Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science

UEME 2123 Fluid Mechanics 1

Chapter 3
The Bernoulli’s Equation

1
Chapter 3: The Bernoulli’s Equation

Main Topics
3.1 Newton’s Second Law
3.2 F=ma Along a Streamline
3.3 F=ma Normal to a Streamline
3.4 Physical Interpretation of Bernoulli Equation
3.5 Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure
3.6 Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation
3.7 The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 2
 Chapter 3: The Bernoulli’s Equation

The Bernoulli’s Equation Total Pressure (Total Energy)

gz + p + 12 V 2 = const along streamline

Dynamic Pressure
Hydrostatic Pressure Static Pressure
(Kinetic Energy per unit volume)
(Potential Energy per unit volume) (Pressure Energy)

TAKE NOTE!!

• Bernoulli’s equation requires lots of

assumptions/simplifications.

• We are going to derive the equation –

take careful note of all these
assumptions…. so that you know
how/when to apply Bernoulli’s Equation.

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 3
3.1: Newton’s Second Law

Newton’s Second Law

• Bernoulli’s equation is basically Newton’s 2nd law applied along a streamline.

• Conceptually think of a fluid particle moving along in the flow. 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂

• Streamlines: lines that are tangent to the velocity vectors throughout the flow field.

• Relatively simple concept when the flow is steady i.e. doesn’t vary with time.

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 4
 3.2: F=ma Along a Streamline

F=ma Along a Streamline

• Assume steady flow***
At any point in the flow the velocity doesn’t vary with time but it doesn’t mean the
flow has the same velocity everywhere.

• Consider the acceleration of a particle in steady flow (2D):

Components: as in the streamline direction, an normal to the streamline
Definition of streamline is tangent to the flow => V = V(s), no velocity in normal
direction

*** Clearly not all flows are steady but to derive Bernoulli's eqn we must make
this assumption, therefore Bernoulli’s eqn can only be applied to steady flows. 5
3.2: F=ma Along a Streamline

Acceleration along a streamline

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 6
 3.2: F=ma Along a Streamline

Acceleration along a streamline

Normal component:

• There is no velocity component normal to a streamline

• However, if the streamline is curved then a particle moving along it
experiences a centrifugal acceleration .
i.e. an acceleration due to the fact that the particle is changing direction
V2
an = , where is the local radius of curvature
Â
• Wherever the streamline is straight the radius of curvature is infinite and an = 0

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 7
3.2: F=ma Along a Streamline

Streamline Acceleration

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 8
3.2: F=ma Along a Streamline

F = ma along a Streamline
• Consider an infinitesimal fluid element moving along a streamline,

Element length s
Element height n
Element thickness y
Cross-sectional area, A = ny

• We are going to apply F = ma in the streamwise direction, s

• Need to consider all the forces on this fluid particle

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 9
3.2: F=ma Along a Streamline

F = ma along a Streamline
• We assume that the dominant forces on the fluid element are pressure and
gravity but the viscous forces are negligible, known as inviscid.

• Looking only in the streamwise direction (F = ma is a vector eqn.).

• Thus, the net force on the fluid particle åd F

s is given by,
¶V ¶V
åd Fs = dm as = dm V ¶s
= r dVol V
¶s
where d m is the mass of the fluid particle
10
3.2: F=ma Along a Streamline

Pressure Forces
• Pressure generates forces on a surface
• Pressure also varies with location i.e. p = p(s, n)
• We have assumed the fluid element is small, therefore the pressure gradient is
approximately constant over the element.

If the pressure at the center of the particle is p then the pressure on the
LH face of the particle is p - d ps and on the RH face is p + d ps, where
d ps is the amount the pressure varies from the center to the face in the
streamline direction.
¶p 1
d ps » 2 ds
Lee Kong Chian
¶s
Faculty of Engineering and Science 11
3.2: F=ma Along a Streamline

Surface and Body Forces

Subscripts show directions
relative to streamline,
Streamwise: s
Normal: n

Streamline at
arbitrary angle θ
12
 3.2: F=ma Along a Streamline

Pressure Forces (Surface Forces)

• In Streamline direction: (centre at centroid)
• Consider pressures on LH & RH faces
• Recall that ps is amount pressure varies from center to faces

Fps = (p − p s )yn − (p + p s )yn

= −2ps yn

Therefore, ¶p 1
d ps » 2 ds
¶s
¶ps
d Fps = d yd nd s
¶s
¶p
d Fps = s d (Vol )
¶s
Lee Kong Chian
Faculty of Engineering and Science 13
3.2: F=ma Along a Streamline

Weight (Body Forces)

Taking component of vertical weight force in the streamwise direction

dWs = -g rd (Vol)sin q
dz
but sin q =
ds
dz
Þ dWs = -g rd (Vol)
ds

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 14
3.2: F=ma Along a Streamline

Combining Weight and Pressure Forces

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 15
3.2: F=ma Along a Streamline

The Bernoulli’s Equation

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 16
3.2: F=ma Along a Streamline

Example 3.1: Kinetic, Potential, and Pressure Energy

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 17
3.2: F=ma Along a Streamline

Example 3.1: Kinetic, Potential, and Pressure Energy

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 18
3.3: F=ma Normal to a Streamline

F = ma Normal to a Streamline

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 19
3.3: F=ma Normal to a Streamline

F = ma Normal to a Streamline

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 20
3.4: Physical Interpretation of Bernoulli Equation

Physical Interpretation

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 21
3.4: Physical Interpretation of Bernoulli Equation

Example 3.2: Pressure Variation in a Flowing Stream

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 22
3.4: Physical Interpretation of Bernoulli Equation

Example 3.2: Pressure Variation in a Flowing Stream

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 23
3.5: Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure

Static, Dynamic & Total Pressure

24
3.5: Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure

Static, Dynamic & Total Pressure

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 25
3.5: Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure

Static, Dynamic & Total Pressure

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 26
3.5: Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure

Measuring Flow Rate / Velocity

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 27
3.5: Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure

Concept of Static & Stagnation Pressures to find Velocity

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 28
3.5: Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure

Concept of Static & Stagnation Pressures to find Velocity

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 29
3.5: Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure

Concept of Static & Stagnation Pressures to find Velocity

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 30
3.5: Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure

Pitot-Static Tube

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 31
3.5: Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure

Pitot-Static Tubes are used in Jet/Planes to measure Velocity

32
3.6: Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation

Application of the Bernoulli Equation

Between any two points, (1) and (2), on a streamline in steady, inviscid,
incompressible flow the Bernoulli equation can be applied in the form.

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 33
3.6: Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation

Application of the Bernoulli Equation

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 34
 3.6: Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation

Free Jets
As discussed earlier in Slides No. 19, we know that the Bernoulli’s equation from
point 1 to point 2 gives us the free fall or what we called as the “Free Jet” equation.

Similarly, from point 1 to point 5, we have,

V = 2 g (h + H )

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 35
3.6: Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation

Free Jets
• If the exit is not a smooth, well-contoured nozzle, but rather a flat plate the diameter
of the jet, dj will be less than the diameter of the hole, dh.

• This phenomenon, called a vena contracta effect, is a result of the inability of the
fluid to turn the sharp corner indicated by the dotted lines in the figure.

Smooth and well-contoured orifice Vena contracta effect for a sharp-edged orifice.
Lee Kong Chian
Faculty of Engineering and Science 36
 3.6: Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation

Free Jets
Vena contracta effect of various
shape opening is characterized by the
CC = contraction coefficient.

Aj
Cc =
Ah

Aj = area of the jet at the vena contracta

Ah = area of the hole

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 37
3.6: Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation

Confined Flows

𝑚ሶ

𝑚ሶ

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 38
3.6: Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation

Confined Flows

𝑚ሶ 1 = 𝑚ሶ 2

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 39
3.6: Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation

Cavitation in Confined Flows

• If the fluid velocity is increased, the

pressure will decrease.

• This pressure decrease can be large

enough so that the pressure in the
liquid is reduced to its vapor pressure.

Pressure variation and cavitation in a

variable area pipe.
Lee Kong Chian
Faculty of Engineering and Science 40
3.6: Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation

Cavitation in Confined Flows

Garden Hose:

With a sufficient amount of restriction the sound of the flowing water

will change – a definite “hissing’ sound will be produced.

Turbine Blades:

Cavitation and subsequent implosion or shock wave damages the

surface of turbine blades.

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 41
3.6: Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation

Example 3.3: Siphon and Cavitation

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 42
3.6: Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation

Example 3.3: Siphon and Cavitation

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 43
3.6: Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation

Example 3.3: Siphon and Cavitation

44
3.6: Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation

Flowrate Measurement for Closed Channel (Internal Flow)

• Three commonly used types of flowmeters

are illustrated: the orifice meter, the nozzle
meter, and the Venturi meter.

• The operation of each is based on the same

physical principles— an increase in velocity
causes a decrease in pressure.

• The difference between them is a matter of

cost, accuracy, and how closely their actual
operation obeys the idealized flow
assumptions.

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 45
3.6: Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation

Typical Flow Meters for Internal Flow

Nozzle Meter

Orifice Meter

Venturi Meter

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 46
3.6: Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation

Flowrate Measurement for Closed Channel (Internal Flow)

• We can apply the Bernoulli and Continuity equations to various “ideal flow meters”
(those devoid of viscous, compressibility, and other “real-world” effects).

1 1 Apply Bernoulli’s Equation

p1 + V12 = p2 + V22
2 2
Q = A1V1 = A2V2 Apply Continuity Equation

• Thus, the ideal flowrate can be expressed as

2( p1 − p2 )
Q = A2

 1 − ( A2 / A1 ) 2 

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 47
3.6: Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation

Example 3.4: Venturi Meter

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 48
3.6: Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation

49
3.7: The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line

The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line

Recall that, applying the Bernoulli’s equation with steady, inviscid, and incompressible
flow, the total energy remains constant along a streamline.

P V2
+ + z = cons tan t = H
 2g
The total head for the flow
The head due to local static
pressure (pressure energy)
The elevation head
(potential energy)
The head due to local dynamic
pressure (kinetic energy)

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineering and Science 50
 3.7: The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line

The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line

• Energy Line (EL) : represents the total head height, P V2
+ +z
 2g

• Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL): represents the sum of the elevation and static pressure heads,

P
+z


• The difference in heights between

the EL and the HGL represents the
dynamic (velocity) head,

V2
2g

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineerin and Science 51
3.7: The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line

Application of the Energy Line and Hydraulic Grade Line

Lee Kong Chian

Faculty of Engineerin and Science 52