GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Leucippus and Democritus' theory
NATURE AND STATES OF
MATTER
The modern knowledge of matter as
being composed of atoms, and of
still smaller fundamental particles,
resulted from a long history of
suppositions, logical thinking, and
experimentation.
A
AD
THE PARTICULATE NATURE OF
MATTER
- Anaximenes asserted that this
primal element was air, Thales of
R
Miletus thought it was water, and
Heraclitus believed it was
-From these initial ideas,
D 5. Atoms come in different shapes
AN
Empedocles later proposed that all
matter is made up of four
fundamental elements-namely, earth,
EE
air, fire, and water.
-This idea introduced an important
AR
concept now known as the law of
constant proportions, which states
that all things of the same type have
SH
the same proportions of the elements
that compose them.
-Around 440 BCE, a new theory
emerged when Greek philosopher
Leucippus and his student
Democritus wondered what would
happen to a piece of gold if it is cut
indefinitely.
They called this unit atomos,
meaning "uncuttable."
The five main principles of
include the following:
1. All matter is made up of atoms
that are too tiny to be seen by the
naked eyes.
2. Atoms are in constant motion
around an empty space called void.
3. Atoms are completely solid.
4. Atoms are uniform, with no
internal structure.
and sizes
Epirucus of Samos popularized
atomism, the philosophy that matter
is made up of atoms.
STATES OF MATTER
- Matter is anything that occupies
space, and has mass and volume.
SOLID
•Solid have a definite volume and
maintain a definite shape.
•They are closely packed and almost
incompressible. (Cannot be
compressed by moderately high
pressure)
•Solids do not flow.
•Solids do not fill their container
completely.
•They have high densities.
LIQUID
• Liquids also have definite volume,
but do not have a definite shape.
• The particles are closely held
together but not as in solids. (Can be
compressed but only to a negligible
extent, by moderately high pressure)
• They take the shape of their
A
container
AD
• They slide past each other.
• Almost incompressible.
• They have medium densities
R
GAS
• Gases have no definite volume and
D GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
AN
no definite shape. ( low density)
• Like liquids, gases take the shape
of their container. (Gas are like
EE
liquids)
• The particles in gas are usually
AR
much farther apart than those in a
liquid.
SH
• Gases are easily compressed into
smaller volume when pressure is
increased, but they greatly expand
when heated.
CHANGING STATES OF MATTER
(Due to temperature)
Gas - Liquid (CONDENSATION)
Liquid - Solid (FREEZING)
Solid - Gas (SUBLIMATION)
Gas - Solid (DEPOSITION)
Solid - Liquid (MELTING)
Liquid - Gas (EVAPORATION)
Plasma
Plasma is the fourth state of matter.
It has neither a definite volume nor a
definite shape.
Bose-Einstein Condensate
The fifth state of matter is the
Bose-Einstein condensate produced
when a cloud of bosons (a type of an
elementary particle of matter) is
cooled to temperatures very close to
absolute zero (T=0 K) such that a
large fraction of the bosons
condense.
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
MATTER
-can be perceive by senses
-can be observed, measured, and
tested without changing the
composition of the matter.
INTENSIVE PROPERTIES
-unnafected by the amount of matter
present or being tested.
-no change in composition
-in color, hardness, boiling point -
100 degrees celsius / 373 kelviN
● Softest element- talc
● Hardest element- diamond
EXTENSIVE PROPERTIES
-affected by the amount of present or
being tested
- when there’s change in amount of
matter,properties of matter change
too.
Ex. volume, mass, length, shape
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
MATTER
1. Color- red, blue, yellow, is
perceived in light receptors
of our eyes, as they interact
AD
with different spectra of
light.
2. Odor- perceived smell of an
R
object, identified by the
olfactory receptors of both
human and animals.
D 12. Density- mass of an object
AN
3. Taste- sweetness ,sourness,
bitterness, saltiness and
umami. Umami- flavor of
EE
food
AR
SH
4. Hardness- ability of material
to resst from being scratch.
5. Melting point- when solid
changes to liquid.
6. Boiling Point- when liquid
changes to solid, liquid, gas
7. Solubility- property of
substance to dissolve in
solid, liquid, gas.
8. Luster- property of material
,interaction of light on the
surface of metals
9. Malleability- ability of metal
to be hammered or shaped in
to thin sheets
10. Ductility- ability of material
A
to be drawn into wires
11. Brittleness- tendency of
material to break even when
a small amount of force is
applied.
per unit volume.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF
MATTER
-tranformation of substance in
different or other material,that
posses a completely different
structure, and composition from the
original.
1. Flammability- ability of
matter to be burned.
2. Reactivity- ability of matter
to chemically combine with
another.
* chemical properties, are
represented by chemical
formulas.
CHANGES IN MATTER
 ● Physical Change- does not
alter the identity of the
substance.
Ex. liquid can evaporize into
steam, or solidify into ice.
Endothermic - heat being absorbed
THERMIC REACTIONS
Release and absorption

● Chemical Change- produces 4 TYPES OF CHEMICAL

new compounds with a REACTIONS
different chemical
composition and different set 1. Combination or direct union

A
of properties. reaction- or more substance

AD
Ex. Reaction of baking soda combine to form single
mixed with vinegar product.

R
D 2. Decomposition or analysis
reaction- single composition
AN
are being broken down into 1
or simpler.
Photosynthesis-the process by which
green plants and some other
EE

organisms use sunlight to synthesize

foods from carbon dioxide and water. 3. Single replacement or
substitution reaction- 1
AR

Photosynthesis in plants generally

involves the green pigment element replacing another
chlorophyll and generates oxygen as element in a composition.
a byproduct.
SH

"during photosynthesis plants absorb

CO₂"
Chemical formula of glucose
C6 H12O6
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
-involved changes in chemical
energy into other forms of energy to
heat, light, and electricity energy.
4. Double replacement or
metathesis- 2 composition
bonds on ions in order to
form different compounds.
● Metals comes first
M+NM

Exothermic- heat being evolved/

released
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

A
AD
R
PURE SUBSTANCE
-only one kind of element or
compound
D
AN
- has constant composition/definite METALS
composition. - constitutes the greatest elements in
-cannot be separated by physical the periodic table. Located at the left
means. part, middle part, and bottom part.
EE

-Classified by elements or
compounds PROPERTIES OF METALS
-lustrous/ shiny appearance
AR

ELEMENTS -malleable because of their atoms

-substances compose of 1 type of - ductile
atom. Cannot be broken own nto -conductors of heat and electricity
SH

simpler substance by ordinary -solid at room temperature except

chemical means.
- all units of matter is composed of
atoms\-if all atoms is a sample of
matter have same identity.
Examples of elements
copper,alluminum
Metalloids- semi-metals between
being metal and non-metal.
mercury-liquid in room temperature
francium.cesium,a
-high densities
-hard has strong metallic bonding
even apart from each other just like
solid (compact).
INTERMOLLECULAR FORCE OF
ATTRACTION
-atoms attracted to one another
-soft metals- lead,
 2. Homogenous- can be
tin,sodium,copper.mercury on room solid,liquid, gas. Cannot be
temperature too. easily distinguish.

-most metals has high density. COLLOIDS

They’re dense because their atoms
are closely packed together because
of strong attractive forces.
-metals with low densities- sodium,
-heterogenous mixtures containing
tiny particles that never settles
down.
Ex. milk and gelo

A
lithium,cesium.

AD
COMPOUNDS
-not just 1 elements but 2 or more
element compound.

R
the same for that composition.
D
-ratio of different atoms is always
SUSPENSION
AN
-heterogenous mixture containing a
Ex. water has 2 hydrogen and 1 liquid in which visible particles
oxygen = H20 Ex. muddy watter
EE
AR

Examples of compound
-brass,steel,alloy,cast iron,bronze
SH

MIXTURES
- made up of two or more substances
-do not always contain same
amounts of substances that make
them up.
1. Heterogenous- can be easily
distinguish
Ex. fruits in veg salad
DETECT COLLOID
-fog appearswhite because its
particles are large enough toscatter
light.
- sometimes it is not so obvious that
a liquid is colloid.
- you can tell for a certain if a liquid
is colloid by passing a beam of light
through it.
DETECT SUSPENSION GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
-some mixtures are neither solution Physical Change
nor colloids • A physical change is a change in
-pond water is a suspension size, shape, or state of matter

• Physical changes do not change the

identities of the substances of the
material

• Physical changes can be used to

A
separate mixtures

AD
• Physical changes can sometimes be
reversed

R
APPEARANCE • Examples of physical changes
-you could begin by describing its
shapes,color and state of matter.
D include phase changes
AN
-you can measure by physical means
The Identity Remains the Same
• Iron is a substance that can change
BEHAVIOR states if it absorbs or releases
EE

-some physical properties describe enough energy at high temperatures,

thebehavior of material or it melts.
substances. • Color changes can accompany a
AR

-attraction to magnet is a physical physical change, too.

property of substance iron. • For example, when iron is heated it
-every substance has a specific first glows red. Then, if it is heated
SH

combination od physical properties to a higher temperature, it turns

that makes it useful for certain task. white.
- ex. Heterogenous sand and iron
fillings can be separated through Chemical Changes
north of magnet. • A change of one substance in a
material to a different substance is a
chemical change

• Examples: When iron is exposed to

oxygen and water in the air the iron
and oxygen form rust, baking a cake
• Chemical Changes usually can not
be reversed
• When a substance goes through a
chemical change it may change the
physical and chemical properties of
the substance
• Sodium is a soft, metallic (physical
A
characteristic) element that explodes
AD
when exposed to any moisture
(chemical characteristic)
• Chlorine is a deadly chemical
R
characteristic) green (physical
characteristic)
gas (used in WWl)
D in the home.
AN
• When combine chemically they
create sodium chloride (table salt)
EE
The Identity Changes
AR
• Clues such as heat, cooling, or the
formation of bubbles or solids in a
liquid are helpful indicators that a
SH
reaction is taking place.
• However, the only sure proof is
that a new substance is produced.
• The only clue that iron has changed
into a new substance is the presence
of rust.
• Burning and rusting are chemical
changes because new substances
form.
Using Chemical Change to Separate
• One case where you might separate
substances using a chemical change
is in cleaning tarnished silver.
• Tarnish is a chemical reaction
between silver metal and sulfur
compounds in the air which results
in silver sulfide.
• It can be changed back into silver
using a chemical reaction.
• You don't usually separate
substances using chemical changes
• In industry and chemical
laboratories, however, this kind of
separation is common.
For example, many metals are
separated from their ores and then
purified using chemical changes
Chemical Properties
• A characteristic of a substance that
indicates whether it can undergo a
certain chemical change
• Examples are flammability, and
reacting with sunlight
Weathering Chemical or
Physical Change?
• The forces of nature continuously
shape
Earth's surface. Rocks split, deep
canyons are carved out, sand dunes
shift, and curious limestone
formations decorate caves.
• Do you think these changes, often
referred to as weathering, are
physical or chemical? The answer is
both.
A
AD
physical
• Large rocks can split when water
seeps into small cracks, freezes, and
R
expands.
• However, the smaller pieces of D breaking their bond, which is why
newly exposed rock still have the
AN
same properties as the original
sample.
• This is a physical change.
EE
Chemical
• Solid calcium carbonate, a
compound found in limestone, does
AR
not dissolve easily in water.
• However, when the water is even
slightly acidic, as it is when it
contains some dissolved carbon
SH
dioxide, calcium carbonate reacts.
•hychages intonate substance, disi in
water.
Nonmetals
• Nonmetals are elements that lack
or do not have the characteristics of
metals. Nonmetals are located at the
rightmost part of the periodic table,
except for hydrogen, which is at the
leftmost part (the first element of the
periodic table).
Some characteristics of
nonmetals are the opposite to that of
metals.
Properties of Nonmetals
• Nonmetals have a dull appearance.
They do not have a shiny surface or
appearance. However, iodine, a
nonmetal, is lustrous.
• Nonmetals are brittle.
Nonmetals are neither ductile nor
malleable, meaning they do not have
the ability to be drawn into thin
wires or to be hammered into thin
sheets. The atoms of nonmetals
cannot move past each other without
nonmetals break easily.
•Nonmetals are poor conductors of
heat and electricity because they do
not have free electrons that are
typical of metals.
• Nonmetals are good insulators and
can prevent the transfer of heat and
electricity. Since nonmetals do not
have free electrons, they can resist
the flow of electric current making
them good insulators.
• Nonmetals may exist in three states
(solid, liquid, gas) at room
temperature.
• Most of the nonmetals exist in a
gaseous state. These include
hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, oxygen,
fluorine, chlorine, neon, argon,
krypton, xenon, radon, and
ununoctium (Uuo).
• Some nonmetals exist in solid form
like carbon, iodine, phosphorus,
sulfur, and selenium. Bromine is a
nonmetal that exists in a liquid form.
• Nonmetals have low densities.
They have weak attractive forces
between their atoms making them
less dense.
• Metalloids are elements which
A
have the properties of both metals
AD
and nonmetals. They are located
between the metals and the
nonmetals forming a staircase
pattern on the periodic table.
R
• Examples of metalloid elements
are boron, silicon, germanium,
D is called neutralization. Some
AN
arsenic, antimony, tellurium,
polonium, and astatine. Polonium
and astatine,
however, are sometimes not
EE
considered As Metalloids.
• Compounds are substances
AR
composed of two or more kinds of
atoms that are chemically bonded
together in fixed proportions. One of
SH
the most common examples of
compounds is water, having two
hydrogen atoms and one oxygen
atom.
• Compounds can be classified as
acids, bases, or salts.
Acid
• An acid is a compound that donates
H* ions in an aqueous solution. It
tastes sour and turns blue litmus
paper to red. Some examples are
vinegar, citrus fruit juices, sulfuric
acid, and soft drinks.
Base
• A base is a compound that accepts
H+ ions in an aqueous solution. It
tastes bitter and turns red litmus
paper to blue. Some examples are
soap, ammonia, detergent powder,
and lye.
Salt
• Salt is a compound that is formed
when an acid and a base react. This
reaction, which forms salt and water,
examples are table salt, calcium
carbonate, and calcium chloride.
Mixtures. are made up of two or
more substance, which are mixed
together but are not chemically
combined.
-A mixture can be homogeneous or
heterogeneous.
Homogeneous Mixture
A homogeneous mixture has only
one phase and a uniform
composition all throughout.
A solution is a homogeneous
mixture. Substances that make up a
solution are difficult to distinquish
from one another An example of this
type of mixture is a sugar and water
solution. Sugar cannot be easily
separated from water, because the
solution has already combined in co
best having combineduniform
composition,difficult to distinguish
the sugar molecules from the water
molecules.
Types of Solution
• In a solid-solid solution, two or
more solids are combined to form a
mixture, An example of this is an
alloy. An alloy is a combination of
A
two or more metals, or a metal and
AD
another element.
• In a solid-in-liquid solution, the
solute (the substance that is
R
dissolved) is in solid form while the
the solute) is a liquid.
D
solvent (the substance that dissolves
AN
-The solid dissolves in the liquid
because they have the same
molecular property.
An example of this type of solution
EE
is a salt and water solution. The
water dissolves the salt forming a
solution.
AR
Copper + zinc= brass
Copper + tin= bronze
SH
Iron + carbon=steel
• In a liquid-liquid solution, two or
more liquids are mixed to create a
solution in liquid form. An example
of this is a water and alcohol
solution. When you mix water and
alcohol, it is impossible to
distinguish one over the other by
merely looking at it.
• A gas-liquid solution
involves the
combination of a gas and a liquid.
An example is a carbonated drink.
Carbonated drinks are in liquid
form, but contain dissolved gases
which form bubbles when the
bottled gas is released.
• Lastly, a gas-gas solution is a
combination of which more hiases
combinedent example in air
nitrogen, oxygen, and other gases.
A heterogeneous mixture has two or
more phases.
It does not have a uniform
composition. One substance can be
separated easily from the other.
• An example of a heterogeneous
mixture is halo-halo. The
components of halo-halo can be
easily distinguished from one
another because they are not
identical. For example, the beans in
halo-halo can be distinguished from
the ube or from the other
ingredients.
A heterogeneous mixture has two or
more phases. It does not have a
uniform composition. One substance
can be separated easily from the
other.
SH
AR
EE
AN
D
R
AD
A