Thermodynamics

MTX 220 Formules

Chapter 2 – Concepts & Definitions

Formule Units
Pressure F Pa
P
A
 Units 1 Pa  1 N / m2
1 bar  105 Pa  0.1 Mpa
1 atm  101325 Pa
Specific Volume V m3 / kg
v
m
Density m 1 kg / m3
 
V  v
Static Pressure Variation P   gh   ,    Pa
Absolute Temperature T ( K )  T (C )  273.15

Chapter 3 – Properties of a Pure Substance

Formule Units
Quality mvapor
x
mtot (vapour mass fraction)
mliquid
1 x 
mtot (Liquid mass fraction)
Specific Volume v  v f  xv fg m3 / kg
Average Specific Volume v  (1  x)v f  xvg m3 / kg
(only two phase mixture)
Ideal –gas law P  Pc T  Tc Z 1

 Equations Pv  RT PV  mRT  nRT

 Universal Gas Constant R  8.3145 kJ / kmol K
 Gas Constant R kJ / kg K
R
M M = molekulêre mass
Compressibility Factor Z Pv  ZRT
Reduced Properties P T
Pr  Tr 
Pc ,
Tc

Chapter 4 – Work & Heat

Formule Units
Displacement Work 2
W   Fdx   PdV
2 J
1 1
Integration 2
W   PdV  P (V2  V1 ) J
1
Specific Work W J / kg
w
m (work per unit mass)
Power (rate of work) W  FV  PV  T  W
 Velocity V  r rad / s
 Torque T  Fr Nm
Polytropic Process ( n  1) PV n  Const  PV
1 1  PV
n n
2 2 Pv n  C
 Polytropic Exponent
ln  2 
P
P1 
n 
ln  1 
V
 V2 
 n=1 PV  Const  PV1 1  PV
2 2

Polytropic Process Work 1 J

1W2  2 2  PV
( PV 1 1) n 1
1 n
 n=1  V2  J
1W2  PV2 2 ln  
 V1 
Adiabatic Process Q0
Conduction Heat Transfer dT W
Q   kA
dx , k =conductivity
Convection Heat Transfer Q  hAT h W
, =convection coefficient
Radiation Heat Transfer Q   A(Ts4  Tamb
4
) W

Terminology
Q = heat

1 Q2 = heat transferred during the process between state 1 and state 2

Q = rate of heat transfer
W = work
W2 = work done during the change from state 1 to state 2
1

W = rate of work = Power. 1 W=1 J/s

Chapter 5 – The First Law of Thermodynamics
Formule Units
Total Energy E  U  KE  PE  dE  dU  d ( KE )  d ( PE ) J
Energy dE   Q   W  E2  E1  1 Q2  1W2 J
Kinetic Energy KE  0.5mV 2 J
Potential Energy PE  mgZ  PE2  PE1  mg ( Z 2  Z1 ) J
Internal Energy U  U liq  U vap  mu  mliq u f  mvap u g
Specific Internal Energy of u  (1  x)u f  xu g kJ / kg
Saturated Steam
(two-phase mass average) u  u f  xu fg
Total Energy m(V22  V12 ) J
U 2  U1   mg ( Z 2  Z1 )  1 Q2  1W2
2
Specific Energy e  u  0.5V 2  gZ
Enthalpy H  U  PV
Specific Enthalpy h  u  Pv kJ / kg
For Ideal Gasses Pv  RT and u  f (T )
 Enthalpy h  u  Pv  u  RT
 R Constant u  f (t )  h  f (T )
Specific Enthalpy for h  (1  x)h f  xhg kJ / kg
Saturation State
(two-phase mass average) h  h f  xh fg
Specific Heat at 1  Q  1  U    u 
Constant Volume Cv        
m   T v m   T v   T  v
 (ue  ui )  Cv (Te  Ti )
Specific Heat at 1  Q  1 H   h 
Constant Pressure Cp        
m  T  p m  T  p  T  p
 (he  hi )  C p (Te  Ti )
Solids & Liquids Incompressible, so v=constant
C  Cc  C p
(Tables A.3 & A.4)
u2  u1  C (T2  T1 )
h2  h1  u2  u1  v( P2  P1 )
Ideal Gas h  u  Pv  u  RT
 u2  u1  Cv (T2  T1 )
h2  h1  C p (T2  T1 )
Energy Rate E  Q  W (rate  in  out )
 E2  E1  1 Q2  1W2 (change  in  out )

Chapter 6 – First-Law Analysis for A Control Volume

Formule Units
Volume Flow Rate V   V dA  AV
(using average velocity)
Mass Flow Rate V kg / s
m   VdA   AV  A
v (using average values)
Power
m  V
 W
W  mC  p T W  mC
 v T v
Flow Work Rate W flow  PV  mPv

Flow Direction From higher P to lower P unless significant KE or PE
 Total htot  h  1 V 2  gZ
Enthalpy 2
Instantaneous
Process
 Continuity m C .V .   m i   m e
Equation
 Energy E C .V .  Q C .V .  W C .V .   m i htot i   m e htot e
Equation  First Law
 Q   m i (hi  1 V 2  gZ i ) 
2
dE
dt
  m e he  1 V 2  gZ e  W
2  
Steady State Process A steady-state has no storage effects, with all properties constant with time
 No Storage m C .V .  0, E C .V .  0
 Continuity
Equation
 m   m (in = out)
i e

 Energy Q   m h  W   m h
C .V . i tot i C .V . e tot e
Equation (in = out)  First Law
 Q   m (h  1 V  gZ )  W   m  h  1 V  gZ
2 2

2 i i i2 e e e

 Specific Heat Q C .V . kJ / kg
Transfer q
m
 Specific Work W kJ / kg
w  C .V .
m
 SS Single q  htot i  w  htot e
Flow Eq. (in = out)
Transient Process Change in mass (storage) such as filling or emptying of a container.
  Continuity m2  m1   mi   me
Equation
 Energy E2  E1  QC .V  WC .V .   mi htot i   me htot e
Equation
  
E2  E1  m2 u2  1 V22  gZ 2  m1 u1  1 V12  gZ1
2 2 
   2  2  
QC .V   mi htot i   me htot e  m2 u2  1 V22  gZ 2  m1 u1  1 V22  gZ1   WC .V .
 C .V .

Chapter 7 – The Second Law of Thermodynamics

Formule Units
 
All W , Q can also be rates W , Q
Heat Engine WHE  QH  QL
 Thermal WHE Q
efficiency  HE   1 L
QH QH
 Carnot Cycle Q T
Thermal  1 L  1 L
QH TH
 Real Heat WHE T
Engine  HE   Carnot HE  1  L
QH TH
Heat Pump WHP  QH  QL
 Coefficient of QH QH
Performance
 
 HP 
WHP QH  QL
 Carnot Cycle QH TH
 
 HP 
QH  QL TH  TL
 Real Heat Q TH
Pump  HP  H   Carnot HP 
WHP TH  TL
Refrigerator WREF  QH  QL
 Coefficient of QL QL
Performance  REF  
WREF QH  QL
 Carnot Cycle QL TL
 
QH  QL TH  TL
 Real Q TL
Refrigerator  REF  L  Carnot REF 
WREF TH  TL
Absolute Temp. TL QL

TH QH
Chapter 8 – Entropy
Formule Units
Inequality of Clausis Q
 T
0
Entropy  Q  kJ / kgK
dS   
 T  rev
Change of Entropy 2
 Q  kJ / kgK
S 2  S1    
1
T  rev
Specific Entropy s  (1  x) s f  xsg kJ / kgK
s  s f  xs fg
Entropy Change
 Carnot Cycle 1
2
Q
S 2  S1  
TH 1
Q  1 2
TH
Isothermal Heat Transfer:
 Q 
dS   
Reversible Adiabatic (Isentropic Process):  T  rev
 Q 
4
3 Q4
S 4  S3     
3
T  rev TL
Reversible Isothermal Process:
Reversible Adiabatic (Isentropic Process): Entropy decrease in
process 3-4 = the entropy increase in process 1-2.
 Reversible Heat- 1  Q 
2
1
2
q h
Transfer Process s2  s1  s fg      
m 1  T rev mT 1
 Q  1 2  fg
T T
Gibbs Equations Tds  du  Pdv
Tds  dh  vdP
Entropy Generation Q
dS    S gen
T
  Wirr  PdV  T  S gen
2
Q 2
S 2  S1   dS    1 S2 gen
1 1
T
Entropy Balance Eq. Entropy  in  out  gen
Principle of the dS net  dSc.m.  dS surr    S gen  0
Increase of Entropy
Entropy Change
 Solids & Liquids T2
s2  s1  c ln
T1
dsgen  0
Reversible Process:
Adiabatic Process: dq  0
 Ideal Gas 2
dT v
s2  s1   Cv0  R ln 2
T v1
Constant Volume: 1
2
dT P
s2  s1   Cp0  R ln 2
T P1
Constant Pressure: 1

T2 v2
s2  s1  Cv0 ln  R ln
Constant Specific Heat:
T1 v1
T2 P2
s2  s1  Cp0 ln  R ln
T1 P1
Standard Entropy T
Cp0 kJ / kgK
sT0   dT
T0
T
kJ / kgK
s2  s1   sT0 2  sT01   R ln
Change in Standard P2
Entropy P1
Ideal Gas Undergoing R

T2 P2 T P  Cp 0
an Isentropic Process
s2  s1  0  Cp0 ln  R ln  2  2 
T1 P1 T1  P1 
R C p 0  Cv 0 k  1 C p0
  k
C p0 Cp0 k Cv 0 = ratio of specific
but ,
heats
k 1 k
T v  P2  v1 
 2  1  ,  
T1  v2  P1  v2 
Special case of polytropic process where k = n: Pv  const
k

Reversible Polytropic PV n  const  PV

1 1  PV
n
2 2
n

Process for Ideal Gas n n 1 n 1

P V  T2  P2  n
V 
 2  1  ,    1 
P1  V2  T1  P1   V2 
  Work 2 2
dV PV  PV mR (T2  T1 )
1W2   PdV  const   2 2 1 1
1 1
V n
1 n 1 n
 Values for n Isobaric process: n  0, P  const
Isothermal Process: n  1, T  const
Isentropic Process: n  k , s  const
Isochronic Process: n  , v  const

Chapter 9 – Second-Law Analysis for a Control Volume

Formule Units
nd
2 Law Expressed as a dSc.m. Q
Change of Entropy    S gen
dt T
Entropy Balance Eq. rate of change  in  out  generation
dSC .V . Q
   m i si   m e se   C .V .  S gen
dt T
SC .V .    sdV  mc.v. s  m A s A  mB sB  ...
where
S gen    s gen dV  S gen. A  S gen.B  ...
and
Steady State Process dSC .V . Q C .V . 
dt
0   m s   m s  
e e i i
C .V . T
 S gen

 Continuity eq. Q C .V . 
 m ( se  si )    S gen
m i  m e  m C .V . T

 Adiabatic process se  si  sgen  si

Transient Process d Q
 ms  C.V .   m i si   m e se   C .V .  S gen
dt T
t 
Q
  m2 s2  m1s1  C .V .   mi si   me se   C .V . dt  1 S 2 gen
0
T
Reversible Steady State
Process
 If Process se  si
Reversible &
 Adiabatic e
he  hi   vdP
i

Vi 2  Ve 2
w   hi  he    g (Zi  Ze )
2
e
Vi 2  Ve 2
   vdP   g (Zi  Ze )
i 2
 If Process is 1 Q
Reversible and m  se  si   
T C .V .
Q C .V .  C .V .
T
Isothermal e
Q
T  se  si   C .V .  q  T  se  si    he  hi    vdP
or m i

 Incompressible V  Vi
2 2

Fluid v  Pe  Pi   e  g  Ze  Zi   0
2  Bernoulli Eq.

 Reversible e

Polytropic Process w    vdP and Pv n  const  C n

for Ideal Gas i
e e
dP
w    vdP  C  1
i i P n

n nR
  Pe ve  Pv
i i   Te  Ti 
n 1 n 1
 Isothermal e e
dP Pe
Process (n=1) w    vdP  C    Pv
i i ln
i i
P Pi
Principle of the Increase dS net dSC .V . dS surr
of Entropy     S gen  0
dt dt dt
Efficiency
 Turbine wa hi  he
 
ws hi  hes Turbine work is out
 Compressor ws hi  hes
(Pump)  
wa hi  he Compressor work is in
 Cooled w
Compressor  T
w
 Nozzle 1 V2
 2 2
e

1 V
2 es Kinetic energy is out