water level indicator

This simple transistor based water level indicator circuit is very useful

to indicate the water levels in a tank. Whenever tank gets filled, we get
alerts on particular levels. Here we have created 4 levels (low,
medium, high and full), we can create alarms for more levels. We have
added 4 LEDs to indicate initial four levels (A, B, C ,D), and one
Buzzer

Circuit Components

 4 - BC547 transistors
 4 -100ohm resistors
 3 - Colour led
 1 – Buzzer
 5 - 9v battery + battery clip

Circuit Digram expain

 We can consider this whole circuit as 4 small circuits, each one for
indicating/alarming, when a particular level (A,B,C,D) of water have been
reached.
When water level reaches to point A, circuit with RED LED & transistor Q1
gets completed and RED LED glow sSimilarly when water level reaches to
point B, circuit with YELLOW LED and transistor Q2 gets completed and
Yellow LED glows, same goes with point C. And finally when tank gets full
(Point D), circuit with buzzer gets completed and buzzer starts beeping.
Circuit Diagram

Working
Here we are using transistor (of NPN type) as a Switch. Initially there is no
voltage applied to the base of the Transistor Q1 and the transistor is in OFF
state and no current is flowing through collector and emitter and LED is
OFF (See below diagram to understand Transistor Pin structure).

When the water level reaches to Point A in the tank, the positive side of the
battery gets connected to the base of the Transistor Q1 through the water.
So when a positive voltage has been applied to the base of the Transistor
Q1, it gets into ON state and current starts flowing from collector to emitter.
And RED LED glows.
 
You can see resistors (R1, R2, R3) at the base of each transistor, which is
used to limit the maximum Base current. Generally a transistor gets its ON
state fully when a voltage of 0.7 V is applied to the base. There are also
resistors (R4, R5, R6) with each of the LEDs, to drop the voltage across
LEDs, otherwise LED may blow up.
 
Same phenomenon happens when water level reaches to Point B. As soon
as water level reaches to Point B, a positive voltage gets applied to the
Transistor Q2, it gets ON and current started flowing through YELLOW
LED, and LED glows. With same principle, GREEN LED glow when water
level reaches to Point C.And finally Buzzer beeps when water level reaches
to D.
 
Note that Left most wire in the tank must be lengthier than other four wires
in the tanks, because this is the wire which is connected to positive voltage

Applications of Water Level Indicator

 The water level indicator is used in Hotels, Home apartments,
commercial complex, and in factories.
 The pumps used in the water level indicator are single phase
motor, submersible motor, and in three phase motor.
 By using the two motors, two sumps, two overhead tanks we
cannot control by a single circuit.
 Automatically the pump will switch ON/OFF when the water level
in the tank is empty and full.
  We can also measure the fuel level in motor vehicles
 The liquid level containers are huge in the companies

Advantages of Water Level Indicator

 The water level indicators are low cost in the market

 Any person can identify the water level easily by hearing the beep sound
 By using this we can control the water level safely and easily

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to give
an Introduction to BC547. It is basically an NPN bipolar junction transistor (BJT). The word
transistor is a combination of two words, transfer and resistor. So, the basic purpose of
transistor is transfer of resistance. A transistor is normally used for amplification of current.

The larger current at the emitter and collector can be controlled by the small amount of current
at the base. BC547 can be used commonly for amplifiers and switches. Similar to all the other
transistors BC547 has also three terminals e.g. collector terminal, base terminal and emitter
terminal respectively. The amount of current flowing from base to the emitter controls the
amount of the current flowing through the collector. BC547 is usually used for amplification and
switching purposes. Its maximum current gain is around 800. A fixed DC voltage is required for
its proper operation in desired region. Proper voltage supply is known as biasing. BC547 is
biased in a way that it is partially on for all the applied inputs, for the amplification purpose. The
input signal is amplified at the base and then transferred to the emitter.
 Introduction to BC547

BC547 is an NPN Bipolar Junction Transistor. Mostly it is used for

the switching purpose as well as for amplification purposes.
Similar to the other transistors BC547 is also used for the
amplification of current. The smaller amount of current at the base
is used to control the larger amount of currents at collector and
emitter as well. Its basic applications are switching and
amplification. The transistor, BC 547 is shown in the figure below.

. BC547 Pinout
 BC 547 has three pins in total similar to the other bipolar junction
transistors.
 All of these three pins i.e. collector, base and emitter along with
symbol are shown in the table given below.
 2. BC547 Pins Configuration
 The properly labeled pin configuration diagram of BC 547 along with
its animation is shown in the figure given below.

 
From the figure shown above, you can see the properly labeled animation of
BC 547, its symbolic representation and the real BC 547 for the better
understanding of the user.
3. BC547 Working Principle
When the input voltage is applied at its terminal, some
amount of current starts to flow from base to the emitter
and controls the current at collector. The voltage between
the base and the emitter (VBE), is negative at the emitter
and positive at the base terminal for its NPN construction.
The polarity of voltages applied for each junction is shown in
the figure below.
 4. BC547 Ratings
 The current, power and voltage ratings of BC547 along with their values and System
International (SI) units are provided
in the table shown below.

 Moreover, the storage temperature as well as operating temperature

for the transistor BC 547 is also given in the table shown above.
5. BC547 Thermal Characteristics
 The thermal characteristics associated with BC 547 are provided
along with typical values, in the table shown below.
 6. BC547 Applications
 There are a lot of applications associated with BC547, a few of the major
applications are given below.
 BC547 can be used for switching purposes.
 We can also use it for the amplification purposes.
7. BC547 Proteus Simulation
 I have made a simple Proteus ISIS simulation using BC 547 for the control of DC
motor.
 The screenshot of the simulation is shown in the figure below.
 The running form of the simulation is shown in the figure below.

That is all from the tutorial Introduction to BC547.  I hope you

enjoyed this exciting tutorial. If you are facing any sort of problem
regarding anything, you can ask me in comments anytime you want,
without even feeling any kind of hesitation. I will try my level best to
solve your issues in a better way, if possible. Our entire team is also 24/7 there to
entertain you. I will explore further hardware equipment in my upcoming tutorials. So till then, Take Care
 
 RESISTORS

Resistors are considered to be the most used and the most important component of all
the electronic circuits. Take a look at the working, types and also use of resistors in the
field of electronics.

We know that the basic idea of any electronic circuit is the flow of electricity. This also is
further categorized into two – conductors and insulators. Conductors allow the flow of
electrons, while insulators do not. But the amount of electricity that we want to pass
through them depends on the resistors. If a high voltage is passed through a conductor
such as a metal, the whole voltage passes through it. If resistors are introduced, the
amount of voltage and current can be controlled.

Thus “resistance can be defined as the ease with which something will let
electricity flow through it”.

A conductor has lower resistance than an insulator. The amount used by the resistor to
control the electrical circuit termed as the resistance.

What is Resistance?
The definition of resistance is based upon the Ohm’s law given by the German physicist
Georg Simon Ohm.

The Ohm’s Law states that the voltage [V] across a resistor is directly proportional to the
current [I] flowing through it. Here, its resistance [R] is the  constant of proportionality.

Therefore, V = I * R

Unit of resistance
The SI-unit of resistance is Ohm [Ω]. The higher multiple and sub-multiple
values of ohm is kilo ohms [KΩ], mega ohms [MΩ], milli ohm and so on.

Thus, the resistance can be defined as the voltage required for

making a current of 1 ampere to flow through the circuit. If the circuit
requires 100 Volts to make 1 ampere flow, then the resistance is 100
Ohms.
.

Symbol of resistor

Working of Resistor
The working of a resistor can be explained with the similarity of water flowing through a pipe.
Consider a pipe through which water is allowed to flow. If the diameter of the pipe is reduced,
the water flow will be reduced. If the force of the water is increased by increasing the pressure,
then the energy will be dissipated as heat. There will also be an enormous difference in
pressure in the head and tail ends of the pipe. In this example, the force applied to the water is
similar to the current flowing through the resistance. The pressure applied can be resembled to
the voltage.

Resistor Series and Parallel Circuits

There may be cases where two or more resistors should be connected in a circuit. The
simplest way of connecting them is in the series and parallel ways.
 In a series connection, the resistors will be connected in a series path and
the current flowing through the resistors will be the same. The voltage
across the resistors will be equal to the sum of voltages across each
resistor. Here is a figure of resistors connected in series. Three resistors
R1, R2, and R3 are connected in series. The total resistance Rtotal is given by

Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3

resistors in series and parallel

In a parallel connection, the resistors will be in a parallel path and the voltage applied
across each component will be the same. The current across the resistors will be equal
to the sum of currents across each resistor. The above figure shows a parallel
connection of resistors. Three resistors R 1, R2, and R3 are connected in parallel. The
total resistance Rtotal is given by

1/Rtotal = 1/ R1 + 1/ R2 + 1/ R3.

Therefore, Rtotal = R1 * R2 * R3 / R1 + R2 + R3

Colour Coding

The value of the resistance is found out by colour coding. The resistors
have a band of colours shown in their outer covering. Here are the steps to
determine the value of the resistor.

 All resistors have three bands of colours, followed by a space and

then a fourth band of colour. The fourth band of colour will be brown, red,
gold or silver.
 To read the colours turn it to the position such as the three
consecutive colours come on the left and then the space and the rest of the
colours.
 The first two colours from the left indicate the first two digits of the
value. The third colour represents the digital multiplier. That is, it indicates
how much you have to multiply the first two numbers with. Thus if you have
a resistance with the first three colours being brown, black and red, the
value of resistance is 10*100 = 1000 ohms or 1K.
 The last band, after the space indicates the tolerance of the resistor.
This indicates the range of accuracy of the resistor. Thus, along with the
three colours above, if the fourth colour is gold, it means you have a
tolerance between +/-5%. Thus the actual value of the resistance can be
between 950 Ohms and 1K.
 There can also be resistors with five colours. If so, the first three
represents the digits, the fourth will be the multiplier and the fifth will be the
percentage of tolerance. This indicates that a more precise value of the
resistor used can be obtained from a 5-colour resistor.

Take a look at the colours and their associated numbers given below.

 
  Uses of Resistors

Though resistors can cause wastage of electricity, it has a lot of advantages and applications in
our daily life.

 Resistance is one of the main ingredient in the working of a light bulb. When electricity passes through

the filament of the bulb, it burns bright as it turns extremely hot due to its smaller size. Though this mechanism

wastes a lot of electricity, we are forced to use it to obtain light. The light used nowadays are highy efficient

than the older incandascent lamps.

 The similar filament working is the main ingredient in the working of some of our usual household

stuffs like electric kettles, electric radiators, electric showers, coffee makers, toasters, and so on.

 The application of variable resistance is also helpful to us. Our TV’s, radios, loud speakers and so on

work on this principle.

9V BATTERY

The nine-volt battery, or 9-volt battery, is a common size of battery that was introduced for
the early transistor radios. It has a rectangular prism shape with rounded edges and a polarized
snap connector at the top. This type is commonly used in walkie-talkies, clocks and smoke
detectors.
The nine-volt battery format is commonly available in primary carbon-zinc and alkaline
chemistry, in primary lithium iron disulfide, and in rechargeable form in nickel-cadmium,
nickel-metal hydride and lithium-ion. Mercury-oxide batteries of this format, once
common, have not been manufactured in many years due to their mercury
content. Designations for this format include NEDA 1604 and IEC 6F22 (for zinc-
carbon) or MN1604 6LR61 (for alkaline). The size, regardless of chemistry, is commonly
designated PP3—a designation originally reserved solely for carbon-zinc, or in some
countries, E or E-block.[1]
Most nine-volt alkaline batteries are constructed of six individual 1.5 V LR61 cells
enclosed in a wrapper.[2] These cells are slightly smaller than LR8D425 AAAA cells and
can be used in their place for some devices, even though they are 3.5 mm shorter.
Carbon-zinc types are made with six flat cells in a stack, enclosed in a moisture-
 resistant wrapper to prevent drying. Primary lithium types are made with three cells in
series.[3]
9-volt batteries accounted for 4% of alkaline primary battery sales in the United States
in 2007, and 2% of primary battery sales and 2% of secondary battery sales in
Switzerland in 2008.[4][5]

Contents

 1History
 2Connectors
 3Technical specifications
 4Testing and charging
 5Lithium
 6See also
 7References

History

PP (Power Pack) battery series from left to right: PP1, PP3, PP4, PP6, PP7, PP8, PP9,
PP10, PP11.
Historically, the now popular PP3 battery size was a member of the PP (Power Pack)
battery series that was originally manufactured by Ever Ready in the United Kingdom
and Eveready in the United States. The company claims that it introduced the PP3
battery in 1956,[6] then it was added as an ANSI standard in 1959, currently known as
ANSI-1604A.[7] The PP (Power Pack) battery series consisted of PP1, PP3, PP4, PP6,
PP7, PP8, PP9, PP10, PP11. The PP1 and PP8 were 6 volt, the PP11 was two 4.5 volt
batteries, and other PP members were 9 volt, including the PP3. Today, only the PP3,
PP6, PP7, PP9 sizes can still be purchased, with the PP3 being extremely common.
Before the mid-1950s, in the days of vacuum tube (valve) radios used batteries
designed specifically for vacuum tubes, there was a nine-volt grid bias battery or
(US) "C" battery, which had taps for various voltages between 1.5 volts and 9 volts.
Early transistorized radios and other equipment needed a suitable voltage miniature
battery. Early transistor radios required a 22 1⁄2 volt battery. Although the transistors
would theoretically operate from lower voltages, in 1954, the point contact transistors
had to be operated very close to their VCB0 limit in order to get the required frequency
response. However, a suitable miniature battery was already marketed for (vacuum
tube) hearing aids. As transistors rapidly improved, particularly when alloy transistors
were introduced, radios were able operate from lower voltages and the battery
manufacturers introduced suitable batteries as the demand arose.
The PP3 (physically identical to 6LR61 or 1604A) appeared when portable transistor
radios became common, and is still called a "transistor" battery by some manufacturers.

Connectors

Nine-volt battery snap

The battery has both terminals in a snap connector on one end. The smaller circular
(male) terminal is positive, and the larger hexagonal or octagonal (female) terminal is
the negative contact. The connectors on the battery are the same as on the load device;
the smaller one connects to the larger one and vice versa. [2] The same snap-style
connector is used on other battery types in the Power Pack (PP) series. Battery
polarization is normally obvious, since mechanical connection is usually only possible in
one configuration.
A problem with this style of connector is that it is very easy to connect two batteries
together in a short circuit, which quickly discharges both batteries, generating heat and
possibly a fire.[8] Because of this hazard, nine-volt batteries should be kept in the original
packaging until they are going to be used . [9]

Technical specifications
Collage of images showing the opening of a 9-volt battery to reveal six LR61 size cells,
which are similar to the LR8D425 AAAA cells often used in medical equipment

Alkaline battery showing rectangular cell construction

Three different kinds of 9-volt primary battery internals: rectangular cell

zinc-carbon, rectangular cell alkaline, and cylindrical cell alkaline

humans and wildlife. Rechargeable (NiMH) 9-volt battery internals

The most common type of nine-volt battery is often called a 9-volt, although there are
less common nine-volt batteries of different sizes. Codes for the usual size include PP3
(for size and voltage, any technology), 6LR61 (IEC code for alkaline batteries), and in
Japan 006P.[citation needed]
The PP3 size battery is 48.5 mm × 26.5 mm × 17.5 mm or 1.91 in × 1.04 in × 0.69 in.
Both terminals are at one end and their centers are 0.5 inches (12.7 mm) apart.
Inside an alkaline or carbon-zinc 9-volt battery there are six cylindrical or flat cells
connected in series. Some brands use welded tabs internally to attach to the cells,
others press foil strips against the ends of the cells.
Rechargeable nickel–cadmium (NiCd) and nickel–metal hydride (NiMH) batteries of
nominal 9V rating have between six and eight 1.2 volt cells. Lithium ion versions
typically use two cells (3.7–4.2 V nominal each). There are also lithium polymer and low
self-discharge NiMH versions.
Mercury batteries were formerly made in this size. They had higher capacity than the
then-standard carbon-zinc types, a nominal voltage of 8.4 volts, and very stable voltage.
Once used in photographic and measuring instruments or long-life applications, they are
no longer manufactured as mercury is highly toxic and accumulates in the ecosystem,
posing a risk to

Type IEC ANSI/NEDA Typical capacity Nominal voltages

name[10] name[11] in mAh

Primary Alkaline 6LR61 1604A 550 9

(disposable)

6LP3146[12] 1604A 550 9

Zinc–carbon 6F22 1604D 400 9

Lithium 1604LC 1200 9

Rechargeable NiCd 6KR61 11604 120 7.2, 8.4

NiMH 6HR61 7.2H5 175-300 7.2, 8.4, 9.6

Lithium polymer 520 7.4

Lithium-ion 620 7.4

Lithium iron phosphate 200-320 9.6

Testing and charging

Most battery voltage testers and chargers that can also test nine-volt need another snap
clip to hold the battery, while cylindrical batteries often share a holder that may be
adjustable in size. Because of the proximity of the positive and negative terminals at the
top of the battery and relatively low current of most common batteries, one informal
method of testing voltage is to place the two terminals across a tongue. A strong tingle
would indicate a battery with a strong charge, the absence, a discharged battery. While
there have been stories circulating of unfortunate outcomes, the process is rarely
dangerous under normal circumstances, though it may be unpleasant. [13]
 Lithium
Lithium 9-volt batteries are consumer-replaceable, disposable high-energy-density
batteries. In the PP3 size they are typically rated at 0.8-1.2Ah (e.g., >1.2Ah @ 900
ohms to 5.4V @ 23 °C for one type),[14] about twice the capacity of alkaline batteries.
Manufacturers claim "High energy density, up to 5x more than alkaline". [14] Common
applications for lithium nine-volt batteries are smoke and carbon monoxide (CO) alarms,
and electronic parking meters.

Buzzer
for other uses, see Buzzer
A buzzer or beeper is an audio signalling device,which may
be mechanical, electromechanical, or piezoelectric (piezo for short). Typical uses of
buzzers and beepers include alarm devices, timers, and confirmation of user input such
as a mouse click or keystroke.

Contents
 1History
o 1.1Electromechanical
o 1.2Piezoelectric
 2Types
o 2.1Electromechanical
o 2.2Mechanical
o 2.3Piezoelectric


History
Electromechanical
The electric buzzer was invented in 1831 by Joseph Henry. They were mainly used in
early doorbells until they were phased out in the early 1930s in favor of musical chimes,
which had a softer tone.
Piezoelectric
manufacturers and fitted into a wide array of products during the 1970s to 1980s. This
advancement mainly came abPiezoelectric buzzers, or piezo buzzers, as they are
sometimes called, were invented by Japanese out because of cooperative efforts by
Japanese manufacturing companies. In 1951, they established the Barium Titanate
Application Research Committee, which allowed the companies to be "competitively
cooperative" and bring about several piezoelectric innovations and inventions.
 electromechanical
Early devices were based on an electromechanical system identical to an electric
bell without the metal gong. Similarly, a relay may be connected to interrupt its own
actuating current, causing the contacts to buzz. Often these units were anchored to a
wall or ceiling to use it as a sounding board. The word "buzzer" comes from the rasping
noise that electromechanical buzzers made.
Mechanical
A joy buzzer is an example of a purely mechanical buzzer and they require drivers. Other examples
of them are doorbells.
Piezoelectric

Piezoelectric disk beeper

A piezoelectric element may be driven by an oscillating electronic circuit or other audio

signal source, driven with a piezoelectric audio amplifier. Sounds commonly used to
indicate that a button has been pressed are a click, a ring or a beep .

Interior of a readymade loudspeaker, showing a piezoelectric-disk-beeper (With 3

electrodes ... including 1 feedback-electrode ( the central, small electrode joined with
red wire in this photo), and an oscillator to self-drive the buzzer.
 to audible beep produce an A piezoelectric buzzer/beeper also depends on acoustic cavity
[4]

resonance or Helmholtz resonance

Modern applications
While technological advancements have caused buzzers to be impractical and undesirable ,
[citation needed]

there are still instances in which buzzers and similar circuits may be used. Present day applications
include:
 Novelty uses
 Judging panels
 Educational purpose
 Annunciator panels
 Electronic metronomes
 Game show lock-out device
 Microwave ovens and other household appliances
 Sporting events such as basketball games
 Electrical alarms
 Joy buzzer (mechanical buzzer used for pranks)

LED
A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is one of the latest inventions and is extensively used
these days. From your cell phone to the large advertising display boards, the wide range
of applications of these magical light bulbs can be witnessed almost everywhere. Today
their popularity and applications are increasing rapidly due to some remarkable
properties they have. Specifically, LEDs are very small in size and consume very little
power. The magnificent, beautiful, dazzling colors involved with LEDs may be quite
picturesque, but do you really know how these effects are actually created in them or
rather how do LED light bulbs work?

Red, green and blue LEDs

What is it??

As is evident from its name, LED (Light Emitting Diode) is basically a small
light emitting device that comes under “active” semiconductor electronic
components. It’s quite comparable to the normal general purpose diode,
with the only big difference being its capability to emit light in different
 colors. The two terminals (anode and cathode) of a LED when connected to
a voltage source in the correct polarity, may produce lights of different
colors, as per the semiconductor substance used inside it.

Working Principle: 

A light-emitting diode is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n junction

diode that emits light when activated. When a suitable voltage is applied to the leads,
electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in
the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light
(corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the
semiconductor.

Working in a nutshell:

 The material used in LEDs is basically aluminum-gallium-arsenide (AlGaAs). In

its original state, the atoms of this material are strongly bonded. Without free electrons,
conduction of electricity becomes impossible here.
 By adding an impurity, which is known as doping, extra atoms are introduced,
effectively disturbing the balance of the material.
 These impurities in the form of additional atoms are able either to provide free
electrons (N-type) into the system or suck out some of the already existing electrons
from the atoms (P-Type) creating “holes” in the atomic orbits. In both ways the material
is rendered more conductive. Thus in the influence of an electric current in N-type of
material, the electrons are able to travel from anode (positive) to the cathode (negative)
and vice versa in the P-type of material. Due to the virtue of the semiconductor property,
current will never travel in opposite directions in the respective cases.
 From the above explanation, it’s clear that the intensity of light emitted from a
source (LED in this case) will depend on the energy level of the emitted photons which
 in turn will depend on the energy released by the electrons jumping in between the
atomic orbits of the semiconductor material.
 We know that to make an electron shoot from lower orbital to higher orbital its
energy level is required to be lifted. Conversely, if the electrons are made to fall from the
higher to the lower orbitals, logically energy should be released in the process.
 In LEDs, the above phenomena is well exploited. In response to the P-type of
doping, electrons in LEDs move by falling from the higher orbitals to the lower ones
releasing energy in the form of photons i.e. light. The farther these orbitals are apart
from each other, the greater the intensity of the emitted light.
Different wavelengths involved in the process determine the different colors produced
from the LEDs. Hence, light emitted by the device depends on the type of semiconductor
material used.
Infrared light is produced by using Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) as a semiconductor. Red or yellow
light is produced by using Gallium-Arsenide-Phosphorus (GaAsP) as a semiconductor. Red or
green light is produced by using Gallium-Phosphorus (GaP) as a semiconductor .

Advantages of LEDs:

1. Very low voltage and current are enough to drive the LED.

Voltage range – 1 to 2 volts. Current – 5 to 20 milliamperes.

2. Total power output will be less than 150 milliwatts.

3. The response time is very less – only about 10 nanoseconds.

4. The device does not need any heating and warm up time.

5. Miniature in size and hence lightweight.

6. Have a rugged construction and hence can withstand shock and vibrations.

7. An LED has a lifespan of more than 20 years. 

Disadvantages:

1. A slight excess of voltage or current can damage the device.

2. The device is known to have a much wider bandwidth compared to the laser.

3. The temperature depends on the radiant output power and wavelength.