1

2. TRANSMISSION LINES

The electric parameters of transmission lines (i.e. resistance, inductance, and capacitance) can be
determined from the specifications for the conductors, and from the geometric arrangements of
the conductors.

2.1 Transmission Line Resistance

Resistance to d.c. current is given by


R dc  
A

where  is the resistivity at 20o C

is the length of the conductor
A is the cross sectional area of the conductor

Because of skin effect, the d.c. resistance is different from ac resistance. The ac resistance is
referred to as effective resistance, and is found from power loss in the conductor

power loss
R
I2

The variation of resistance with temperature is linear over the normal temperature range

resistance
()

R2

R1

T T1 T2 temperature (oC)

Figure 9 Graph of Resistance vs Temperature

 2

( R 1  0) ( R 2  0)

(T1  T) ( T2  T)

T2  T
R2  R1
T1  T

2.2 Transmission Line Inductive Reactance

Inductance of transmission lines is calculated per phase. It consists of self inductance of the
phase conductor and mutual inductance between the conductors. It is given by:

GMD
L  2  10 7 ln [H/m]
GMR

where GMR is the geometric mean radius (available from manufacturer’s tables)
GMD is the geometric mean distance (must be calculated for each line
configuration)

Geometric Mean Radius: There are magnetic flux lines not only outside of the conductor, but
also inside. GMR is a hypothetical radius that replaces the actual conductor with a hollow
conductor of radius equal to GMR such that the self inductance of the inductor remains the same.
If each phase consists of several conductors, the GMR is given by

1 2

GMR  n2 (d 11d 12 d 13 .... d 1n ).(d 21 . d 22 .... d 2 n )......(d n1 . d n 2 ..... d nn )

where d11=GMR1
d22=GMR2
.
.
.
dnn=GMRn
 3

Note: for a solid conductor, GMR = r.e-1/4 , where r is the radius of the conductor.

Geometric Mean Distance replaces the actual arrangement of conductors by a hypothetical

mean distance such that the mutual inductance of the arrangement remains the same

b c a’ b’

a
m c’ n’

GMD  mn ' ( D aa ' D ab ' ... D an ' ).( D ba ' D bb ' ... D bn ' ).....( D ma ' D mb ' ..... D mn ' )

where Daa’ is the distance between conductors “a” and “a’” etc.

Inductance Between Two Single Phase Conductors

r1 r2

D D
L1  2  10 7  ln L 2  2  10 7  ln
r1 ' r2 '

where r1’ is GMR of conductor 1

r2’ is GMR of conductor 2
D is the GMD between the conductors

The total inductance of the line is then

 D D D2 1 D2
L T  L1  L 2  2  10 7  ln  ln   2  10 7  ln  2  10 7  2   ln
 r1 ' r2 '  r1 ' r2 ' 2 r1 ' r2 '
1/ 2
7  D2  D
L T  4  10  ln    4  10 7  ln
 r1 ' r2 '  r1 ' r2 '
 4

If r1 = r2 , then

D
L T  4  10 7  ln
r1 '
 5

Example: Find GMD, GMR for each circuit, inductance for each circuit, and total inductance
per meter for two circuits that run parallel to each other. One circuit consists of three 0.25 cm
radius conductors. The second circuit consists of two 0.5 cm radius conductor

9m

a a’

6m 6m

b b’

6m circuit B

circuit A

Solution:

m = 3, n’ = 2, mn’ = 6

GMD  6  D aa ' D ab '  D ba ' B bb '  D ca ' D cb ' 

where
D aa '  D bb '  9 m
D ab '  D ba '  D cb '  6 2  9 2  117 m
D ca '  12 2  9 2  15 m

 GMD = 10.743 m

Geometric Mean Radius for Circuit A:

3
GMR A  3 D aa D ab D ac D ba D bb D bc D ca D cb D cc  9  0.25  10 2  e 4   6 4  12 2  0.481m
2 1

 

Geometric Mean Radius for Circuit B:

2
GMR B  2 2 D a 'a ' D a 'b ' D b 'b ' D b 'a '  4  0.5  10 2  e 4   6 2  0.153m
1

 
 6

Inductance of circuit A

GMD 10.743
L A  2  10 7 ln  2  10 7 ln  6.212  10 7 H/m
GMR A 0.481

Inductance of circuit B

GMD 10.743
L B  2  10 7 ln  2  10 7 ln  8.503  10 7 H/m
GMR B 0153
.

The total inductance is then

L T  L A  L B  14.715  10 7 H/m

The Use of Tables

Since the cables for power transmission lines are usually supplied by U.S. manufacturers, the
tables of cable characteristics are in American Standard System of units and the inductive
reactance is given in /mile.

GMD
X L  2 fL  2 f  2  10 7 ln /m
GMR
GMD
X L  4 f  10 7 ln /m
GMR
GMD
X L  4 f  10 7  1609  ln  / mile
GMR
GMD
X L  2.022  10 3  f  ln  / mile
GMR
1
X L  2.022  10 3  f  ln  2.022  10 3  f  ln GMD  / mile
GMR

Xa Xd
If both, GMR and GMD are in feet, then Xa represents the inductive reactance at 1 ft spacing,
and Xd is called the inductive reactance spacing factor.
 7

Example: Find the inductive reactance per mile of a single phase line operating at 60 Hz. The
conductor used is Partridge, with 20 ft spacings between the conductor centers.

D = 20 ft

Solution: From the Tables, for Partridge conductor, GMR = 0.0217 ft and inductive reactance at
1 ft spacing Xa= 0.465 /mile. The spacing factor for 20 ft spacing is Xd = 0.3635 /mile. The
inductance of the line is then
X L  X a  X d  0.465  0.3635  0.8285  / mile

Inductance of Balanced Three Phase Line

Average inductance per phase is given by:

D eq
L  2  10 7 ln
GMR

where Deq is the geometric mean of the three spacings of the three phase line.

D eq  3 D ab D ac D bc

Example: A three phase line operated at 60 Hz is arranged as shown. The conductors are ACSR
Drake. Find the inductive reactance per mile.

20ft 20 ft

38 ft

Solution:

For ACSR Drake conductor, GMR = 0.0373 ft

 8

D eq  3 20  20  38  24.8 ft
24.8
L  2  10 7 ln  13  10 7 H/m
0.0373
X L  2   60  1609  13  10 7  0.788  / mile

OR

from the tables X a  0.399  / mile

The spacing factor is calculated for spacing equal the geometric mean distance between the
conductors, that is, X d  2.022  10 3  60 ln 24.8  0.389  / mile
Then the line inductance is X line  X a  X d  0.788  / mile per phase

Example: Each conductor of the bundled conductor line shown in the figure is 1272 MCM
Pheasant. Find:
a) the inductive reactance in /km and /mile per phase for d = 45 cm
b) the p.u. series reactance if the length of the line is 160 km and the base is 100 MVA, 345 kV.

8m 8m

Solution:

a) The distances in ft are

0.45
d  1476
. ft
0.3048
8
D  26.25 ft
0.3048

For Pheasant conductors, GMR = 0.0466 ft.

GMRb for a bundle of conductors is

GMR b  GMR  d  0.0466  1476

.  0.2623 ft

The geometric mean of the phase conductor spacing is

 9

D eq  3 26.25  26.25  52.49  33.07 ft

The inductance of the line is then

D eq 33.07
L  2  10 7 ln  2  10 7 ln  9.674  10 7 H/m
GMR b 0.2623

The inductive reactance is

X L  2 fL  2   60  9.674  10 7  3.647  10 4  / m  0.3647  / km  0.5868  / mile

Vb2 3452
b) Base impedance Z b    1190 
Sb 100

Total impedance of the 160 km line is

X L  160  0.3647  58.35 
X 58.35
X Lp.u.  L   0.049 p. u.
Z b 1190

2.3 Transmission Line Capacitive Reactance

Conductors of transmission lines act like plates of a capacitor. The conductors are charged, and
there is a potential difference between the conductors and between the conductors and the
ground. Therefore there is capacitance between the conductors and between the conductors and
the ground. The basic equation for calculation of the capacitance is the definition of the
capacitance as the ratio of the charge and the potential difference between the charged plates:
Q
C
V
 F
where Q is the total charge on the conductors (plates)
V is the potential difference between the conductors or a conductor and ground (i.e.
plates)

For transmission lines, we usually want the capacitance per unit length
q
C
V
 F / m

where q is the charge per unit length in C/m

V is the potential difference between the conductors or a conductor and ground (i.e.
plates)
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Capacitance of a Single Phase Line

r1 r2

For a two conductor line, the capacitance between the conductors is given by

 0
C  F / m
D2
ln
r1 r2

where o is the permittivity of free space and is equal to 8.8510-12 F/m

D is the distance between the conductors, center to center
r1 and r2 are the radii of the two conductors

Formally, this equation corresponds to the equation for inductance of a two conductor line. The
equation was derived for a solid round conductor and assuming a uniform distribution of charge
along the conductors. The electric field, and therefore the capacitance of stranded conductors is
not the same as for solid conductors, but if the radii of the conductors are much smaller than the
distance between the conductors, the error is very small and an outside radii of the stranded
conductors can be used in the equation.

For most single phase lines, r1 = r2 . In this case, half way between the conductors there is a point
where E = 0. This is the neutral point n

a n b
Can Cbn

The capacitance from conductor a to point n is Can and is the same as the capacitance from
conductor b to n, Cbn. Can and Cbn are connected in series, therefore C an  C bn  2C ab .1

C an C bn
1 C 2an C
1
C ab   If C an  C bn , then C ab   an
1 1 C an  C bn 2C an 2

C an C bn

Therefore, C an  2C ab
 11

It follows that

2 o
C an  [F/m]
D
ln
r

1
Since X c 
2fC

1 2.862  10 9 D
 Xc 
2  o

f
ln
r
  m
2 f
D
ln
r

The capacitive reactance in mile is

2.862  10 9 D 1 .
1779  10 6 D
Xc 
f
ln 
r 1609

f
ln
r
  mile

Similarly as for inductive reactance, this expression can be split into two terms that are called
capacitive reactance at 1 ft spacing (Xa’) and the capacitive reactance spacing factor (Xd’).

.
1779  10 6 1 1779
.  10 6
Xc 
f
ln 
r f
ln D   mile

Xa’ X d’

Xa’ is given in the tables for the standard conductors, Xd’ is given in the tables for the capacitive
reactance spacing factor.

Example: Find the capacitive reactance in Mmiles for a single phase line operating at 60 Hz.
The conductor used for the line is Partridge, and the spacing is 20 ft.

D = 20 ft
 12

Solution:

0.642
The outside radius of the Partridge conductor is r  in  0.0268 ft
2
The capacitive reactance is

.
1779  10 6 D 1779
.  10 6 20
XC  ln  ln  01961
. M. mile
f r f 0.0268

OR

From tables X 'a  01074

. M. mile
X 'd  0.0889 M. mile for 20’ spacing

 X C  X 'a  X 'd  01963

. M. mile

This is the capacitive reactance between the conductor and the neutral. Line-to-line capacitive
reactance is

XC
X CL L   0.0981 M. mile
2

Capacitance of Balanced Three Phase Line between a phase conductor and neutral is given by

2 o
Cn 
D eq
 F / m
ln
Db

where D eq  3 D ab D bc D ca and Dab, Dbc, and Dca are the distances between the centers of the
phase conductors, and Db is the geometric mean radius for the bundled conductors. (in the
expression for Db the outside radius of the conductor is used, rather than the GMR from the
tables.)

The capacitive reactance to neutral than becomes

1779
.  10 6 D eq
X cn 
f
ln
Db
. mile
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Example:
a) A three phase 60 Hz line is arranged as shown. The conductors are ACSR Drake. Find the
capacitive reactance for 1 mile of the line.
b) If the length of the line is 175 miles and the normal operating voltage is 220 kV, find the
capacitive reactance to neutral for the entire length of the line, the charging current for the line,
and the charging reactive power.

20ft 20 ft

38 ft

Solution:

.
1108
The outside radius for Drake conductors is r  in  0.0462 ft
2

The geometric mean distance for this line is

D eq  3 20  20  38  24.8 ft

From tables, X 'a  0.0912 M. mile

1779
.  10 6 1779
.  10 6
X 'd  ln D eq  ln 24.8  0.0952 M. mile
f 60
 X cn  X 'a  X 'd  01864
. M. mile

This is the capacitive reactance to neutral.

For the length of 175 miles,
X cn
X Ctotal   1065 
175

Charging current is
220k
VLN 3  119 A
IC  
X Ctotal 1065
 14

Reactive power to charge the line is

Q C  3VLL I C  3  220k  119  45.45 MVAr

2.4 Transmission Line Equivalent Circuits

a) Short lines (less than 80 km)

b) Medium length lines (80 km to 200 km)

c) Long lines (over 200 km)

2.5 Transmission Line Losses and Thermal Limits

The power losses of a transmission line are proportional to the value of resistance of the line. The
value of the resistance is determined by the type and length of the conductor. The current in the
line is given by the power being delivered by the transmission line.

PR
PR  E R I equiv cos R  I equiv 
E R cos R

From that,
2
 PR 
Ploss  I 2
equiv R  R
 E R cos R 
 15

Power utilities usually strive to maintain the receiving end voltage constant. The power delivered
by the transmission line is determined by the load connected to the line and cannot be changed
without changing the load. The only term in the above equation that can be regulated is the
power factor. If the power factor can be adjusted to be equal to 1, the power losses will be
minimum.

Efficiency of the transmission line is given by

PR
%   100%
PS

Thermal Limits on equipment and conductors depend on the material of the insulation of
conductors. The I2R losses are converted into heat. The heat increases the temperature of the
conductors and the insulation surrounding it. Some equipment can be cooled by introducing
circulation of cooling media, other must depend on natural cooling. If the temperature exceeds
the rated value, the insulation will deteriorate faster and at higher temperatures more immediate
damage will occur.

The power losses increase with the load. It follows that the rated load is given by the temperature
limits. The consequence of exceeding the rated load for short periods of time or by small
amounts is a raised temperature that does not destroy the equipment but shortens its service life.
Many utilities routinely allow short time overloads on their equipment - for example
transformers are often overloaded by up to 15% during peak periods that may last only 15 or 30
minutes.