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Chemistry 

Particles move closer together
Rigid structure
 Study of matter= it’s properties, 3. Changes in Matter
composition, and energy
A. Changes
transformations
1. Physical Changes
A. Matter
 Involves a change in
 Anything and everything that has mass
size, form and state or
and occupies space
phase of matter
1. Physical Properties
 Qualities that characterize 2. Chemical Changes
different types of matter  Involves a
A. Intensive properties transformation of
 Do not depend on the matter resulting in the
amount of substance formation of a new
 Color, taste, odor, compound or release
density, hardness of gas
B. Extensive Properties B. Phase Changes
 Varies for different  Spontaneously occur at a
amount of a substance constant temperature as a
 Mass, Volume, length, release of heat
with, thickness  Melting- Solid to liquid
2. Physical states of matter and  Freezing- Liquid to solid
kinetic Molecular Theory  Vaporization- liquid to gas
 Three states of matter:  Condensation- gas to liquid
SOLID, LIQUID, GAS  Sublimation- sold to gas
 KMT  Deposition- gas to solid
o Provides a model of 4. Classification of Matter
moving particles in
 Pure substance
order to explain
o Has sharp boiling and melting
some properties of
points
matter
o May undergo change in state or
A. Molecules of gases move very
color but return to its original
fast in a series of straight-line
form when the initial conditions
paths
are restored
B. The distance between
o May be separated by
molecules is great
evaporation/ distillation.
C. The average kinetic energy of
 Water
the molecules is proportional
o Only compound which can be
to the Kelvin scale or absolute
separated into its component
temperature
elements by electrolysis or
D. The forces of attraction/
using electric current
repulsion between molecules
are negligible MIXTURE COMPOUND
E. The collision of molecules is  CAN BE  CONSTANT
perfectly elastic SPARATED BY COMPOSITION
Gas PHYSICAL  HAS DIFFERENT
MEANS POROPERTIES
 High average kinetic energy  VARY IN FROM THE
 Mostly empty space COMPOSITIOM ELEMENT IT IS
 Negligible molecular interaction  RETAINS COMPOSED OF
ORIGINAL
Liquid PROPERTIES
 Lower average kinetic energy
 Particles are closer together
Heterogeneous Materials
Solid
 Compound of two or more substances
 Much lower average kinetic energy that are of very different properties
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Colloids  Evaporate and condense volatile

 Bridges that gap between a solution and a liquids based on difference in
heterogeneous system where particles boiling point
remain suspended and do not settle C. Crystallization
when left to stand  Lower temperature to enhance
crystallization of more insoluble
part
Homogenous Materials D. Chromatography
 Composed of substances that have  Substances have different
similar or identical parts degree of absorption on inert
 Only one phase surface
Solutions E. Evaporation
 Heating of a solution to dryness
 Homogenous mixture of two or more
substances Atom

Pure Substances 1. Atomic Theory

a. Democritus
 Composed of only one kind of substance  Matter can be broken
Compound down into its smallest
particles or “atomos”
 Two or more different elements combined
b. John Dalton
chemically in definite proportion
 An atom us an
Element indestructible sphere with
 Substance with only one kind of atom mass
c. Jj Thomson
Colloids
 Atom is a raisin bread of +
A. Tyndall effect and – charges are spread
 Scattering of visible light in all out in like raisins
directions by colloidal particles d. E. Rutherford
B. Brownian Movement  Alpha scattering
 Rapid, random motion of experiment
dispersed particles through a  + charge of an atom is
dispersion medium concentrated at the
C. Adsorption center, the – charged
 Ability of a substance to hold electrons travel around
physically another substance on the positively charged
its surface center or the nucleus and
5. Methods of separating Components of that most of the atom is
Mixtures empty space
e. Max Planck
A. Decantation
 Electromagnetic energy is
 Settle heavy solids and gently
quantized. A given
pour out liquid
frequency of radiation or
B. Filtration
light emits energy in
 Separate fine solids from liquid
multiples of a certain unit
using filter paper
of energy called
C. Mechanical Separation
QUANTUM
 Uses forceps, sieves or magnets
f. Neils Bohr
to separate
 Quantum Theory
D. Floatation
g. Werner Heisenberg
 Allow solids of suspension to
 Exact position and
settle
momentum of an electron
Separation of Homogenous Mixtures at a specific instant cannot
A. Centrifugation be known
 Rotation speeds up settling of h. Louis de Broglie
precipitates  Matter has wave
B. Distillation chrachteristics
i. Schroedinger
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 Modern Atomic Theory  Two electrons in any given

gaives a quantum orbital must have opposite
mechanical model of an spins
atom. The location and
energy of an electron in a
H+ atom
Parts of an Atom
1. Proton – Positively charged particle
2. Electron – Negatively charged particle
3. Neutron- Neutral particle
4. Nucleus- Tiny positively charged
central core in an atom
Atomic number- number of protons Governing Principles in Modern Atomic
Theory
Atomic weight- No. of protons + no. of
neutrons A. Aufbau Principle
 Electrons will successively
occupy the available orbital in
order of increasing energy
B. Hund’s rule of Multiplicity
 Electrons will spread out of
over the available orbitals
Isotopes- Same atomic number but with their spins in the same
different atomic weight direction before they pair up
Ions with the opposite spins
C. Pauli’s Exclusion Principle
 Anions – Negatively charged ions
 No two electrons in the same
due to addition of electrons
atom can have the same
 Cations- Positively charged atom
quantum numbers
dues to loss of electrons
The Periodic Table
3. Electronic Configurations
 Mendeleev
 Describes the arrangement of electrons
 Features
in an atom in the form of quantum
o Four Major Classifications
numbers
 Inert or Noble Gases
 Quantum numbers
 Group 8
o Shell (n)
 Stable
 Principal quantum number
 Non reactive
 Determines the distance
 Has 8 valence
from the nucleus and the
 Representative Elements
energy of that e-
 IA- Alkali Metals
o Subshell (i)
 Azimuthal quantum  IIA- Alkali Earth
number Metals
 Describes the shape of the  IIIA- Boron Family
electron orbital  IVA- Carbon Family
o Orbital (m)  VA- Nitrogen Family
 Magnetic QN  VIA- Oxygen Family
 Describes the orientation  VIIA- Halogen
of the orbital in space, Family
meaning if an electron lies  VIIIA- Noble/ Inert
mostly on the x, y or z axis Gas
 Transition Elements
0 S Spherical
1 P Principal
2 d Diffuse
3 f Fundamental
o Spin
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 Masses of elements in a chemical

compound are always in the
same proportion
3. Laws of Multiple Proportions
 When two elements combine to
form more than one compound,
the different masses of one
element that combine with a
constant mass of other are in
ratios of small whole numbers
 Inner Transition Elements
B. Chemical Bonding
 Attractive forces that bind atoms or ions
together in liquids or solids
 Types of Forces
o Ionic bond
 Electrostatic attraction
o Periodic Trends between positive and
o Electrons have negative ions
electrostatic attraction to  The higher the charges,
protons in the nucleus the stronger the ionic
o The closer the electron to bond
the nucleus, the stronger  Usually dissolves in H2O
the attraction and conducts electricity
o Electrons between the o Covalent Bond
valence electrons and the  A bond shared by atoms of
nucleus have a shielding the same kind
effect on the valence o Metallic bond
electrons  Nuclei- Electron attraction
in metals
o Vander Waals Forces
Atomic Radius
 Very weak attractive force
 Approximate distance between the  Dipole-dipole
valence electron and nucleus  Bond between
Ionization Energy neutral, polar
molecule where the
 Energy to remove an electron from a
positive end of one
gaseous neutral atom
polar molecule is
Electron Affinity attracted to the
 Measure of change in energy when an negative end of
electron is added to an atom another polar
molecule
Electronegativity  London dispersion force
 Ability to attract electrons in a chemical  Very weak bond
bond between neutral,
 F is the most electronegative element non polar molecules
that occur randomly
Chemical Principles on atoms within
A. Laws of Chemical Combination molecules
 Hydrogen Bond
1. Laws of Conservation of Mass  Attraction between
 Matter is neither created nor the positively
destroyed charged hydrogen
 No. of atoms of products= No. of end of a molecule
atoms of reactants with a high
2. Laws of Definite Composition electronegative
element and
negative end
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Relative Strengths

Covalent>Ionic>Metallic>h=bonds>Dispersing 5. Combined Gas Law

forces
C. Type of Reactions
1. A. Combination/ Synthesis Reaction
A + B= AB
6. Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
B. Decomposition Reaction
PT= P1 + P2 + P3
AB= A + B
7. Ideal Gas Law
C. Single Replacement Reaction
PV= nRT
A+ BC = AC + B
P- Pressure (atm)
*Copper cannot be oxidized
V- Volume
D. Double Replacement Reactions
n- Number of Moles
AB+ CD= AD+ BC
R- Ideal gas constant
2. Endothermic vs. Exothermic
T- Temperature
 Endothermic
o Chemical change which absorbs
heat energy E. Chemical Equilibrium
o Heat is a reactant  Le Chatelier’s Principle
 Exothermic o If a stress is applied on a system
o Chemical reaction that liberates at equilibrium will readjust to
heat minimize the stress
o Heat is a product o A + B <> C + D
3. Redox
 Oxidation (anode)
o Involves the loss of electrons
Applications
o Always on the product side A. Stoichiometry
 Reduction (cathode)
 Determination of the relative amounts of
o Involves the addition of electrons
reactants and products in a reaction
o Always on the reactant side
 1 mole= 6.022x10^23 (Avogadro’s No. )
B. Properties of Solutions
4. Neutralization Reactions
1. Concentration
 Involves acid and bases a. % (m/m) = (g of solute/ g of
D. Gases and Gas Laws solution) x 100
b. % (v/v) = (v of solute/ v of
1. Graham’s law of Diffusion
solution) x 100
R= Rate of diffusion c. % (m/v) = (g of solute/ v of
M= Molecular Weight solution) x 100

2. Boyle’s Law Solute- present in lesser quantity

PV= K Pressure and Solvent- Present in greater quantity

Volume Unsaturated Solution- solute< solvent
3. Charle’s Law Saturation solution- Solute=Solvent
Temperature (in Kelvin) Supersaturated solution- solute> solvent
and Volume
2. Moles and Concentration
Molarity (M)= Amt. of Solute (moles)
4. Gay-Lusscac’s Law Volume of Solution (L)
Molality (m)= Amt. of Solute (moles)
Pressure and Temperature Mass of Solvent (kg)
Normality (N)= Equivalents. of Solute
Volume of Solution (L)
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3. Dilution

C. Colligative Properties
 Boiling point elevation
o Addition of solute increases in
the boiling point of a solution
 Freezing point depression
o Addition of solute further
decreases the freezing point of a
solution
D. Nuclear Chemistry and Radioactivity
 Radioactive decay
o Process of altering the no. of
neutrons and protons through
emission of a particle such as
alpha, beta or positron
o Nuclear Fusion
 Two nuclei combine to
produce a nucleus of
heavier mass
o Alpha Radiation
 Consist of helium nuclei
o Beta Radiation
 Consists of fast moving
electrons
o Gamma Radiation
 Electromagnetic radiation
o Positron Emission
 Occurs when an atom
loses a proton