 0 (Example 5).
EXAMPLE 6 More Applications of the Sandwich Theorem
(a) (Figure 2.11a). It follows from the definition of sin u that - ƒ u ƒ … sin u … ƒ u ƒ for all u,
and since limu:0 s - ƒ u ƒ d = limu:0 ƒ u ƒ = 0, we have
lim sin u = 0 .
u:0

y
y y  

y  
 2
y  sin

1 1
y  1  cos




–  –2 –1 0 1 2
–1 y  – 
 (b)

(a)

FIGURE 2.11 The Sandwich Theorem confirms that (a) limu:0 sin u = 0 and
(b) limu:0 s1 - cos ud = 0 (Example 6).

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2.2 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws 89

(b) (Figure 2.11b). From the definition of cos u, 0 … 1 - cos u … ƒ u ƒ for all u, and we
have limu:0 s1 - cos ud = 0 or
lim cos u = 1 .
u:0

(c) For any function ƒ(x), if limx:c ƒ ƒsxd ƒ = 0, then limx:c ƒsxd = 0. The argument:
- ƒ ƒsxd ƒ … ƒsxd … ƒ ƒsxd ƒ and - ƒ ƒsxd ƒ and ƒ ƒsxd ƒ have limit 0 as x : c.
Another important property of limits is given by the next theorem. A proof is given in
the next section.

THEOREM 5 If ƒsxd … gsxd for all x in some open interval containing c, except
possibly at x = c itself, and the limits of ƒ and g both exist as x approaches c,
then

lim ƒsxd … lim gsxd.

x:c x:c

The assertion resulting from replacing the less than or equal to … inequality by the strict
6 inequality in Theorem 5 is false. Figure 2.11a shows that for u Z 0,
- ƒ u ƒ 6 sin u 6 ƒ u ƒ , but in the limit as u : 0, equality holds.

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