Phase Transitions

CHEMISTRY - Matter exists in various forms, or phases. If the

BASIC CONCEPTS AND LAWS
Chemistry - Deals with the composition, structure, and
properties of substances and also the transformations that
these substances undergo
temperature and/or pressure of a sample of
matter is adjusted, the matter may undergo a
phase transition. During a phase transition, matter
shifts between its three states: solid, liquid, and
gas.

A. Organic chemistry – mostly concerned with the ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS

study of chemicals containing the element carbon
Element – cannot be broken down into simpler
B. Inorganic chemistry – the study of all elements of
substances
compounds other than organic compounds
C. Analytical Chemistry – the study of qualitative and Compounds –two or more elements joined by chemical
quantitative analysis of elements and compounds. bonds
D. Physical Chemistry – the study of reaction rates,
mechanisms, bonding and structure MIXTURES
- Results of combination of elements and/or
MATTER compounds
- a general term applied to anything that has the A. Homogeneous – uniform appearance throughout
property of occupying space and the attributes of • Solution – transparent; particle sizes at the
gravity and inertia molecule or ion level
- Density = mass/volume • Colloid – not separated by filtration
Attraction between Molecules of Matter a. Fog
b. Milk
A. Cohesion – molecules of the same kind • Suspension – large enough to be visible to
B. Adhesion – molecules of different kinds the naked eye; can be separated by filtration
a. Blood
States of Matter b. Aerosol sprays
A. Plasma – good conductor of electricity; affected B. Heterogeneous – more than one phase; can be
by a magnetic field separated physically
• Lightning • Mixture of sand in water
• Solar Wind
• Stars ENERGY
• Earth’s ionosphere A. Potential – stored
• Fireball of a nuclear explosion • Chemical – in bonds of atoms and molecules
B. Solid – resistance to any change in shape a. Propane
C. Liquids – resists forces that tend to change their b. Coal
volume; definite volume c. Natural gas
D. Gas – offers no resistance to change or shape d. Petroleum
and little resistance to change of volume • Nuclear – in nucleus of an atom
• Stored Mechanical – in objects by the
Changes in Matter
application of a force
A. Physical Change – observed and measured; color, a. Compressed springs
odor, density, boiling or melting point b. Stretched rubber bands
• Crushing a can • Gravitational Energy – energy of a place or
• Melting an ice position
• Boiling water a. Water in reservoir behind a hydropower
• Dissolving sugar in water dam
B. Kinetic – moving
• Mixing sand with water
• Radiant– electromagnetic
• Chopping wood
a. Visible Light
B. Chemical Change – a change in composition of its
b. X-rays
molecules changes; when a substance reacts with
c. Gamma Rays
other substances
d. Radio Waves
• Cooking an egg
• Thermal – internal
• Rotting banana
a. Vibration and movement of atoms and
Phase Changes molecules within a substance
b. Geothermal
• Motion – movement of objects
a. Wind
b. Hydropower
• Sound – movement in longitudinal waves
• Electrical – movement of electrons
a. Lightning
b. Electricity
EXOTHERMIC AND ENDOTHERMIC
REACTIONS
Exothermic – releases energy
Endothermic - absorbs energy
Factors Affecting the Rate of a Chemical Reaction
A. the nature of the reactants – the more reactive
the reactant is to another reactant, the faster the
reaction will proceed
• Gold + water = no reaction
• Sodium + water = fast
B. temperature – generally, the higher the
temperature, the faster the reaction will take place
• Evaporation is faster when it is hot
C. concentration of the reactants – the higher the
concentration to react with another reactant, the
faster the reaction will take place
• Wood + dilute acid = slow
• Wood + concentrated acid = fast
D. surface area – the smaller the surface area, the
faster the reaction
• Crushed eggshells will dissolve fast in acid
• Whole eggshells will dissolve slow in acid
E. effect of catalyst – with the presence of a catalyst,
the reaction will become faster
• Decomposition of formic acid = slow
• Decomposition of formic acid with sulfuric
acid = fast
ATOMS AND MOLECULES
Atom – smallest unit of an element
Molecule – smallest unit of a compound
Sub-atomic Particles
A. Nucleus – very small; contains most of the atomic
mass
B. Electrons – negative electric charge
C. Proton – positive electric charge
D. Neutron – no electric charge (mass no. – proton)
E. Mass number – total number of protons and
neutrons
F. Atomic number = number of protons
G. Isotopes – same atomic number and number of
protons, different number of neutrons and mass
number
H. Atomic weight – average weight of an atom; equal
to mass of one mole
VALENCE ELECTRONS
MODELS OF THE ATOM
An atom of an element is denoted by aXb, where X is the
nucleus (name of the atom), a is the mass number and b
is the atomic number
Electron Configuration
- arrangement of the atom's electrons with respect
to its nucleus
- Valance electrons are electrons found in the
highest energy level of the electron cloud
CHEMICAL BONDS, FORMULAS, AND
EQUATION
A. Ionic Bonds – atom to atom; when a metal loses
or transfers an electron to a nonmetal; very strong
bonds
➢ Electrostatic force – attraction between
oppositely charged particles
• Cation – atom giving up electrons (positive)
• Anion – atom accepting electrons (negative)
B. Covalent Bonds – two nonmetal atoms share
electrons; not as strong as ionic
C. Hydrogen Bonds – weak force; hydrogen is
bonded to fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen
Chemical Reactions
- Reaction is the heart of the study of chemistry.
- Can be expressed through equations that
resemble mathematical equations.
A. Synthesis Reaction (Composition/Combined
Reaction) – two or more elements or compounds
combine to make a more complex substance
• A + X → AX
• Fe + S → FeS
B. Decomposition Reaction – compounds break
down into simpler substances
• AX → A + X
• CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
C. Single Replacement Reaction – one element
replaces another one in a compound
• A + BX → AX + B
• Y + BX → BY + X
D. Double Displacement Reaction – cations of two
compounds switch anions to form new products;
different atoms in two different compounds trade
places
• AX + BY → AY + BX
• NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O
E. Acid Base Reactions – acid and base
• HBr + KOH → H2O + KBr
F. Combustion Reaction – organic compound burns
in the presence of oxygen to yield carbondioxide,
water, and other products
• C4H10 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION
A. Law of Definite Proportions a.k.a. Law of Constant
Composition (1799 – Joseph Proust) –
compounds contain elements in certain fixed
proportions and in no other combinations
regardless of the method of preparation
• Chalk, or calcium carbonate, CaCOO, is
always 40% calcium, 12% carbon, and 48%
oxygen by weight
B. Law of Multiple Proportions (1803 – John
Dalton) – if two elements combine to form more
than one compound, then the ratio of the weights
of the second element will be small numbers
• Carbon and oxygen can form two
compounds–carbon monoxide and carbon
dioxide. In monoxide, 12g of carbon
combines with 16g oxygen. In dioxide, 12g of
carbon combines with 32g of oxygen. Thus,
the oxygen weight ratio that combines with
12g of carbon is (32/16), or 2
C. Law of Combining Weights (Dalton) – in every
compound, the proportion by weight of each
element in the compound may be expressed by
the atomic weight or a multiple atomic weight of
each element
• In the case of water, HMO, each molecule of
water is composed of two atoms of hydrogen
(atomic weight 1) and one atom of oxygen
(atomic weight 16). Thus, all molecules of
water consist of 2 parts of hydrogen and 16
parts of oxygen by weight
These three laws resulted (1803) in Dalton’s Atomic
Theory
Balancing Equations – the numbers of atoms for each
element should be equal in the reactant side and the
product side
Stoichiometry – branch of Chemistry that deals with
quantitative relationships between the reactants and
products of a chemical reaction
2H2+ O2 → 2H2O
GASES
Kinetic Molecular Theory
A. Postulate 1 – Gases are made up of very tiny
particles, called molecules. The sizes of the
molecules are very small, making them
compressible. This also explain why they have low
density
B. Postulate 2 – Gaseous molecules are in constant
random motion. They can easily occupy a large
container. They have no definite shape and
volume. The random motion of the gaseous
molecules explains the diffusibility and effusibility
of gasses
• Diffusibility – ability of a gas to scatter in
space
• Effusibility – ability of a gas to escape through
a small opening
C. Postulate 3 – The intermolecular forces of
attraction are very weak. The attractive force of
attraction between gaseous particles (molecules
or atoms) are very weak
D. Postulate 4 – The collision of gas particles with
each other or with the walls of its container is
perfectly elastic. No energy is lost upon collision;
this means that gas particles continue to move
even if they collide with each other
E. Postulate 5 – The average kinetic energy of the
gas particles in directly proportional to the
absolute temperature
THE GAS LAWS
1. Boyle’s Law – pressure and volume
• P1V1 = P2V2
• Pressure – up; volume - down
2. Charles’ Law – volume and temperature
• V1/T1 = V2/T2
3. Combined Gas Laws – pressure, temperature, and
volume
• P1V1/ T1 = P2V2/T2
4. Avogadro’s Law
• V1/n1= V2/n2
• Molar Volume (at STP) = 22.4L
5. Ideal Gas Law
• PV/nRT = 1
• PV = nRT
• R =(0.0821)((atm)(L))/((mol)(K))
6. Graham’s Law – the heavier the gas molecule is,
the slower the effusion of that gas
7. Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
• Pt = P1+P2… + Pn
STANDARD TEMPERATURE AND
PRESSURE
Temperature – 0 deg; 273K
Pressure – 1 atm; 760 torr
SOLUTION
Properties of Solutions
A. Concentration – measure of the quantity of solute
in a given amount of solution/solvent
B. Concentrated solution – contains a large amount
of solute per volume of solvent
C. Dilute solution – contains a small amount of
solute per volume of solvent
D. Saturated solution – contains as much solute it
can dissolve
E. Unsaturated solution – when a solution can still
hold more solute
F. Supersaturated solution – when a solution has
more solute than it should normally hold
G. Miscible – when a solute and solvent readily
dissolve in any amount in each other
H. Partially miscible – when the components of a
solution only have limited solubility
I. Immiscible – substances that do not dissolve in
each other; they form two phases or layers
Solubility – measure of the amount of solute that can be
dissolved in a given quantity of solvent at a specific
temperature
Temperature – the solubility in gases in water is inversely
proportional to temperature
Pressure – Henry’s Law states that the solubility of a gas
in a liquid is directly proportional to the pressure exerted
by the gas on the surface of the liquid.
Factors Affecting the Rate of Dissolution
1. Size of Particles – the smaller the solute particles,
the faster it dissolves
2. Rate of Stirring – the rate of dissolution is
increased by stirring constantly
 3. Heating – increases the kinetic energy of the 5. Normality – number of equivalents of solute in a
solute and the solvent liter of solution
• Normality (N) = number of equivalence / liter
MOLES of solution
- One mole of a substance = molar mass = • Equivalent – number of moles of an acid
6.02x1023 particles • Equivalent weight – molecular weight of an
A. For atoms acid multiplied by the number of equivalent of
• 1 mole of He = 4.00g = 6.02g x 1023 He hydrogen or hydroxide ion it has per molecule
atoms
B. For molecules ACIDS AND BASES
• Symbol = no. of atoms x atomic weight Acid Base
a. C = 1 (12.00) = 12.00 Arrhenius Yields H+ Yields OH
b. Cl = 4 (35.5) = 142.1 ions in ions in
• Molecular weight = summation aqueous aqueous
a. 12 + 142.1 = 154g/mol solution solution
C. For ionic compounds Bronsted Proton Donor Proton
• Symbol = no. of ions x atomic weight Lowry Acceptor
a. Na = 1 (23) = 23 Lewis Electron Pair Electron Pair
b. Cl = 1 (35.5) = 35.5 Acceptor Donor
• Formula weight = 58.5g
Mole-Mass Relationship Properties of Acids and Bases
A. Known moles, unknown mass Acid Base
• Mass = no. of moles (mm/1mol) Sour taste Bitter taste
• 2 moles of Fe (56g/mol) = 112g Irritating smell (most Slippery or soapy
B. Known mass, unknown moles acids) touch
• Moles = mass (1mol/mm) Turns blue litmus Turns red litmus paper
• Moles = 16g of Be (mol/9g) = 1.78 moles paper to red to blue
C. General Pattern pH<7, pOH>7 pH>7 , pOH<7
• Moles = (mass)(mol/mm)(mole ratio of Neutralizes a base Neutralizes an acid
atom to compound) Good conductor of Good conductor of
• (77gCa(OH)2)(mol/74g) electricity electricity
(molCa/molCa(OH)2)
D. Route for conversion
• Mass = (moles A)(moleratioA&B) Classification of Acids and Bases
(mm of B/ 1mol of B)
Acids – can be classified according to the no. of hydrogen
Mass-Mass Relationship and hydroxyl group.

A. (Mass A)(1mole of A/mm of A)(moles of A. Monoprotic – contains 1 hydrogen

B/moles of A)(mm of B)(1mole of B) B. Diprotic – contains 2 hydrogen and so on
C. Monobasic – contains only one hydroxide group
D. Dibasic – 2 and so on
E. Amphoteric – like water because it can act as an
Models of Expressing Concentration
acid or base
Concentration = amount of solute / volume of solute or
pH = -log [H+]
solvent
pOH = -log [OH]
1. Percent Concentration – percent of the solute in
the solution pH + pOH = 14
• Percent by mass – mass of solute divided by
the total mass of solution multiplied by 100. Water has a pH of 7–it is neutral
It is equal to the mass of solute plus the mass
of solvent ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
• Percent by volume Hydrocarbons – contain only hydrogen and carbon
a. Pv = (Vsolute/Vsolution)(100)
• Percent by mass – volume – when dealing A. Alkanes – hydrocarbons with only single bonds
with a solid solute and a liquid solvent. B. Alkenes – there is at least one carbon-to-carbon
a. Percent by mass – volume = (mass of double bond
solute (g) / volume of solution C. Alkynes – hydrocarbon where there is at least one
(mL))(100) carbon-carbon triple bond
2. Mole Fraction – ratio of the number of moles of Aromatics – organic compounds having cyclical
solute in a given mole of solution hydrocarbon rings
• Mole fraction = mole of solute / mole solution
3. Molarity – expresses the amount of solute in Substituted hydrocarbons
moles per liter of solution A. Alcohol – with OH functional group
• M = moles of solute / volume solution liter • R – OH
4. Molality – based on a fixed volume of a solution B. Ethers – hydrocarbon chains attached to an
while molarity is based on a fixed mass of solvent oxygen atom
• Molality = moles of solute / mass solvent • R–O–O–R
(kg)
 C. Aldehydes and Ketones – have carbonyl group
• C=O
D. Halogenated Hydrocarbons – hydrocarbons where
one or more hydrogen is replaced by a halogen
E. Amines – if you replace a hydrogen atom from
ammonia molecule with a hydrocarbon
F. Amides – carboxyl group ( C = O ) comes
between the hydrocarbon chain and the nitrogen
of an amine

BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY
- Deals with the chemical substances that make up
living things such as their tissues, body fluids, and
others
Biological Substances
A. Carbohydrates – includes different types of sugar,
starch, etc. They are primary sources of energy in
plant bodies. Classified according to the number
of saccharides
• Monosaccharides – one simple sugar unit
(Fructose, Ribose, Glucose)
• Disaccharides – two simple sugar units
(Maltose, Sucrose)
• Polysaccharides – more than two simple
sugar units (Glycogen, Cellulose)
B. Proteins – vary in shapes, sizes and functions.
They are all polypeptides
C. Nucleic Acids – polymeric chain of nucleotides
• Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) – double-helix
structure
a. Adenine:Thymin;Guanine:Cytosine
• Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) – uracil is used in
place of thymine
a. Messenger RNA (mRNA) – copies
genetic information from DNA in the
nuclei to the ribosomes
b. Transfer RNA (tRNA) – carries amino
acids to the site of protein synthesis
c. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – provides the
site for protein synthesis
D. Lipids – fatty acids and their esters. Fatty acids
are chemically carboxylic acids
• Phospholipids – made up of two fatty acids
and a phosphate group
• Steroids – 4 connecting carbon rings
a. Cholesterol – used to make testosterone
and estrogen
• Triglycerides – three fatty acid molecules and
a glycerol molecule
a. Fats – Saturated Bonds
b. Oils – Unsaturated Bonds