BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

VOLUME ONE
METRIC EDITION
 11 By the same Author

I BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
Volumes One, Two and Three
I BRICKWORK
CARPENTRY
JOINERY

By J. K. McKay

Ii BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
Volume Four

II
w. B. McKay BUILDING
M.Sc.Tech., M.I.Struct.E.
Former registered architect and
chartered structural engineer and Head
CONSTRUCTION
of the Department of Building and
Structural Engineering in the
VOLUME ONE
Manchester University Institute FIFTH EDITION (METRIC)
of Science and Technology. By j. K. McKay, BA, B.Sc.Tech .. A.R.I.B.A .. C.Eng., M.I.Struct.E., F.F.B.
With drawings by the authors

o
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II Fourth Edition © Longman Group Limited 1970

OLBN 0 00212 002 X
I First published in India 1985
Reprinted 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993 (twice), 1995

I Published in India by arrangement with

Longman Group Ltd., London

For sale in India, Nepal, Bhutan. The Maldive Islands.

Bangladesh an,i Sri Lank<! only. Not for export.

Published by Orient Longman Limited, R. Kaman; Marg.

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Printed in Indil! t>y Town Printery. Bombay 400 062.
II

,
 PREFACE
TO THE FIFTH EDITION

IN this edition the various units have bt'en converted to metric terms.
Since the first appearance of this volume in '938, the materials of construction for simple two~storey
structures have hardly changed although techniques have been modified. As the earlier editions were pub~
lished obsolete methods wefe given a secondary place and this has been continued once more . . Th ~y cannot
he omitted entirely whilst thirt}' per cent of building expenditure is still devoted to repair and alteration work.
The chapter contents have been extended and amended. Several of the drawings have been revised
or replaced to illustrate up-to-clate applications. Eleven new Figures arc included as follows: 10, on founda~
tions; 381\, tfussed rafter roofs; 39, showing a built-up timber roof trU!iS and interlocking tiles; 55, a storm
lipped timber window and cavity walling; 62, metal windows; 65, stairs; 68, pCirtable power tools; 70 and 7',
giving larger details of slating; 78, domestic water services and 8" a vocabulary of structural steel components;
the associated text has been added and sections on plastering are included.
). K. MCKAY .
II

PREFACE
TO THE FIRST EDITION

DUR1KG the past few years syllabuses in Building Construction have been extensively revised, and to-day
those operating in Technical Schools and Colleges approved for National Certificate purposes show general
agreement as to what parts of the subject should be treated in the earlier stages.
This also applies to Building Construction as taught in Schools of Architecture, although its treatment
and presentation may not be the same.
Accordingly, one of the aims of the author has !:oeen to include in this first volume only such matter as
is now generally accepted as being suitable for the first stage of the subject. Each cbap:rer is headed with
the appropriate sectio:l of the syllabus in detail, and this is covered by the text and drawings.
Most of the drawings have been prepared to large size to enable associated details to be grouped con-
veniendy for reference.
In Schools of Architecture. where Building Constructiull is closely related to DeSign, the illustrations
may prove helpful to the first-year st~dent in preparing his constructional sheets, particularly during the
early months of the session, when adequate design subjects are not available and his ability to design is
limited.
Attention is drawn to the suggested" Homework Programme." It is recognised that only a relatively
III small proportion of the details shown in the book can be drawn to scale by the student during a session , and
a selection has therefore been made of those which may be regarded as typical; as far as time win permit,
II additional alternati\·e details should be skt,tched by students in their notebooks.
Teachers of apprentice-students attending Trade Courses, such as Brickwork and Masonry, Car?entry
and Joinery, etc., will find that the subject matter in the chapters concerned more than covers the first~year
syllabuses. Whilst the Homework Programme docs not apply to such courses, where the subjects need to be
developed more gradually and treated in greater detail, it is hoped that the arrangement of Fig. 58, referred
to in the programmt·, "ill serve as a useful guide to these students in preparing well-balanced sets of homework
II! sheets.
In preparing certain sections of this book the author has had assistance from several sources, and he is
especially indebted to Mr D. H. England and Mr W. I. Tarn who gave him many valuable and practical
suggestions in connection with the chapter cn Plumbing. Thanks arc also extended to his colleague Mr E.
Spencer for reading the proofs of the chapters on Carpentry and Joinery. and for much useful criticism
bearing upon these sections.
w. B. McK.
August 1938
 CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER

I. BRICK \\'ALU., FOUl'DATlONS

\Iaterials-Bonding-Stopped Ends--Junctions ~nd Quoins- Piets-Jambs-Cavity Walls--Foundations-Damp
I'roor Courses-Site Concrete--Offsets ~nd Cotbcls- I-intds-:\rches-Windo,," Sills-Thrcsho!ds-Copings-
Plll1(hs -~Tools , Construction, Joint ing and Po i nting--'- Plast~ red \\'alls.

II. i\'lASO:->RY \r,\LL~ 3S

Classification of Stoncs-Quarryinll- Preparation- Dcfects- Wai!ing-Hubbie \\"ork- .-\shlar-.l,rchcs- Window
Si lls-Phnt hs- ( .om ices-String Courses- Cop; ngs-:'>.1asonr\· Joints-:\-lortar Join ting- Li fting ..-\!-'PI ianees.

I II. TnlllER, FLOORS '" "n ROOb

. ' Structure , {irowth, F"lljn~, Oil',,,on ing, Prcs<: n-ation, Conversion, Defccts and Classification of Timbcr- Floors-
I' la~ r (' r<'J ( 'ei lings Single, 1)""1,1,, . Truss<·J Rafter and Framed Roofs- Tren"h Timh('ring Centering

IV. DOOR3, \VIXDOWS, STAms

I. cd w:d Braced and D"ttcn"d. Fn, m cu I.c-dgc-d Brace<.:! and Battened, Panelled and Flush !)oors-Timber Casement,
(,,,",,d Fram~ , Pi,-oted and Yorkshir" \\'i ndows, lI.letal \Vinuows-Hardware--.·\rchitraves, Skirtings, Picture Rails
and .-\ngle Br"Js-Slairs "ails, Scre"'s and Fa~teners-Too l s.

V. ROOF COVERINGS 131

Formation, Quarrying. ('onycrs;nn, Preparation and ChHacteristics of Slatcs-Centre -nail~d ~nd Ilead-nailed
Slating Details- ""ils-Ridges- llips- Valle\'s-Tools- Plain and Interlocking Tilinjl.

VI. PLUMBI:'lG

l\lanllfactUl'(, and Characteristics of Lcau-Le'ld Rolls, Drips, Fbshiogs and Soakers-Det~ils of Leadwork at
Gutt~rs. FLits . Chimn~,- St~cks, Ridg<-s. H ips and Valleys-Lead and Copper Pipe Joints-Eav<:s Glltlers- Down-
pipes-n"" ,ntie '\\';tlcr Sen'ices- Tools.

VII. 'IrLD STEEL SECTlO]\'S. BOLTS AND RIVETS

HO:\IE\VORK PROGRc\:\\l\'lE

I~DEX

vii
1 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
NO. NO.
OF FiC. PAGE Of FIG. PAG8
I. Comparative Strength of Bonded and Unhonded Wall. 41. Centering 8,
~. Bricks 5 42. Lcdged and Battened Door and Frame 8,
3. English Bond: Square Stopped Ends. 6 43. Ledged, Bra(:ed and Battened Door and Furnin ..e
.... Flemish Bond: Square S{OppW. E,,"'~ 8 44.
45.
Framed, Ledged, Brac::ed and Ballened Door
Flush Doors (Laminated and Framed)
"8,
s. Riaht Angled Junctions
6. Right Angled Quoins
"
9
46. Various Types of Doors and Panel Mouldings ,"
"
'.
,. Piers 47. Mitred and Scribed Joinl$
8. Rebated Jambs
" 48. Single Panelled Door
94
9. Foundation {or
10. Foundations.
One-and-a-h~!f Brick Wall '5
,6
49. Door Casings and Methods of Fixing
So. Two Panelled Door
"
97
99
II. Offsets, Cor~ls, ButtTe.. eappings 51. Detail, of Twin Tenon Joint
'9 '00
12. Lintels . 52. Four Panelled Door
'0 '0'
13- Isometric Sketch of Portion of Brick Arcade 53. Setting Out and lIand Preparation of Doors
I .... Key DetAil, showina Application of Arehe., etc.
" H. Casements and Solid Framed Windows
,oJ
'0,
15. Brick Archet (Flat Gauged, Segmental, Semicircular, etc.) " 55, 56, 57. Casement Window Details
'5 106, loS,
16. Window Sills and Threshold. s8, 59. Details of Window with Cased Fr~me and Sliding Sashes '''''
17. Copings, Plinths and Joints
18. Section throush Face of Limestone Quarry
" 60. Window wilh Pivoled Sash
'9
,6
6 •. Window with Horizontal S]idinR Sash
11O, "4
,,6

19. Preparafion of SlOne, Surface Finishes and Masons' Tools 62. Metal Windows
J7 '"
,,8
ao, :no 23_ Rubble Work 63, 6 4 . Ar(:hitu\,C!l, Skirtings, Picture Rails and Angle Beads
41, 43, +4
al. Key Detail of Stone Gable 65. Stairs
'"21,
'"
24. Ashlar . " 66. Nails, Screws and Fasteners
.6
"J
"4
as- Slone Arches, Window Sills ~nd Plinths ,8
67. Joiners' Tools
l6. Cornice. 68. Portable Power Tools
50 '"
27. Copinge and Joints 69. Tool. Ind Preparation of Slates
5' '"
l8. Lifting Appliance.
19. Structure and Seasoning of Timbtlr
70. Slating Details
53
7'. Slating Details
56
'",,6
,,8
30. Conversion of Timber 72. Plain Tiling Detaib
57 '39
31. Defcct, in Timber 73. Lead Details of Parapel Gutters
57 '45
3l. Plan, Se(:tioos and Details of Single (Ground) Floor of Domcstic Dwelling 6.
74. Lead Flat Details '47
33. Methods of Laying Floor Boards, F.'c. 6,
75. [.eadwork at Chimney', etc.
III 34. Plan, Section and Dctails of Single (FIrst) Floor of Domestic:: Ow,,1\ing .
76. Protection of Corni(:es
66
'49
'5'
3S. Sketch showing various Roof Members " . Rain-Vl'ater Pipes
68 '53
! 36. Plans, Sec::tions Ind Details of Single Roofs ,8. Domestic Waler Services. .,
37, 38. Plans, Sections and Details of Double Roof
38". TrUSSl·d Raftcr Hoof~
" 70· Plumber's Tools
So. Sted
75, 76
F!:it,
77 Square, Rouod and Tee BU$, Angles, Channels, Beams, Bolt. and
'56
'57

39. BUIlt-up Roof Tru.s and Int!."r1ocklng Tiles

40. Timbering to Trench"
,.. Rivets ,8
TypIcal Steel Sectioos
79
'59
,60
Not~: UNLESS INDICATED OTHERWISE ALL DIMEt-;SIONS ON THE FIGURES ARE GIVEN IN MILLIMETRES

III

11
,
 CHAPTER ONE
BRie K W A L LS.
Syllabl/s-Brid description of Ihe manufactun: of bricks; char.lcteristic.s. Lime mQrtKT. ~ent mortar and com::~tt. 51'!'!:s ~nd shapes of bricks; terml; heading,
stretchmR. English and FiHnish bonds'; I, II and 2-br;tk walls with twpped ends; i 10 I, ! 10 I and I 10 Ii-brick junctions; righI-angled quoins 10 I,
I! and l_brick walls; piers; rebated jamb~ wilh 56 mm and 112 mm recesses to I and I ,·brick walls; 275 mm cavity walls. Foundations for t. I, 11 and a-brick
walls; surface concrete; horizontal dam p-proof courses. Linlels; axed and ~auged flat, segmental and semicircular nrches; rough relieving arches; terms, Copings;
windo~' sills; steps; cor~ls and o\-ersailing courses. Jointing and pointing. Plaster;n!!: 10 "ails.
MATERIALS
l
Bridts.-Bricks are made chiefly from clay and shale. Clay, a plastic earth,
is constituted largely of sand and alumina and may contain various quantities
of chalk, iron, manganese dioxide, etc. Shale is a laminated deposit of day
rock which is capable of being reduced to a plastic condition when broken up
and ground to a fine state of division. Bricks are approximately 215 mm by
102·5 mm by 65 mm (see p. 3).
Manufacture of Bricks.-The processes of manufacture vary considerably
aa::ording to the variety of day used, machinery available, etc., and the following
is a brief general description. Bricks are moulded either by machinery or by
hand .
Machine·madeBricb.-Most bricks are made by machinery. The various processes
are: (I) preparation of the earth, (2) moulding, (3) drymg and (4) burning.
(I) Pupararion.-The clay or shale is excavated, and after large 5ton~ or other
extraneous maner have been removed, it is conveyed to a pug mill ar.d findy ground by
heavy rotating wheels which force it through small perforations in the bottom of the mill.
(a) Moulding.-There are two kinds of machine-made bricks, i.t., ",i,.e·cuts and
pressed.
Wire-c;:"t Bricks are moulded as follow,:-The fine clay from the pug milliS forced
through a mouthpiece (approximately alS mm by loa·s mm) ofa machine in a continuous
band and conveyed by rollers to a frame which containl several fine vertical wires about
65 mm apart. A portion of this continuous band, equal in length to that of the frame, is
pU5hed forward through the frame by means of a metal plate and the wires divide it into
ten or more alS mm by 10a'S mm by 65 mm slabs of clay.
Pte$Sed Briclts.-Gf the many different types of machines for moulding brick. by
pressure the limplest is worked by hand and the larger by steam power. The fonner
consilts of a metal box the size of a brick, containing a elay slab which has been wire_cut
a. explained above; a descending meta l plate exerts pressure upon the elay to consolidate
it; it is then removed. The larger type of machine oon5i8'* of a rotating table containing
t .... e1ve or mote boxes or dies each being the aiae of a brick; IS the table revolves each die
in turn is brought under a hopper containing the prepared clay or .hale; a plunger operat-
ing in the hopper descends and forces the elay into the die after which the raw brick (or
. Iab of clay) is pUlhed out a. the tahle rotates.
I Flemish bond is sometimet deferred until the second year of the Course.
t Sand-lime bricks (consilting of a mixture of lime and und) and concrete brick. are
alao manufactured (see Chap. I, Vol. II).
,
FOUNDATIONS
(3) Drying and (4) Burni",.-Both of these operations arc carried out in a modern
kIln, one type of which contains several chambers, each accommodating 40,000 or more
bricks. The wire-cut or prelsed. raw bricks are carefully stacked with a space between
each and in alternate layers ut ,.ight angles to each other. Heat, produced from gas or
coal dUM, is Rradual1y applied until a maximum temperature is obtained (which ia main-
tained fo,. approltimatciy two days), when the brICks are then allowed to cool. The loading,
drying, burning, cooling and emptying of the kiln may occupy two "ceo, and at it is a
continuous process, a chamber of finished bricks is emptied daily.
HAND-MAD£ BRlcKs.-Whilst most bricks are machine-made and used for general
purposes (on account of their relati"e cheapness) there II also demand for hand-made
bricks for supenor facing work. The preparation, dryinR and burning proccsaes arc
similsr to those already descnbed, but the moulding is done by hand. The mould is of
wood or metal and resembles the sides of a rectangular box equal in size to the required
bricks.' It i. either wetted or sanded to prevent the clay from adhering to it. A ponion
of the prepared cl~y sufficient to fill the mould is now taken, roughly shaped, and duhed
by the moulder into the mould. The clay is pressed with the fingers to fill the mould
completely and the slab is levelled off by a wood fillet or I piece of ... ire drawn across the
top; the slab i. then removed and finally taken to the kiln, dried and burnt.
ChaTacttristics.- Good bricks should be thoroughly burnt; this makes them
hard and durable (the quality of lasting for a long period without ptrishing)
and enables them to withstand pressure. A hard ringing sound emitted when
two bricks are struck together indicates that they have been burnt satisfactorily.
Generally the bricks should be true to size and shape, with st{aight edges and
even surfaces, SO as to facilitate laying them in position.: They should be free
from cracks, chips and large particles of lime. Unless desired, uniformity of
colour is not now specified.'
Inferior bricks are generally underburnt and as a consequence are easily
broken and are very porous; these are neither hard nor durable and are incapable
1 Clay shrinks during the drying and burning processes by approximately one _tenth
and allowance for this il made by using a mould which is larger than the finished brick.
t Bricks havin, rough surfaces (tenned texture) and sliChtly irregular edges arc .elected
purposely for cenain first-c1na work. Thul the external wall, of country houses are
frequently faced with such bricks.
I Bricks of a variety of colours in tonu of -red, purple, grey, brown, etc., are now
available, and, provided the colours have been carefully selected, brickwork when faced
with bricka of mixed sh.adca hu a very "tisfactory appearance.
2 BRICK WALLS
of withstanding: heavy IO<lu('. if they contain coar~c grain:; of uncombined
lime, any water absorbed c.!Uses the lime to c\panJ, resulting in the partial
disintegration of the hricks. They ~rc in,'ariahly of poor appc;lrancc.
The weight of bricks varies considerably; approximately, wire-cUis arc
between 2 and 3 kg and pressed bricks from 3 to 7 kg each .
Lime.-Of the several varieties of lime, that used cllleAy for hrick\\ork
and masonry is known as hydraulic lime. l It is produced from limc~tone or
chalk whIch is burnt in a kiln for three Of four days, when it is ready to be made
into mortar.
Cement.-That generally used is known as Portland cement hecause of its
resemblance to thc colour of the stone of that ni.lffiC. [t is manufactured from
eh<llk and clay. The former is crushed and tht: day i~ liquified by the addition
of water, when it is c<llled slip, These two !ll<lterials are mixt:d together in
correct proportions and \-ery findy ground; the mixture, known as slurry, is
c()Il\'e}'l~d to t<lllksand then to a kiln where it is gradually suhjected to a high
temperature aud converted into a hard dark-looking clinktr; the latter is passed
to a mill when: it i~ ground to an exceedingly finc powder to complete the
process, TIle cement is :Illtomatically packed into pay,cr or jute sacks, each full
,;;Ilk \Ieighing 50 kg, or it may be dcli\crcd" in hulk • (Ioo~c).
Sand.- That obtained from pits or quarries is the best for mortar bCl.:ause
of its angularit~' (called "~harp "); failing this, that from ril'er banks or beds
1~ u"ed. Sea sand is unsuitable for mortar as it contains salts which attract and
rct,lin moisture, in addition to producing a whitish powder or etBorescencc
II hich lliscolours the brickwork or masonry. Sand should be well gradcd, dean,
"h;trp ,1l1d fro.::e from loam, day or otllt:r impurity. Dirty san d should never
ht: uscll as it may rt:duct: th~ ,ldhesi\c \"alu~ of the mOrlar considcrably,
~nd in order to ensure a clean sand it is frequently specified that II shall be
II,lsilcu.
Lime Mortar.-This is a mixture of quicklime (burnt limestone scc abol"c)
,Iud ~<lJld in the proportion of I linl(': 3 ~;tnd, in addition to water. It was once
the principal material used for bedding and jointing hricks, stones, etc.; it is used
less fn.:qucntly now liS it develops strength very slowly. If mixed by hand. the
lime is placed in a heap, sprinkled with water and completely covered with the
lllca~ured proportion of sanJ; the lime expands and breaks into small particles
o\ling 10 the heat which i~ generated; this is known as slaking or slacking the
lime and the heap shou ld he left undisturbed for at least t\lenty-four hours
so as to ensure thorough disintegration of the lime. As unslaked particles of
lime in mortar may cause d.dmage to walling, it is necessary to pass it through
a screen to eliminate unslaked lumps; after slaking, the material is turned o\"er
with a shovel on a boarded platform, more water is added and the mixing
oper:.ltion continued until the mortar is of the right consistency, nei~her too
.mfT nor too plastic. If mixed in a pug mill, the lime and sand are thoroughly
J This has Ih~ properly of ""nina und~r wal~r.
incorporate~ after ahout twenty minutes' applicatioll of the rotating and grinding
rollers. The mortar should be used fresh and just sufficicnt should be mixed
for each Jay's usc.
Cement Mortar.- This is a mixture of 1 cement: 3 sand. The sand is
placed on a platform, the correct amoun! of cement is added to it, both are
thoroughly mixed dry before water is addt:d and the mass gradually worked up
into a plmn1c condition. As cement mortar scts comparativcly quickly, it should
only be mixed in small amounts and not be ust:d after it has started to set.
Cement mortar is used in the construction of piers (sec pp. 12 and 13), walling
below d~rnl' course level (sec p. 17), chimney stacks, etc., a~ brickwork built in
ct:ll1ent mortar is much stronger than that built in lime mortar. A mix of
I .6 can lliso be used for general walling; hut as this is harsh, then an additive,
which forms ~ir buhbles to impro\'e the'plasticity, can be included in the mixing
II ,ncr in the proportion of about 3°'u.
('('m(,l1/ Grout is cement which has been reduced to a thick liquid COIl-
si!>tency by the addi tion of sufficient water.
Cement -Lime Mortar (also known as compo).- This is thc most usual
gellcral purpose morlar comprising 1 cement: 2 lime: 9 sand, or 1 : I : 6 if
thert: is a danger of frost as this is yuicker setting. The addition of limc im~
r
proves workability making it easier to place.
Concrete consist~ of a fine aggregate (or body), a coarse aggregate and a
matrix (binding material). The fine aggregate is usually sand, common coarse
aggregatt:s are broken brick or stone (or gran:l) and the matrix is usually cement.
The proportions vary, but a common mix is composed of I part cement, 2 parts
sand and .j. parts broken brick or stone; the maximum size of the latter depends
upon the use to which the concrete is to be put and may be 38 mm (that passed
through a 38 mm square mesh sieve) for foundations and 20 mm for reinforced
concrete work. The aggregates must be carefully graded from a minimum to
a maximum, so that when the materials aremixed the space between the particles
is reduced to a minimum and a dense concrete ensured.
The mixing is done either by hand or by machinery. If mixed by hand,
th..: materials in correct proportion are placed on a boarded platform and mixed
t ..... ice (or thrice) dry and then twice (or thrice) wet. The amount of water
added after the materials have been tllrned over dry (by using shovels) must be
carefully regulated, as an exuss of water considerably reduCts the strength of the
concrete. The mixing should always be done on a platform otherwise dirt
would be shovelled into the mixture and ils strength thereby reduced.
ILa concrete-mixing machine is used, the materials in proper proportion are
charged through a hopper into the mixer, the correct amount of water is then
added; the ffii;>;cr is rotated at a specified speed for a definite period, usually
a minute, after which the concrete is discharged from the machine.
The concrete should be carefully deposited where required on the building
so as to ensure Ihat the density of the material shall be uniform throughout.
,
 BONDING
BONDING, SOLID BRICK WALLS
The craft of the bricklayer is concerned with emhedding bricks in mortar
and suitably arranging them so that the mass, called brickwork, conforms with
ce~tain requirements such as strength and appearance. Strength depends a good
deal Il\)()n the bond. The Building Regulations require external walls to be
adequatt.: to prevent undue heat loss from the huilding; some typical examples of
thermally insulated waJ!s for dwellings arc given 011 p. 34. .
BOlld is the interlacement of bricks produced when they lap (project bt:yond)
those immediately above and below them. An unbonded wall, with its con-
tinuous t;fftiwl joints, has little strength and stability and such joints must he
avoided. Fig. I illustrates the comparati\'e strength of a bonded \\.111 A and
weakness of an unbonded wall B which are shown supporting a load. The
portion of the load tral1~mi!ted to the wail A is distributed over a rclatil'elylarge
area, as indicated within the broken lines c and 0, whereas that transmitted
to the wall H is practically concentrated on the portion betwel'll the continuou~
vertical joints E and F, with the result that this portion \\'ould tend to drop as
shown; in addition, the two vertical sections G and II would lend to separate
because of the ahsence of bond. Various bonds are descnbed on PI'· 4 and 7.
Size of Bricks.-Uniformity in the siz~ of bricks is essential if the main-
215 UN60NDED
tenance of the correct bond is to be facilitated during the construction of a wall;
time is wasted if a consignment contains bricks of varying sizes as the bricklaver
is required to make a selection as the work proceeds. . S~ETCH SHOWING
The length of a brick should be twice its width plus the thickness of one COMPAI<.ATIVE SH,ENGTH
vertical joint in order that a proper bond may be maintained (See A, Fig. 2). Of A SONDED WAll" WEAKNESS
Brick~ in common use \'ary in size from 210 to 230 mm long by 100 to 110 mm OF AN UNSONDED WALL F[ct' R ~ 1
wide by 38 to 75 mm thick, The following sizes are a\ailable: (I) Clay bricks
are mostly 215 by 102'5 by 65 mml; using a 10 mm joint this gives a nominal trapezoidal in section) formed on either one or both 215 mm by 102'5 mm
s:ze or format of 225 by 112'5 by 75 mm; this is adopted in must oflhe Figures faces of a brick (sec 0 and 111, Fig . 2); a wire-cut hrick has no frogs, a pressed
in this book. (2) Concrete bricks may be as (I) or 190 by 90 by 65 mm; with brick has two frogs as a rule and a hllnd-madc hrick usually has only one frog; a
a 10 mm joint Ihis makes a format of zoo ry 100 by 75 mm. frog affords a good key for the mortar (sec 1'01, Fig. 2) and therefore walls which arc
Terms.~ The following defines those which ha\'e a general application to
required to show thin bed joints should be constructed of bricks with frogs;
brickwork :- bricks having only one frog should be laid with the frog uppermost so as to
ensure it being completely filled with monar.
Arris.-An cdgc of a brick (sec A, Fig. z).
Bed.- The lower 215 mm by 102'5 mm surface of a brick when placed in Bed Joint.l.- :\Iorlar joints, parallel to the beds of the bricks, and therefore
position (sec A, Fig. 2). horizontal in general walling; thickne~s varies from 3 to 12 mm the most usual
}/eader.-The end or 102'5 mm by 65 rnm surface of a brick (sec A, Fig. 2). lhickness is 10 mm shown at LJ, Fig. 2.
Strl'tcher .-The side (usually referred to as the" edge ") or 215 mm by CQurse.-A compkle la),':J of bricks plu~ it" mortar bedding joint; a hlading
65 mm surface of a brick (see A, Fig. 2). couru consists of headers and a s/rf/ching course comprises stretchers (see u,
Fig. 2); a brick-on-tdgt courst consists of brICks placed on their 215 mm by 65 mm
Fact.-A surface of a brick such as the header focl'(loz'5 mm by 65 mm) and
Jtre/chtT face (215 mm by 65 mm) (see A, Fig. 2); is also applied to.1.l1 exposed faces (see J and K, Fig. 17) and a brick-un-tnd or .lolditr course is composed of
surface of a wall. bricks laid on their 102'5 mm by 65 mm faces (see Nand 0, Fig. 17)'
Frog or Kick.-A shallow sinking or indent (either rectanguillr, triangulaTor Brick Gaugt.· The height of a number of brick courses, e.g., four courses to
1 Bricks 50 and 75 mm thick may b", obtained. 300 mm if 65 mm brickS<lnd IOmmjoiotsareused. See Gouge-rod, pp. 28and 30.
4 BRICK WALLS
ContinuQus Vnticoi Joints or Straight Joinlf.- Vertical joints which come
immediately over each other in two or more consecutive courses (see R, Fig. I);
although these aTC sometimes unavoidable (see Flemish bond, Fig. 4) they should
not appear on the face of brickwork' (see English Bond, p. 7).
Quoin.-A corner or external angle of a wall (see u, Fig. 2 and G, Fig. 6).
Stopped or Cloud End.- A square termination to a wall (see Fig. 3) as distinct
from a wall which is returned as shown in Fig. 6.
PtTpends.-Imaginary vertical lines which include vertical joints (see broken
lines at lJ, Fig. 2); these should be plumb or true.
Lap.-The horizontal distance which one brick projects beyond a vertical
joint in the course immediately above or below it; it varies from 46'25 to 10::;'5
mm, ·j.t., 46 to 102 mm; or, allowing for the joint thickness, 56 to 112 mm
(see u, Fig. 2).
Racking Bach.- The stepped arrangement formed during the construction or
a wall when one portion is built to a greater height than that adjoining (see u,
Fig. 2). No part of a wall during its construction should rise more than 900 mm
above another if unequal settlement is to be avoided.
Toothing.-Each alternate course at the end of a wall projects in order to
provide adequate bond if the wall is continued horizontally at a later date (see
u, Fig. 2).
When a new Willi has to be conn«<:ted to ~nexistinlf wall and "'here such provision
has not bolen made. II is necetlsary to form a sinkinlj: or indrnl in each ;lltt:rnate course
of the existing Willi 50 that th!: new \\ork may be prop!:rly tied inlo II; the depth
of th!: indents should be such as to allow the new work to be bonded into the old for
at I!:ast .,6 mm and the width should be "'lual to the thickn!:$S of the n!:w wall.
Sometimes the indents are fonn!:d thr!:e Or fuur courses high with a s,milar dislanCe
betw~n each.
Bat.-A portion of an ordinary brick with the cut made across the width of
the brick; four different sizes are shown at E, F, C and H, Fig. 2. Applications
are illustrated in the following: Half Bat (£) at F, Fig. 4; Thut.quarter Bat
(F) at K, Fig. 3; BnMlled Bats (0) at N, Fig. 8, and (H) at E, Fig. 8.
Closer.-A portion of an ordinary brick with the cut made longitudinally and
usually having one uncut stretcher face; seven forms are shown at J, K, I., N,
0, P and v, Fig. z. The Quem Closn (1) is usually placed next to the first brick
in a header course (see j, Fig. 3); sometimes the abbreviated queen closer v
is used (see K, Fig. 3); the queen closer K is obtained by cutting an ordinary
brick into two half bats nnd then splitting one into half; K is more often used
than J as it is easier to cut, although (as shown at L, Fig. 3) it generally produces
a 56 mm wide continuous vertical joint. The King Cluser (L), formed by re-
moving a corner and leaving half·header and half-stretcher faces, is shown
bonded at D, Fig. 8. The Btf}tll~d Closn (N) has one stretcher face bevelled
(splayed or slanted) and is shown at E, Fig. 8. Mjtr~d CkJurl (0 and p) are
only used in exceptional cases as when the ends are required to be mitred (joined
at an angle), i.e., quoins of certain bay windows.
TIle remaining bricks Q, R, sand T shown in Fig. z are usually moulded
specially to the required shape and are called specials or purpose-mades, although
for common work or where the hrickwork is to be covered with plaster, ordinary
bricks may he cut by a trowel or chisel to form all but the last of these.
Bullnofe (Q).-Thesc are used for copings (see D, Fig. 17) or in such
positions where rounded corners are preferred to sharp arrises (see Q, Fig. 7);
a brick with only one rounded edge is known as a Singlt Bullnose and one with
both edges rounded is termed a DO!Jblt Bullnose; the radius of the quadrant
curve varies from 28 to 56 mm.
Splay (R and s).- These are often used to form plinths (see P, Fig. 17); the
amount of splay varies.
Dogltg or Anglt (T).- These bric~s arc used to ensure a satisfactory bond
at quoins which depart from a right angle and are to be preferred to the mitred
closers 0 and 1'; the angle and lengths of faces forming the dogleg vary.
The abo,"e purpok-mRde bricks He ontya few of mRny wh'ch can now be obtllined.
Most of th!: larger brick.manufacturing firm$ make" standard spe<:ials " which ar!:
kepI in stock. Wherever p()ssiblc. a ,election should be mad!: from these. Q$ purpasc-
made! which differ from tl>f:' standard arc most costly on account of the moulds which
ha\·t to be made specially and ddi\'~ry mo}' be delayed.
Types of Bond.- There are many varieties of bond, and in a First Year
Course it is usual to confine the instruction t,=, Heading, Stretching, English
and Flemish bonds. It is sometimes considered advisable to postpone the
study of Flemish bond until the following year. In cavity· wall construction
(see p. 13) it is most usual to have stretching bond, but as this is somewhat
monotonous, English garden wall bond can be used. This comprises a row
of half·bricks to every three rows of stretchers (see A., Fig. 18, Vol. II).
The thickness of a wall is either expressed in millimetres or in terms of the
length of the brick, thus: 102'5 mm or i·brick, 215 mm or t·brick, 327'5 mm
(often specified 328 mm) or I !.brick, 440 mm or 2·brick, etc. 1
A bond is usually identified by the appearance of the external face of the
wall, and it is this face appearance which is referred to in the following description
of bonds. Thus the expression .. alternate courses of headers" refers to the
arrangement of the bricks on the face, even if the headers in each course are
backed by stretchers.
Kote that th!: join" in most of Ihe details are indicated by single linn, the
thiekness not being: shown. Stud!:nlS ar!: not Tf:'COmmend!:d to ~how the joint.i .br
double lines for unless thev ar!: "!:T'I' accuratdv drawn, accumulatIVe urors are Ilkelv
to OCXUf rcs~lting in the hOOd beinjl StlO" n ttlcOrrectly. I.)rawing is furth~r facililat!:d
,f. ~s shown ttl the examplu, the d,menslons 01 a bnck :lfe 1I$5umf:'d to b!: :us mm by
I U ' ~ mm by 7S mm.
Heading Hond.-Each course of a wall consists of headers only. It is used
chiefly in the construction of footings (see Fig. 10) and walls which are sharply
curved, where the long faces of stretchers would unduly break the line of the
cun·e.
, Large mod!:m buildin,. ar!: usually of s teel-framed or reinforc.ed concrete cop-
struction which provide for the support of heavy loads by the use of e.llher Iteelwork or
reinforced cancret!:. and therefore wall, which !:xc!:!:d l bricks in thickness are T:\rely
requirm.
 5
TlU USUAL "'.(11.
$llU AAt :
LlNGT" 215",,,,. W,DTH IOl·5_,Dl'TIt 65_
6 c K s MOST OF lion a!II,leKS '" TItUE '001<.$ AA.i 0""""'''
IN Tltf 'OI.MAT 225-11,·,.,5 O,.fUCTlONS TN£U.OF
oTttU. SllU ".,-r, 215_102_''''50; 1901<,0 .. 50 (66511 TO ""now fO," 10 . . JOIHT TJHCKHUS. lIoNS IS USI.l.4l
2'90" ,0 .90 (I. 65); 1,0 .. 90ot90 it. 6S, WHt'" 'O"D'NG IS SHOWN n .SIHCilf LINES ONLY.

I
<.
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TH~H-QUA~TE~ BAT

VIEW Of $Ii.ICKS "8-6 "C.

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SIotOWING HO""IHAl SlllO '''leKS IN ACCOA.OAItCf WITH a.s.3921
U SPLAY SHETCHEfI.. SP LAY-IHAOEft OOGlEG

1:..0 • •
FICURE 2
 6

KEY P LAN
ENGLISH BOND
at. 328 E W S Q U A ~ E
102 C*.2 1S S T 0 P P E D END S
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~H(j AT THe SlO"W El40 Of A WoUJ. . nm HAVl I\lDUQD THt NUO FOp., WAU1 !XCUDlHCi T'NO
COHSTNJClIOH COULD II NrlJEO TO THt »oMI MKI!.S IN THICKHm. CAVITY W.\Ul W tl1EHSIVllV
Of' THi ~WAY Oo'lHIH(; ~ - Iff MV ~ uno IN lIlU 01' loOUO U1UH.... IUoW
\
BONDING
Stretching Bond.-Each course consists of stretchers with exception of a
half hat which mUS1: be placed at the stopped end of a wall at each alternate
course so that the work will break joint. Note that at H, Fig. 3, the break joint
i$ formed by the first or quoin stretcher appearing as a header on the return facc,l
This bond is suitable for 102'5 mm thick walls, such as are required for cavity
walls, chimney stacks, sleeper walls and division walls.
English Bond.- T his consists of alternate courses of headers and stretchers
(sec Fig. 3). Observe: (I) in each heading course a quem closer is placed llext
to the quoin header2 and the remaining bricks are headers, ( 2) every alternate
header in a course comes centra!1y over the joint between two stretchers in the
course below, gi\'ing a lap of 56 mm, and (3) there are no continuous vertical
joints, excepting at certain stopped cnds and particularly where queen closers of
the form K (Fig. 2) and not] are used . It is this comparative lack of straight
joints which gives to English bond its characteristic strength .
Square Stopped Ends. - Fig. 3 shows details of stopped ends to a I-brick
wall (J), a I!-brick wall (K), a 2-brick wall (L), a 2!-brick wall (M) and a 3-brick
wall (N) . A key plan of a portion of a building is shown at A, and the treatment
of the stopped end of the doorway opening at c (which is called a square jamb
~see p . 13) would be in accordance with one or other of these details, depending
upon the thickness of the wall.
The external walls of a house ifbuilt of solid brickwork arc usually 328 mOl thick,
and the division walls He either 10Z· 5 or ZI5 mm thick; othCT types of buildings may
han, th icker walls, but, as already explained, walls exceeding Z hricks in thicknes, He
now rarely requlred. IllS nmc general practice to "'" cat."ity ex/en",/ .mll•.
Speci:tl attention should be taken in the construction of stopped ends of
walls as these arc often required to take concentrated loads from lintels, etc.
(see Fig. 12).
The following should be noted :~
{, I. At least every alternate transverse joint is continuous from face to facc;
a I!-brick wall cons:sts of units comprising a strctcher backed with two hcaders,
\
or vice versa (see broken lines at K, Fig. 3); a stretcher course of a 2- brick wall
is formed of units having a stretcher on each face with two headers in the middle
(see L, Fig. 3).
Students al eMminations frcquentlr make the mistake of .he ,,"ing non_contin uous
transverse joints.
2. Walls of an even number of half bricks in thickness present the same
appearance on both faccs, i.e., a course consisting of !\.tretchers un the front
elevation will show stretchers on the back elevation (see], I. and '-', Fig. 3).
3. Walls of an odd number of half bricks in thickness will show each course
consisting of headers on oile face and stretchers on the other (see K and M, Fig. 3).
1 Low division walls which are not required to support loads may be built with the
bricks placed on edge and in stretching bond; the thickness is thus reduced to 65 mm.
, A heading cOUrSe should never commence with a queen doser, for, in this positiun
it wou ld be liable to displacement.
7
4. The middle portion of each of the thicker waUs consists entirely of headers
(see L, M and N, Fig. 3).1
Flemish Bond.~ This comprises alternate headers and stretchers in each
course. There are two kinds of Flemish bond, i.e., (I) Double Flemish and
(:!) Single Flemish.
(I) Double Flemish BOlld (see D, E, F and G, Fig. 4) shows the characteristic
appearance of Flemish on both external and internal faces . As shown at D,
each header comes centra!ly over a stretcher and, unlike English bond, no
header comes over a vertical face joint. It is not so strong as E nglish bond
because of the largc number of short continuous vertical joints (indicated by
thick lines) which occur in the longitudinal joints. Some consider that double
Flemish bond has a more pleasing apiJearance and is more economical than
English bond .
A differen~e of opinion exists abou t the supniority Or otherwise of the appearance
of Flemish bond, some favour the pattern of units of cross formation which appears
on the face- see D. Fig. 4 Where a flush face is required on both sides of a I- hrick
wall this is more readih obtained in Flemish rather than English bond. This is
because the stretcher face of bricks may vary in len gth due to the unequal shrinkage
during the i-urning process; thus the combined length of two headers plus one
joint m:l}' excecd the length of a stretcher. Although this defect will not occur in
well·made bricks, if it does then a I-brick English·bondcd wall could have One face
flush with the other f~ce showing each heading course set back slightly from the
stretching course. This irrcgularity is less pronounced in Flemish bond with Its
alternate headers and stretchers in each courst for the set·back at each short header
is mOre evenl\" distributed ; the resu lting appearance is considered to improve the
surface texture or character of the work.
Square Stopped Ends.~On reference to the elevation 0 and the plans E, F
and G, Fig. 4, it will be seen that in every alternative course a queen closer is
placed next to the quoin header so as to provide a lap of approximately 56 mm.
This agrees with the rule for English bond. Attention is drawn !O the units
of which every coursc in each wall is comprised and which are indicated within
the broken diagonal lines. The notes on Fig. +should be carefully studied .
(2) Single Flemish Bond consists of a facing of Flemish bond with a backing
of English bond in each course (see Hand], Fig.. 4). It is adopted where ex-
pensive facing bricks are required to give the characteristic appeararH.:e of Flemish
bond and where comparatively cheaper bricks are used as a backing. This
bond cannot be applied to walls which are less than Ii-brick thick . It is
relatively weak, as can be seen on reference to II and J , which show 225 mm long
continuous vertical joints appearing in the longitudinal joints. Note that half
bat!; are used which arc known as snap headers or false headers. An alternative
arrangement of bricks in the 2-brick wall at J is shown at K (where the snap-
header anJ full-header backing are substituted by two three-quarter bats);
\ A scale of 1:10 is generally used "hen detailinl'( brick bonding; students are re-
commended to commence with the he"ding course followed by the stretching course
immediately belo" it; a tracing of the latter COUrse trunsposed over the heading courSe
will emphasize the fact that there are no continuous vertical joints (see L, Fig. 3).
8

FLEMISH BOND
SQUARE STOPPE o END S
DOUSLE FLEMISH SINGLE FLEMISH
o
i'I++PH H •HU ,
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E ' l AN o F cou~s .~
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F J. 0 N T ELEVA.TION PLAN OF COU,",SE "P:'

z
SECTIONS SHOWING COMPAAATIVE
STt.ENGTH OF ENCiUSH BOND.ANO
WEAKNESS Of SINGLE FLEMISH 80Ntl
F ENGLISH

rr l - _ , . . : · . ~ : . . : ~ : . : . i ~ T . _ ! " : . ~ : " ' ~ F

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STUTCHEM IN lACH COJl.St ON 10TH AAoCU.
IN S!NGLE flE,wSH BOWD, AlTEIWAU HEADEM t.
AlTfJ."AT1VE 80NO ING
PLAN O~ COUaSE "P' ~ Sll!lCHHS IN fACH COUASE ON ONE fACE TO (OU~SE .,t,.. AT 'J'
:: ONLV WITH A ~NC; IN fHGUSH JOHn
.l. QlJUN aosu. ALWAYS ADJOIp..!S TNt QUOIN
HO'II lIOUCTIOM IN .101101 OJ C~ll"UOUS VUJI(.Al JOIJoO'I

HEADt"-
4 EN:" HEADfJ.rs C(NTMLlY CNE"'" STJUTCH!" .
.5 CONTINlXllI1 VU.TICAL JOINTS lHOWN IV THlCl
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6. K)AAV,.TIOH a: UNITS "nHIN POI(fH a.w.oHAL
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1 vtJ.TKAl. ",~lHDS.

PLAN OF PLAN OF COUI\.~E .".

".. AIO¥I AN ALlIQlAlIYJ: DfTAIU ~ lWlsrorno IIICI

OJ 'M IlOOOIQ' oPtMl*, "C'AT ""~FICi..1.

FIGURE 4
 9

RIGHT ANGLED JUNCTIONS

~
ENGLl5f+ BONDED EXT ERNAL l.INTEItNAL WALL5 DOUBLE FLEMI5f+ BONDED
EXTER.NAL WALL5 e. ENGLISH
I!>ONDED INTERNAL WALLS
A
I F
........... ""'-'- f--,..-'--I
r:r.EMISK toND

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(~E 'u."G.5)
COURSE "P"
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T EE .JU NCTION e.n WUN V'l8 6 JS WALLS

o COUIl.l£ 'P
(MAT'l1. F ! ;';. ~ At,
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TEE. JUNCTION &f.TWIiEN Il!- l.. PhS WAL~

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T ~E JUNCTION &liTW£EN 18
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ONIIOND£D.
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TEE ,JUNCTION UTW£EN
u.s .AoTUFIG. 5
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za WM..L5 ell-os, JUNCTION &li'tWUN 'r l/26 G 26 W.A.L..1..S
(M "'T~ FIG 5 Ao)

FIC URE 5
10
this results in a reduction in the length of the continuous vertical joints with a
corresponding increase in strength, but an increase in cost due to the lahour
and wastage of bricks involved in the cutting of the three-quarter bats. This
alternative bond may also be substituted for the corresponding course of the
Ii-brick wall (H).
The comparative weakness of single Flemish bond is illustrated at
which shows a perfectly bonded 44c mm wall built in English buml and
adequately. bonded wall of the same thickness built in single Flemish bond;
the continuous vertical joint shown by a thick line in the section through the
latter waH is 225 mm wide, as shown in the plan at J, Fig. 4.
JUNCTIONS AND QUOINS
The key plan at A, Fig. 3, sho,",ll several connections between walls. One
type of connection is termed a junction (D, E, U, \V and x) and another form is
known as a quoin (F and Y).
Junctions.- These are classified into right-angled junctions and squint
junctions. l There are two forms of right-angled junctions, i.e., (a) tee-junctioqs
and (b) cross-junctions or intersections.
(a) l'ce-junctions.-A tee-junction is a connedion between two walls which
on plan is in the form of the letter T (see n, u, wand x in the key plan).
Plans of tee-junctions between walls built in English bond are sllOwn at
A, Band c, Fig. 5. At A one of the wurses of the 102'5 mm internal division wall
enters the stretching course oftht-215 mm external wall, giving a ! 12 mm lap,
and the alternate course of the division wall butts against the heading course of
the main wall. ::"-Iote the following in connection with details Hand c: (1) the
heading course of the internal \\'al1 is bonded into the stretching course of the
main wal1, the first header or tie brick (shown shaded) giving a 56 mm lap and
being adjacent to a queen closer; (2) the stretching course of the cross waU
butts against the heading course of the external wall. The tic bricks are also
shown in the section at K, Fig. 5.
Plans of junctions between external walls built in double Flemish bond and
English bonded division walls arc shown at F and G, Fig. 5. As in the above
examples, the key header has a lap of 56 mm.
(b) Cross-junclions or Intersections. - A cross-junction is an intersection between
two continuous walls (see E in the key plan at A, Fig. 3). Details are given at
nand E, Fig. 5; the walls arc shown in English bond, it being assumed that
they are to be plastered. i\ote: (I) one of the courses is continuous and the
course at right angles butts against it; (2) these continuous courses alternate;
and (3) a key header forms a 56 mm lap at each side of the non-continuous
course.
Thc aboye ~r~ only ~ few examples of s('vcrHI m~tl)ods of bonding l!t junctions.
The arrangement of the bricks depends largc!y upon: the relative position of the
w~lIs . \ ' ariations of these exampks "ill be ne£ess~ry \,hen d comilluoos trnllSVl'rse
1 Squint junctions are detailed in Chap. i., Vol: I I.
BRICK WALLS
joint in the JT\"din wall docs not eoine;G" with a face of the entering course of the
adjacent wall. The essenti,1I requirem~nts arc the avoidance of continuous vertical
joints with the employment of the mini,,-,um number of cut bricks.
Quoins or External Angles.-There are two forms of quoi'ns, i.e., right-
angled or square quoins and squint quoins. I As is implied, a right-angled
L, Fig. 4, quoin is formed by two walls which meet at 90°. Example~ of right-angled
all in- quoin:; arc shown al ~- dllll Y, Fig. J.
Square QIIOillS in English BOlld.-Plans of alternate cOllfses of right-angled
quoins formed by walls built in English bond arc shown detailed at A, Band c,
Fig. 6. The following should he noted :--.
l. At the same level, the heading course on one face of the angle is returned
by a stretching eOllTSC; tlHls at ,\ the heaqing course I' is returned by a stretching
course similar to 1'1.
2. There arc no continuous vertical joints.
3. When the wall is an N'CII numher of half-bricks in thickness the brick
figured 3 is a header projecting 56 mm (oee ,\ and c, Fig. 6).
4. When the wall is ~ln odd ;lumber of half-bricks thick, the brick figured 3
is a siretcher projecting 56 mm (sec B. Fig. 6).
5· At the 56 mm projection (or quarter hond) of number 3 brick the
trans\t~rse joint is continuous (sec ,\1 at B, Fig. 6).
6. r n the 1 and 2-brick quoins the heading course of one w~l1 is continuous
to the front of the return face and that in the 1 ~-brick quoin is continuous to
the back of the stretching LICe; the return stretching course in each case butts
against the heading course.
When dn", i"g thl'SC dc·t;oih (u~u.llly to a scale ! '0) th., studcnt should SCI
nut th~ outline or 1)'" quuin and. UHnmc'!!Ung ""th tIle' headin" "ourse. fill in the
thrce bricks !!uml)<'rt,d !,~. and, fo]lo','l'll by thl' Tl'rn"inl!!" bnl'ks; ,f numoer J
briek " pL1<'~u in corrcct po~'t'()'; "c"ordill c In <·ill",c ( 3) or (4) "h""<: ,,,,<1 if (3 ) i~
c'omplied "i1h. htlle ulflicu]t\, \\'ill be c'~p"ricnced in completing ""ch cou rse. as Ih.'
detmls are in ;I«o.-dMK'e "ilh those "I' I';ng]"h bond shown 11l Fig_ J.
::iquar(' Quoills ill DUI/blt' Flemish BUlI<i. -- ilct;lils of these are shown at I),
F and F, Fig. ll. ;'\otc:
I. In the 1 and ! ~ · brick quoins the continuous course is that which contains
the queen closer; also the but! courses are similar to E and F, Fig. 4, commencing
with unils which are similar to those sho\\n within the brokcnlines in Fig. 4.
2. Number 3 brick in the! and t 1-brick qlloi!l~ is a strelchcr which projects
16R mm, and in the 2-hrick quoin it is .1 header which projects 56 mm as in
the English bonded 2·brick quoin.
3. The half bat at the internal angle of the 2-hriek quoin is necessary to
avoid a long continuuus yertical joint and to form the continuous transverse
joint which bounds the characteristic 6-brick unit enclosed within the broken
lines.
, S'lomt qUOlllS arc usu~J1y dcah with in til<' ,ecolld n'ar of the Course ~nd they are
1h.,refore de1m ].,d m Chap. I, Vol. II.
 "
R.IGHT ANGLE.D QUOINS
ENGL I SH SONO o0 UB L E FLEMISH BON 0
-ZlS- r-2 15j .

-
A D
-
I
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I 11 11 ~~3~=d~~=+==~~~~~~=t~~===r~~ir~
COURSE
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PLANS OF A ONE ell-Ie .... QUOIN

I-.m
, -l

-
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r- t.
NOTES ON ENGLISH BONDED QUOINS
Hf.AOING COURSE ON ONE fJoCE Of GUOIN FOItMS
THE £fGINNING OF THE STltETCHINCi COUItSE ON
THE J.ETU~ FACE - Sf[ 'A~ 'C' t.. 'G~
-T
p=r-
-
B r-- :l. WHEN WALL IS AN EVEN NUM6f;II.Qf IW.F B~
THIO.., &Na '3' IS A HEADE~ - SU 'A" 'C. f,'(j!
3. WHEN WALL IS AN ODD NUMIIEII.OF HALf fWClIS THICK,
&AA:K ';Y IS A STRETCHER - SEE '8~
IbS ~,
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PLANS OF /It. ONE (. A HALF BRICK. QUOIN PLANS OF A ONE b A HALF Pd,ICi~ QUOIN

- 4 4 0----l
l' .....::..::::!:
NOTES ON FLEMISH 50NDED QUOINS
l. IN T11E I L II'J &RICK QUOjN1, MCH OF THE CONTI,,"'- I
0ClUS COURSE5 CONTAINS A QU£EN C!OSflt. l> 15
- c AS D£TAllED AT 'f' & 'P, FIG.4 SUTT COUo\SES
CQMIII..ENC£ WITH UNITS SIMILAA TO THOSE SHOWN
&Y &WKEW LINES IN ~IG4 lxf
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ITISAHEADEJl..t.PJI..OJECTS 56. " /
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"": "" £''C'' AN. .....nllWrlTIVf OUA,lU "[):'''f' to"f" AAt I<LlElVI,II,Tl\ll DEl."U.5
Of: THf ouou.I Of' SHOWN "T ",t( fiG, ~ Of: THE QUOIN rr SHOI¥N "'1 ""~ Fie. 3

FIGIiRE 6
12 BRICK WALLS
Piers (also known as pillars or columns) of brickwork are adopted either to
support concentrated loads such as are transmitted by arches, floor beams and P I E R S
roofs, or to strengthen walls. Such piers may be isolated (or detached) or they
may be attached to walls. ALTERNATE DETAILS OF DETACHED PI EiI. "C"
E N G L S H DO U 8 LE FLEMISH ,
Detached Pjers.- Such may be either square, rectangular, circular or
polygonal on plan. A plan of a portion of a building in which piers are employed
is shown at A, Fig. 7, and a detached pier is shown at c. Such a building may
r--
0 N 0 • 80»0
S T ONE
, "'(H'"-.
~TON i
PAOS_
be an arcade or loggia, or it may be considered as a portion of a factory, I--
although modern buildings of the latter type usually have pillars of mild steel
or reinforced concrete._ Maximum strength is obtained if pillars are constructed D~ E F G
,
H
with sound dense bricks built in English bond and in cement mortar.
English Bonded Detached Piers (see plans J, K and L and the corresponding
elevations D, E and F, Fig. 7).- It is only necessary to show one course of each
E; E LEV A T ION S ELEV.Jt.T ION S
pier, as in every case the arrangement of the bricks in each course is the same.
'"
Thus the 215 mm pier has eve ry alternate course constructed as shown at J with
similar intennediate courses at right angles isee elevation D); the 328 mm pin has
alternate courses as shown at K with similar adjacent COUTS"s, havinjl; the stretcher
face of two three-quarter bats at the front over the three headers (see E); eaeh course
in the 440 mm pie r is as shown at L, but every alternate course is turned to the side JDJ K~
ffIJ n ...
LHOE j [ -
M
ffiJN
(see elevation F).

The only continuous vertical joints are those shown by thick lines at K. A
ISR.I'/\.
p
IYz BR.leK.
L A N ,
2 BII.I(/<..
P
2 BItIC/\.
l A
l\Iz 6J1..JeK.
N s
stone pad or template as shown in each elevation is usually provided at the top
of a pier to ensure a firm bed for a beam or roof truss and to distribute the load
Al TEil.NATE PLANS OF ATTACHED PIE f'.. "S"
effectively. Detached pillars to which gates are hung are often finished with
a coping as illustrated in Fig. 17.
E N G L I S H DOUBLE FLEMISH
Doub/e Fkmuh Bonded Detached Pias (~e G, H, M and N, Fig. 7).-In the
8 a N 0 80ND
}1J 5
It-brick pier (which is the smallest that ca!l be constructed in this bond) con- "' '" I ~j2-S
tinuous vertical joints are produced, as indicated by thick black lines at N;
r I ~(l15
I I 1~l5
owing to the small size of this pier the true face appearance of Flemish hand is
not presented in the elevation at H (as the headers are not centrally over the
stretchers), but the pier is nevertheless considered to he in Flemish bond as in
0
I
I

I I I
!

U Ll rP
1r6~
each course there is a header adjacent to a stretcher. The short continuous
vertical joints shown in the plan M of the 2-hrick pier can be avoided if bevelled
closers (see broken lines) are used as an alternative.
Piers may be formed with rounded arrises by using bullnose bricks; thus
ljI I ITII I II
I,- - ~~'" ~q'l
double bullnose bricks (see Q , Fig. 2) may be used in the construction of pier J
and single bullnose bricks for the remaining piers.
Attached Piers or Pilasters.- Such arc shown at H in the key plan at A, ,---
!2H

~
rT
Fig. 7, and some alternative details are gi\-en at 0 to S inclusive . The stability
of walls is increased by the use of these piers at int~als, and like those of the
detached type they may be used as supports for concentrated loads. I I I' E Y P LA N
l
Examples in English bond are shown at 0, P and Q. Rounded arrises may
p '~"~~~~~~~ ~ ~~'·~~1
" Ci '!: 1
be obtained by using bullnose bricks (see Q). The width of a pier is usually a
I r'"
j I I!I I I Ij 1::
I :OHAC fl EO: ~
: : PIE!t5 ::&EAMj.UH :
5
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II
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II': B-.J.:",/'PIH..S~ .:"

FIGURE 7 ( * ,ihiG@.",, 't.,., - "" , .
~("Cf
-- • " ... u A FIGURE 1
 CAVITY WALLS
multiple of 112 mm and the projection may be either 112 mm (as at 0 and 1'),
225 mm (as at Q) or upwards.
The piers and adjacent walling shown at II. and,; UTC in double Flemish hond;
the 112 mm projection may be increased as rC(.juiTed.
A gate pier of the attached type is shown at A, Fig. 17.
Buttresses are piers which are provided to resist thrusts from roof trusses
or to strengthen boundary walls, etc. Examples of buttress eappings arc illus-
trated in Fig. II.
The brick and concrete foundations for piers <lre referred to on p. 17.
JAM B S
Jambs are the \'crtical sides of openings which aTC formed in walls to rcccl\"C
doors, windows, fireplaces, etc. There arc three forms of jambs, r.t'., (a) square
or plain, (b) rebated or recessed and (c) rebaled and splayed. 1
(a) Square Jambs.-Examples of s4uare jambs are shown in Figs. 42, H, 4Q,
'50, 5z, 54, 56 and 57 in connection with door and window openings. Thc
stopped end details in Figs. 3 and 4 show the construction of the brickwork.
..\ frequ~'m c~us" of d.Ullpnl·ss III huddings IS due to door und "indo" fr"'""~
being fiX<'d in op"nings "Ilh 'qu.,,',· j.unbs on ,"eeount of the' pointing h,·com,,}).!
defect;\,c ,"od allO'\1ng "ind ,,"d r"in I.. ,·nteL
(b) Rebated Jambs (see Fig. R). The"" details are shown in both English and
double Flemish bond. The plam and ~ketch c show that a rebated jamb con-
sists of (I) an outer revral or face, (z) a rece~s and (3) an inner rcveal.~ Window
and external door openings are best provided with rebated jambs for the reasons
stated below, and applications of these are illustrated in Figs. 43, iX, 55 and 60.
As is implied, the outer reveal is that portion of the jamh "hich is seen
from the outside; it may be 102 mm (see D, M, C, etc., Fig. 8), or it may be
215 mm wide (see Q and R). The rccess \'aries in depth from 56 mlll or les~­
suitable for external doors (see Fig. 48) and casement windows (sec Fig. ::;:;) w
10Z mm-suitable for windows of the boxcd frame type illustrated in Fig: 51'(
A 56 mm recess is shown-at I) and that at K is lIZ mm deep.
The object of the recess will be appreciated on reference to P, Fig. 8, \,hich
indicates by broken lines the relative position of a window frame; the protC<.:lilJll
afforded by the outer "nib" of brickwork assists effectively in pren~ntil1i! thl'
access of rain into a building betwccn the frame and adjoining brickwork; tiK'
bedding and pointing of the frame (see p. 84) affords additional protection.
Rebated jambs having 102 mm outer reveals and 56 mm recesses in I, I~
and 2~brick walls built in English bond are detailed at D, E and F, Fig. 8; thcse aTe
plans of the alternate courses T and u shown at A. The corresponding courses
in double Flemish bond are shown a Ie, Hand J. Jambs with liZ mm recesses
are shown in English bond at K, Land M, and in double Flemish bond at N, 0
and p, Examples of rebated jambs in both English and Flemish bonds having
• Reb.ted and aplayed jambs are detailed in Chap. I, Vol. II,
I Sometimes frames are lUed in r~Tle rebated jamb. (~ D, Fig. 57).
'3
ZI5 mm outcr reveals and 56 mm recesses are detailed at Q, and with liZ mm
recesses at R. These details may he associated with the window z shown at A,
Fig. 3, and which is shown in the alternati\'c cle\'ations A and B, Fig. S; the former
indicates 65 mto thick bricks built in English hond and R shows 50 mm thick
hricks huilt in Flemish hondo
EXCl'ptlOJ{ at Q ,md M, the jmnts "f Ih.· hnck,,,,,k "oo\'e and bclm, the \\H')do"
opening <1r~ ;ndic"ted by broken l111e,. Cnns,de'ratlnn shnukl be' ,l!i\'cn to tht' .11.e of
th.· bricks to be u .• ed ,,,,d the lk~i"'d th,t:kn,·ss nf jOints" hen dccidiog upon lhe
~i~cs of door and" indo" OpClll11l:', Th,' widd, of ~n op~l1;ng ~hould be a multiple
,,( , brick for EnJ{I,sh bund '11Id fur d"uhle FI"mish bond (h" "idth should be "
multipl" <If 1 brick up w ,+-40 mm thick "nil ,1 multipll' "f 1I brick uftcrwards, In hrdcr
10 m'lim:l,n ,crt;e,,] p"q""nds and the onrm;ll f,,"'~ "pp,'''nm~e of the bond uhf,"e ,md
lido" lh" "pl'ning, Thus. for En~h"h bood the si~" of th,' open111j,t m~,· be 11 S mm,
4.'10 111m, ('''5 mm, t:I()O mm, etc .. plus thl' comniol'<i thickoe~s of th,' 'crtical joints ;
fur ,n,ck ""lis built 10 d"ubk Fknllsh bond the "idth m"," b" ".10 mm, 7 .. 8 111m
1075 n"l1. etc .. plus H'u,cul joint,; it t·..,11 II,· "otC<.i th;.t in F,)!. S the ,,-idth of the
"Indo" "iX·nin).! ,~ (1 )(2"i Illm) + (",)< , 0 mm)= Mil; nllll fur Enlo:hsh hond and
(2X2,:; m11l)+(JX102',~ 11lm)+(Oxl0 Illm)"'-'7')!! mill for Fknllsh hondo Th~
filo:uTl·d dil11<'l1S;"nS "n ""rking dTimings sh<luld indude th,' th,dncss of th l' joints,
"lthough th,' th",kn",s has nol h",'l1 <ira"n III th,' "",'n "~amr>ll'S III or"krw f~c,h,a'"
d ..... uJ{htm~n~h,p. Th" h"i)!hl 'If np,'n;n,1..'" 111U~t c"nf"ml ",th thl' hrick cour~eS ,f an
"l1satisfact')~· ~ppcaTlln,,~ ;~ to he a'-oid~d (sec p_ :w)
A careful l\tuuy of the uetaili> shows that either king, qUe"n or bevelled
doscrs or half, three-quarter or he\'elled bati> are employed in order to prC\ent
continuous \'ertical joints and to ohtain the correct face appcar;H\ce; notc that
any half bats and header qucen doscrs arc placed on the inner fac" at least 10Z
mm from thc sides of the opening~ in order to prerent their displacement and to
pro\'idc a strong suppOrt for the t'nds of th" lintels (dct~iled in Fig. IZ).
BRICK CAVITY WALLS'
Thc hollow or ca\ity wall is now thc mOl\t usual one for domel\tic huildings.
The simplest form is 275 mm thick having two loz'5 mm thick It';l\e~ nfbrick-
work l\cparated hy a 70 mm ca\'ity hut connected at inteT\·al~ hv wall tie~, In
comparison with a ZI5 mm thick wall which use" the ~ame amou;\1 of bricks as a
275 mm cavity ""all, the latter atfords better protection tv rain penctration to the
in~ide of the huilding and gre:lII:r resi~tant.:c 10 heat los~cs from the room. In
ordcr to exclude dampncl\s, the minimum thickn~ss of II ~olid wall is 3z8 mm,2
hence the 275 mm cavity wall is more' economical. The pre\'ention of dampness,
impro\'ed insulation and economy of the cavity wan arc substantial advantages.
It is not usual to ventilate the cayity as this seriously atf~cts the insulation
1 Some te~cher~ prd"r 10 le3,-e lh,s unlrl the ~fi:ond rur of the COUTSe. Th,' ~ubj"ct
1~ Introducrd herc and i~ consu.len:d In I:re~tcr det,,,1 in Chap. I, Vol. II. &" also p, ",.
I Thnc h,l\'~ been. of cour,e. muny thousands of housu erected In the p~st ,.ith
external w"lls only 2'5 mm thIck. WIll 1st much depends on the pennewbihlY of lhc bricks
3nd the ~"undneiS of the mortar. ~uch walls on exposed .;It'~ 31.' 'n,'uiubh' damp mtern_
311y, In sheltered place. in towns the :us mm Will. in many cues, has bUn salisf~ctory;
prob"bly in an equal number of cgUS dump patches h."e de\'eloped.
 "
ENGLlSf-+ BOND R.EBATED .JAMBS DOUBLE rLEMISI-+ BOND
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FIGURE 8
 FOUNDATIONS 'S
settlement i~ the usual cause of cracks and similar def«:ts occu".;ng in walls,
of the wall, slight ventilation is provided at the drainage gaps left in certain floors, etc.
The size and typ e of foundation depend upon the character of the subsoil and
vertical joints as described below. the \.',.ei~ht which is transmitted to il .. The bearinj:( capacity of a soil means thc
The ties used to strengthen and aid the stability of the wall are of several maxImum load per umt of area (usually In tenns of kilonewtonsJsq. metre) which the
kinds, the simplest being made of galvanized wire shaped as a figure of eight. ground Will support without tlisplacement. As the nature of the soil varies con-
They are put in the bed joints to span the cavity. 450 mm apart vertically, siderably it follows that the capacit)' of the soil to support loads is also variable.
900 mm apart horizontally and staggered (Fig. 13. Vol. II). At the jambs of
openings the vcrtical spacing of the ties is reduced to 300 mm. It is important
to keep the cavity free of mortar droppings which would collect on the ties and
make a bridge for dampness to the inner leaf. T he bottom of the cavity can
be cleaned out if temporary gaps arc left at the hase of the wall .
Where the cavity is bridged as at lintels, sills and at the jambs of openings,
a d.p.c. must be provided. These are shown in Fig. 55· The lintel detail at
B shows the felt or lead d .p.c. tucked into the inner leaf and extending down-
wards to the outside; it is desirable to leave a few of the vertical joints open
in the first outer course on the lintel so that water can drain from the cavity.
(Similar gaps should also be provided at the base of the wall below the d.p.c.).
The dt'"tail at E shows the d.p.c. nailed to a groove in the timber sill and passing
to the outside of the walL The rebated jamb plan detail at D also has a d.p.c.
which is taken up the full height of the window.
The top of a cavit~ wall is preferably bridged with one or more courses of
21
5 mm bricks to increase stability and to enable the roof load to be shared
between both leaves (see E, Fig. 39 and G, Fig. 71). The base of the wall is
normally constructed as at A, Fig. 10; this has one weakness on damp sites where
a timber joisted ground floor is used, water may penetrate the two leaves and
spread over the site concrete. This action is eliminated if the cavity at the base of
the wall is filled with fine concrete to a distance 150 mm below the d.p.c. (see 0,
Fig. to).
FOUNDATIONS
t n its widest sense the term foundations may be defined as an expanded
base of a wall or pier in addition to the ground or subsoil which supports it.
The ground which receives the buitding is known as a natural foundation, and
the extended bases which are constructed of concrete or masonry are called
artificial foundations.
An artificial foundation may consist of: (I) a concrete bed only (see A, B SKETCH SHOWING
and D, Fig. 10), or (2) one or more courses of stone-work (see section DD at B, FOUNDATION FOI!. A
Fig. 20) which are wider than the wall or pier they support and which are called ONE ~ " ~AlF el'JCK WML
footings or (3) a concrete bed together with footings (see c, Fig. 10). Type
(I) is the most common, being known as a strip f(JUmktion.
The object of a foundation is to distribute the weight to be carried over a FIGURE 9
sufficient area of bearing surface so as to prevent the subsoil from spreading This difference in the bearing capacity of soils may be experienced on a single
building site, as frequently its character is not exactly the same throughout. Hence
and to avoid unequal settlement of the structure. it is not always possible to adopt a unifonn sitt of foundation for the whole building,
Whilst slight settlement or subsidence of a building may, in some cases, be even if the walls and piers may support equal loads.
unavoidable, it is essential that any such subsidence shall be unifonn. Unequal
 ,6 FOUNDATIONS
The design of foundations to support heavy loads is beyond the scope of
this volume and the following are typical details only. The requirements of F 0 U N 0 A T I 0 N 5
many local authorities in respect to foundations (cspeciaHy for small buildings r L · IT'-T r~ 440,,", PI!"
which transmit relatively light loads) have been modified considerably within
recent years. Briefly, the following arc the requirements of the Building
EXAMPltl 'A"-"D" FO"
IWO-STOfUY t+OUHS
fC! (p...
-
, ;.0 WUA{!
• - CON(MH.
" lr"MAllle
f1OO.. M "-
1
." "l." IPG 1
J
,
fr -
W..jf!..E WAll
Regulations : ~ '"'
LOAD DOES NOTf
• 0_
150IlA(O':e>!-[
,, l
The foundation shaH be EXC.HD 30AN I--- M
..
(I) Constructed to sustain the dead and imposed loads and to transmit these
PI.P. LINEAL MHI'.E:.; lOCAVilY

16, ~ ._
.'
,b/IOfISf[1
, I .'.
'.
to the ground in such a way that the pressure on it will not cause settlement which
II '" J', . E ~~ I
...
would impair the stability of the building Of adjoining .~tT1ll"tures A ON
'AND
~ OOH
. . "". ~'
'
"
. ' . ..lSI" ;
I
....
(z) Taken sufficiently deep to guard the building against damage by swelling
or shrinking of the subsoil.
'" Hllf'.MQ PIAlI I( T: l!,
~

"
'"

i§IJ
l~(ON("[1{·~· •
For domestic buildings where strip foundations are used the concrete shall be .>
~>
100, -'
composed of 50 kg of cement I to 0 · 1 mS of fine aggregate and 0·2 mS of coarse
aggregate and the regulations are satisfied if :-
(a) There is no wide variation in the type of subsoil beneath the building and
there is no weaker type of soil below that on which the foundations rest which
would sffect stability. (h) The foundation width is not less than that summarized
B"
" MAO" N!
[X(AVA f ION
ON (O,,o,rA(

\T In ClAI
r
"

IANO
••
I
Q

I ::.
'.

.'
,
'.
"M..O(O~[ I
~ 6~S - - -,
J
-
below and given fully in Tahle II, Vol. IV for different subsoils and loadings,
, I
" w; " 11 0 0 " tOAt. () 1
and in any case not less than the width of the wall. (c) The thickness of the
"- c=
concrete is not less than its projection from the base of the wall or footing and
in no case less than 150 mm. () il.(
-
I "OO~ )0' 1 T
l..(' - 'l- _ - . 1- K
In
f<:':'.lL[(P[~
For a two-stOrey house the wal! load is usually not more than 33 kN/m; the "~WACI

foundation width for different subsoils would then be: Rock, equal to the
0,
- '(Il" J1J

5" . . . O'fH:,~ -:;·i,n {ON<._!.'·

,
wal! width; compact gravel and sand or stiff clay, 300 mm; loose sand, 600 mm m
..'. ~ 117 3

If-
\ 10/ 01 , ~ ,N(H"""""1 w
(as A, Fig. 10); soft clay, 650 mm; very soft clay, 850 mm. .• ' f OOT ' NG
_·JOS· • • P:I-
r---

J
Examples of foundations are given in Fig. 10; they should be at a minimum MH~· T

C AS O>MANO[O
,w .. ..... "w,r
depth, in this country, of 450 mm so as to be unaffected by frost.
The one at A shows a typical strip foundation on loose sand where the
minimum width is 600 mm for a 275 mm wall; this necessitates a 162·5 mm
'A~lHIl. HHAW;I -.- .-.-

- '"
..
., ~f--
I--- L
thick strip to comply with (c) above. :·1
'"
450 mm is about the minimum width of shallow trench that can be exca- :" .<:.\
If-- r---
vated by hand, but where machine excavation (see Chap. I, Vol. IV) is used,
the 305 mm wide type at B is satisfactory in compact sand or stiff day; the who:e
of the trench is filled with concrete.
H ,CI'.WOU.
Il,C ;"OI.lI1l6fOI
"
~ ho\ll 1 I--- HOOl..
1
'"
,
The type at D has to be used on soft clay which is liable to expansion and
IOI.lNO ""((L- &I.I""" I ..
(ONSI/tI.lCf IO '"
A\ A I .,.
f- M
~ ~I("'\ l AJO '"
contraction due to the variation in water content. At a depth of 915 mm this ClM!Nt MO .. TA"

. {ONC"-f ' t
If--
action is normally absent in the U .K.
The one at c illustrates the use of a course of brick footings which were often I--- .:
fILL'NG
. ~

used in earlier days (when cement was not the reliable product it is today) to , I----
[f--
ICI5-'

give a gradual spread of the load. The rule illustrated is a useful one and
D O " IOn
W,o.'N"-,,5l( <l.'IY
.'.
:. ' .
I - - - ~90
'i15
... :.:. ;
-----.,
J ,
I From 1 January 1971 .cement is available in So kg. bags. ' lANIOf fOOIJNG <OU.(H; 'j ": ':':'l·: M'
F IGURE 10
 DAMP PROOF COURSES
consisted of making the concrete foundation twice th~ wall width and of a thick-
ness equal to one and one-third its projection from the footing.
The depth of the foundations varies with the character of the subsoil and
the relative importance of the work. Clay soils arc liable to expand and contract,
and such movement may cause damage to the foundations unless they are placed
at a sufficient depth; if such sites are waterlogged it may be d~irable to adopt
900 mm deep foundations. I t is not necessary to 'exceed 450 mm depth in many
situations; this is the minimum to prevent damage by frost. All brickwork
below the ground level should be built in cement mortar in order to increase
its stability, and engineering bricks are preferred.
The construction of the floor shown by broken lines at c is described on
pp. S8 to 64.
Pier Foundations. - An example of a foundation suitable for a detached pier
(as illustrated in Fig. 7) is shown at E, j, K, Land M, Fig. 10. Whilst footings
may be dispensed with and the foundation designed in accordance with the
Building Regulations, it should be noted that brick footings serve a useful pur-
pose in gradually transmitting the concentrated load from the pier to theconcrete.
Timbering to foundation trenches is described on pp. 79-80.
DAMP PROOF COURSES
One of the chief essentials in building is that the structure shall be dry. A
damp building is unhealthy to those who occupy it, it causes damage to the
contents of the building, and it gradually impairs the parts of the structure
affected. There are various causes of dampness in walls, the chief of -Which
are: (I) moisture rising up the walls from the adjacent ground, (2) rain passing
down from the tops of walls, (3) rain beating against the walls which may absorb
the water to such an extent as to show dampness on the internal faces and (4)
the absorption of water from defective rain-water pipes.
With reference to the fiut cause, the stud~nt of Building Science (a subjeo::t which
nonnally fonns part of a grouped course in Building) WIll ha"e probably studied the
tlructure of Ii porous material such as a brick; he may have carried out tests to
detennine its po~otity (the percentage of its pore spao;e), relative ptrmtablfity (its
capadty to permit the passalle of water throul(h It). and the amount of water that it
wi\! absorb. H e will appreciate that brickwork below the Jlround level will draw the
moisture from the ground and may impan it from one course to another for a COn-
,idenoble height. The amount of moiuurc ~b""rbed depend. upon the water <:ontent
of the soil and the quality of the bricks, mortar and workmanship.
To prevent water absorbed from the soil rising and causing dampness in the
wall and any adjacent woodwork and plaster, a continuous layer of an impervious
material is provided. This layer is known as a horizontal damp proof course
(d.p.c.) The position of such a course varies from ISO to 300 mm above the
ground level (see sections in Fig. 10). The level should not be less than ,somm
otherwise soil (forming flower beds and the like) may be deposited against the
external face of a wall at a greater height than the impervious layer and thus water
may be transmitted from it to the wall above the damp proof course.
'7
Some of the materials used to form horizontal damp proof courses are: -
Asphalt.-The raw material is a chocolate-coloured limestone which is
impregnated with bitumen or natural pitch. It is quarried and imported from
the West Indies (Lake Trinidad), France (Seyssel), Switzerland (Val de Travers)
and Germany. Fine grit in varying proportions is added and completely
incorporated with the asphalt Jlt a vey high temperature, after which it is cast
into blocks (weighing about 25 kg each). These are received on the site, when
they are re-heated and applied in the following manner: Wood battens are
fixed horizontally along both faces of the wall with their top edges usually
13 mm above the top of the course of the wall which i$ to receive the asphalt.
The heated material is placed on the wall between the battens and finished off by
means or hand floats to the top of Lilt: battens. The asphalt is kept slightly back
from the external face of the wall so that it may be pointed with cement mortar
after the wall has been completed; this covers the dark line of the asphalt and
assists in preventing the asphalt from being squeezed out and discolouring the
brickwork, especially if it is subjected to intense action of the sun. Asphalt forms
an excellent damp proof course, it being impervious and indestructible; in
addition it does not fractu re, if, on acCount of unequal settlement, cracks are
caused in the brickwork.
Fibrous Asphalt Felt.- There are many varieties of this damp proof course,
one of which consists of a base of tough hessian (woven jute cloth) or felt which
is impregnated with and covered by a layer of hot natural bitumen, and sanded
on the surface or covered with talc to prevent the layers from adhering to each
other. It is obtained in rolls, 22 m long and in various widths from 102'S 10m to
9IS m:n. In laying it in position, a thin layer of mortar is spread on the brick-
work and the damp proof course is bedded on it. It should be lapped 75 mm
where joints occur and lapped full width at all crossings and angles. It should be
pointed in cement mortar.
This type of damp proof course is extensively used, it being easily handled
and, provided it is adequately impregnated with bitumen and obtained from a
reputable manufacturer, it forms a thoroughly reliable damp-resisting material.
Some of the cheaper varieties are practically worthless; they are comparatively
thin and both the bases and the bitumen are of inferior quality; such should
be avoided. It)s not suitable for certain classes of stone walling. i. t' .• I .~k ...
District Masonry (described on p. 45), as the weight of the ragged undresscd
stones cuts it and produces defects through which moisture may pas~ to cause
dampness.
Slate.r.-Such a damp proof course consists of two layers of sound slates
embedded in cement mortar composed of I : 3 cement and sand. A layer of
mortar is spread over the brickwork, upon which the first layer of slates is bedded
with bUIt joints; more mortar is spread over these slates and the second layer of
slates is laid in position so as to form a half lap bond with the first course of slatcs
(when the slates are said to" break joint "); the next course of brickwork is then
bedded in cement mortar on the top layer of slates. The slates must extend the
18 BRICK WALLS
full thickness of the wall, be at least 215 mm long, and be neatly pointed in cement
mortar. It is a very efficient damp proof course and has been used on important
buildinga.l It is used in connection with Lake District walling and simil~r
construction as it is not damaged by the sharp edges of the rough stones. This
damp proof course i. liable to be broken if unequal settlement occurs, causing
water to be absorbed through the craw. . coarse aggregate (broken brick, stone, etc.), laid on a bedof broken bricks, clinker,
Lead.-This is a costly but very effective damp proof course. It consIsts
of a layer of sheet lead (see Chapter VI) which weighs from 3 to 8 lb. per sq. ft.'
embedded in lime mortar ,I It is either lapped as described for fibrous asphalt
felt or the joints may be welted (see p. 144). The mortar does not adhere to it
readily unless the lead is well scored (scratched). . .
Another variety of this class of damp proof course consists of a contmuous
core of light lead (weighing only 1'22 kg/ml) covered both side1l with bitun:ainous
felt which is surfaced with talc to prevent sticking of the folds. It is made In two
or three grades of varying widths and in rolls which ~re in 8 m I~n~h~. It is
an excellent damp proof course, eapedally for damp Sites, and whilst It IS more
expensive than the above, it is more durable.
CopPt'T.-This is another excellent damp proof course. The copper should
be at least 0'022 mm thick, lapped or jointed as described for lead, and embedded
in lime or cement mortar.
Blue Staffordshire Brnks.-These provide effective damp proof course~, They
are built in two to four courses in cement mortar; the colour of the bncks may
render them unacceptable for general application.
P(astic.-This is a relatively new type of d.p.c. material. It is made of black
polythene, 0'5 or I mm thick in the usual walling widths and roll lengths of 30 m.
The second cause of dampness stated on p. 17 (i.e., rain passing down from
the tops of walls) may be prevented by the provision of a. horizontal damp p~f
course either immediately. below the top course of bnckwork or some httle
distance below it. Thus, in the case of boundary walls, the damp proof course
may be placed immediately under the coping (see Figs. 17 and 27), and parapet
walls may be protected by continuing the cover Bashing (see p. 143) the .rull
thickness of the wall. Similarly, a horizontal d.p.c. should be placed In a
chimney stack at its junction with a roof.
Vertical damp proof courses which are necessarf to exclude dampness in
basement, etc., walls are described in Chap. I, Vol. II.
I Horizontal slate damp proof courses are used in both the Anglican and Roman
Catholic cathedrals 11 Liverpool. In addition, lead and blue Staffordshire briCks are
uted in. connection with the latter building. .... .
I 1.~., 13'5 to 35 ka/m'. Despite the change to metnc uOlu,!ead 1$ $~111 ma.de In these
Imperial weiahts but t pecified as "NO.3 lead, No... lead etc., accordlna to .ts I",penal
weight (aee p. 1"2). . .
I Certain mortars hpecu,l1y cement mortan, act upon lead II.lld ultImately dCltroy ,t;
l uch thould therefor~ not be ute<! a... bedding material for lead damp proof counes.
SURFACE OR SITE CONCRETE
The area of a building below wood floors must be covered with an impervious
material1 in order to exclude dampness. The material used may be concrete or
asphalt. The Building Regulations require a 100 mm layer of concrete consisting
of So kg of cement to not more than 0'1 m~ of fine aggregate (sand) and 0'2 m3 of
etc. The concrete should be well surfaced with the back of the shovel (known as
" spade finished "); its top surface must not be below the level of the ground
outside the wall of the building. Surface concrete Is shown in Fig. 10. Besides
excluding dampness, surface concrete prevents the growth of vegetable matter
and the admission of ground air.
Dwarf 102'5 mm walls, known as sleeper and fmJ~r walls (see Fig. 32), are
sometimes constructed on the surface concrete (see c, Fig 10, and R, Fig. 32) or .'
they may have the usual concrete fO\lndations (see Q, Fig. 32). The site concrete
adjoining the walls may be finished as shown at c, Fig. 10 (this is the best method
if a separate sleeper wall as shown is to be supported), or at ... and a, Fig. 10.
Offsets.-These are narrow horizontal surfaces which have been formed by
reducing the thickness of walls. c, Fig. 10 shows 56'25 mm offsets. Wider
offsets than these may be required to support Boor joists, roof timbers, and the
like. Walls of tall buildings are formed with offsets; thus a 15 m high wall may
be +40 mm thick at the base, 215 mm thick at the top, with an intermediate
thickness of 328 mm, and the 112 nun wide ledges or shelves so fonned are
termed offsets. A broken vertical section through a portion of such a wall is
shown at A, Fig. II. The 112 mm offsets support horizontal wood members
called wall plates which receive the ends of the floor joists (see p. 60).
The plan at B, Fig. II, shows an alternative and cheaper method of sup·
porting wall plates than at A. In the latter the increased thickness of the wall
at the base to form the offset is continuous for the full length of the wall, whereas
at B the wall plate rests upon small piers which are usually not more than 790 mm
apart. Two methods of forming ~hese piers ~re shown at c and o~ the former
being the stronger as it is bonded mto the mam wall and the latter IS not. The
foundation for pier 0 is strengthened if the site concrete is formed to occupy
the space at w.
Corbels.-These are similar to offsets except that the ledges are formed by
oversailing or projecting courses (sec Fig. 11). They are constructed to support
floor beams, lintels, etc. As a load carried by a corbel tends to overturn the
wall, certain precautions arc taken to ensure a stable structure; !hese are: (1)
the maximum projection of the corbel must not exceed the thickness of the
wall, (2) each corbel course must not project more than 56'25 mm, (3) heade~s
I Vegetable loil or turf covering a aite should be rem~ ... ed as II. pr.e liminary building
operation' the excavated soil may be Ipnad over that panlon of the Ilt~ set apan for the
prden, e~ .••nd the turf may be ltacked (rotted turf!a a valuable. ",a-':lure). The depth
of soil removed variel from I So to 230 mm and the Ille concrete IS laid on the exposed
surface. The omiuion of the concrete has been a frequent cause of dry rot (see p. 57)·
 LINTELS 19
must be used as they are more adequately tailed into the wall than stretchers, and
OFFSETS (4) only sound bricks and workmanship should be employed. The corbels
shown at L, M and N aTe continuous and that at 0 (with the sketch at p) is an
example of an isolated or non-continuous corbel. The latter is used to support
concentrated loads (as transmitted from large floor beams) and the stone pad is
provided to distribute the load more effectively.
Oversailing Courses.- These aTe frequently employed as decorative
features, as for example in the construction of comius (a crowning member of
a wall), string courstS (provided between the base and top of a wall), taves (top
of a wall adjacent to a roof) and chimnty stacks (the upper portion of brickwork
which end05es chimnp.y flues-see Figs. 38 and 75). Simple examples of brick
oversailing courses are shown at E, Fig. 17, D, Fig. 38, and j, Fig. 70. Stone
cornices etc., are detailed in Figs. 24 and 26.
Buttress Cappings.- Buttresses have been referred to on p. 13. These
arc usually completed with simple cappings (see Fig. Il). The section at Q
'"
SE.CTION E.F
shows the capping to consist of two courses of splay bricks of the type illustrated
al Rand s, Fig. 2; a sketch of this capping is shown at R. The sketch at T
shows another weathered capping formed of ordinary bricks which are tilted
or tumbled into the wall; the section at s shows the cutting of the bricks
which is involved.
As mentioned on p. 13, the \'enical sides of doorways and window openings
are known as jambs. Thc top or head of such an opening consists of a lintel or
an arch, or both, amI the bottom of a window opening is called a sill whilst the
bottom of a door opening is usually provided with one or more steps or threshold.

LINTELS
A lintel is a member of wood, brick or concrete which is fixed horizontally
and used to support the structure abovc the opcning. Most lintels now are of
reinforced concrete.
Jll S 4G -
In the class In Duikhn~ $cil'"nc(' the student w,1I study the behaV Iour of lintels

_s. or beams wh en lo"dcd. b'pcr,ments w,1l show that If a wood beam .s loaded as

' '91 t~32if.;;·"~'F-~'}" !e''''.r-~

2111 \ - - U~» \ indicated at T , Fig. 12. it w ill chan!:" (u shape AS the load increast~. Thc b",lm wil!
lS -'1I11~
bend, and ,f it is ult,mately broken it 'loll be s«n that the fibres of the upper portion
~rc cru~hed and those of the lowl'r portIOn a r" torn apart; the bending actoon tends

,,1:,oN / : ""AT'ON 1
to contract or compress tht upper fibres and to sueteh the lower fibres. H ~nee the
statem cnt that th' " upper part is suhJ~cted to ;0 stress called (omp.ruio" and the
/ CONT INUOUS CORb£U lower portion 10 ~ stress klln ..... n as le'lsio" "; the fibre_ along the centre of Ih e bc"m
TaHE "E" ... ... ~S WOlUD &1 O."'fHO are n .. ithe r in cornpre!isoon 110r tension ~nd this horizontal plane IS ear"d the nflliral
(.... is. I n addItion, the load tends to produc" ~lIh .... r "e rhcal, horizontal Or d"l.gonal
BUTTRESS CAPPINGS crach which ind,e;lIC fa!lur~ In she",. Lintels must of course be sufficiently slron g
to re$lst fa,lu r.. b~' comprl'ss,o n , lC!lS,nn. sheH and defll'Cl,un.
{Food Linfeh.- Thesc are usually of red\\ood (sec p. 59). The size depends
upon the thickness of the \\ all, the "pan (di",tanee between opposite jambs) and
tlic weight to be ~upported . The deptll i~ :lpp roximatcly onc-twelfth of the
span with a minimttm of 75 mm; the width may equal the full thick.ness of the
.- Hl:'

:lEe -nUN :5ECTION

SPLAYED CAPPING · TUMBLE.rJ IN" CAPPING F!Gl"RF. (t

.1
20 BR I CK WAL L S
wall-as is necessary for internal door openings (see s, Fig. 52)---or the width is carefully removed (usually with a hammer and bolster--see 35. Fig. 19) and
of the inner reveal as shown at B, Fig. 12. A further example of a wood lintel the bricks are placed in position with the cut ends uppermost ; the grouting
is illustrated in Fig. 44. operation is facilitated as the frogs are exposed at the top.
Bu ilt-up lintels may be used for larger spans; the section at Il, Fig. 12, shows An alternative method of forming the ends of a brick lintel, which has a
such a lintel which comprises three 175 mm by 7S mm pieces bolted together somewhat stronger ap:>earance, is shown at F in the elevation It, Fig. 12.
with 13 mm diameter bolts near the ends and at every 380 rom of its length; a
part elevation is shown at c and indicates the bolts which are provided with the
necessary nuts and washers (see j , Fig. 80). An alternative to this built -up lintel L N T E L 5
is shown a~ H; this consists of two 175 mm by 50 mm pieces (which bridge the
opening and have a 150 mm bearing or wall-hold at each end) and 50 min thick
packing or distance pieces at the ends and at 380 mm centres; holes are bored
through the continuous pieces and packing pieces through wh ich bolts an: passed
to secure them and ensure that the pieces will act as one unit. the elelation or
lintel )I is similar to that at c except that the pack in? pieces would be indicated
by broken lines at each bolt, as shown at J. C K
The ends of the lintels have a J 75 mm wall-hold and are bedded on mortar TEL ,-,
so as to ensure a level and firm bearing. \rood lintels afford a ready means of P,4f1"T F,(ONT EUVj.TION 5£CTtON"DE' PAP..T SACi'. ELEVATION
securing the heads of door and window frames (see p. 98). MI(I(.. tiNl"Et5

Kj L M
Brick l.intels. As is implied, a brick lintel is a horizontal member consi~ting '~Y1(O)-KfI"ETEltNHLrWNfO'(foeYI2"'"
_ lAM -~
115-S0 Ih .. DIAM SOLlS ~AfI,~
of bricks which are generally laid on end and occasionally cn edge. It is a
relatively weak form of construction and is quite unsuited t~ support hea,y
loads. They ~hould therefor<.: he used to ~pall small openings only (unless they
~~~' .. ~__ BtLi ,ff . ""gl: H
arc to receive .ldditional support as expldlOed later) dnd the Sp;lI\ ;;.hould not ....... ~"'u . . .'D Tl>fj ,~~".! .:'"~ S l (T 0 !.- P l A N

exceed 900 mm. SUPPOR.TS FOR BUllT·UP W()OD liNTEL

A section and part elevation of a brick lintel arc sh()\1 n at .~ and B, Fig. 12. BI'-ICK LINTELS
Cement mortar should be used, and pressed bricks hal'ing d frog on each b~d
are better than ",i re-cuts. The term joggled brick lintel is sOlnetires applied
ALHF,NATtVE TO'F'
P Q
to .his type when bricks baying flOgs are used, the Joggle or notch being formeo
by the widened joint at each frog: the joggle assists in re~i!jting the sliding or
shearing action to which the lintel is subjected. .'; ' .
• .... W"'Ll·I;O~D ol
The hnt,,1 is con$true t,'d un n te"'porar)' wood ~upport known ~s a tunlln:.! I'''·e ....
(sec p. Ikl); lTon~r IS $pread O'er Ihc low .... r, hack .and front cdl<:es of c.«-h hr1<:k t STON,
beforc be1ll~ plJced 10 posmon; wh"n all of the bricks han~ ben, laId . .l:ro ... t (sn' -,-, ~ LINTEL
p. 2) IS poured Ihrough the hules 'Ih,ch haH prc";oush hn'nfonned;1t Ihc top umll
~~ch fwg 's c",""pl.·tdy filled wllh Ihc l"IU'u 1ll0rtM; \1. Fa:. 12, show1" ~"Cl!on
FfI,ONT ELEVAT!ON T
throu/!h ~ bnc~-on."nd 1101 ..1 \Ilth the frOI<: and Ih" h(ll" ~I the top "I<.hcdled hy
bT<Jk~n lmes. If "routml/ ,~ nOI auopH'd e~,<' mu,t be taken to I:nsurc that Ih~ jnmts F[(;lIRlo 12
are prup<..-l) t'l .. d and flu<hc,j w,th mortar Urick lintels arc sOlTlctilTll'S ktWI\J1;1S" soldier :ITches" presumably becau~e
The depth of th~ lintel dcpen(ls upon the ~t7C of the opening and rhe al'pe;\r- of the upright aprear;\!K'~ of the hrick~. This i~:t mhllmlleT. for sl1ch does not
anCe reqll!rcd; it I'arics from 102'5 mm til 215 min. For the $oake 01 appearance comply \lith the re(luiH:menh of a trHe ;tTl-h a" Jdillt:d bdow. lne:dentally
it is e%ential that the top of the lintel shall (;oim;idc with :I. horizontal joint of thc great carc "hould be taken to ensure that each brick is placed ahsolutely vertical
general "ailing (~cc \ and G, Fig. 12), othcT\liS(" a p:tnial cnuTse of hrickwork J~ the appearance is spoilt if one or two of them show a depJrtore from the
would be required between thc tOp of the ltntelllnd the bed joint of the 11;\11 n:rtical, howc\er slight. EX,Hllpll"s of stH;h alt "arch" are shown at -', Fig. +4,
above it; ruck a spllt (uuru is musf flnslghtly. A common depth i~ that whil'h and H, Fig. 54.
is (4Ua1 to twO COUT!>es of the adjoining brickwork (set" t:); onc trod of c3eh brick .'>'uppurrs fur BriCR Llille/s. :\ddltional suppurt must be provided if a brick
 ARCHES
lintel is required for a greater span than qoo mm. Alternative methods of sueh
reinforcement arc sholll1 in section at K, L, M and N, Fig. 12. At K a 7S mm by
10 mm stcel flat bar (set: Fig. 80), having alSo mm bearing at each end, is used.
For spans exceeding 1800 mm it is n.'{:ommencled that one of thl' following should
be used: (a) a steel angle (see Fig. 80) hal'illg 150 mm bearing;; as shown at L aTHl
in detail \\", Fig. 5+, or (b) purpose~made hricks supported bY:I rcinfnrtl.:d con-
crete lintel as indicated at !'l or (c) a n:infon.:ed brick lintel which is ilhlstrated
at '"'-I. The latter consists of a 20 mm diameter steel rod which i~ threaded through
the bricks before they have been grouted; each end of the rod is bedded 150 mm
into the wall; the bric:"s used for this purflOSC are holed during the moulding
process before being bunt, the centre of cach hole being appro:-oilllatcly ]8 mm
from the underside of the lintel. The exposed surfaces of the aho\'e tlat bar
and angle may be n'ndered inconspicuous by painting them to conform .... it;.. the
colours of thc bricks; alternatively they may be completely covered by the door
and II1I1dow frame~; the soffit or underside of the concrete lintel at :-.; betwcen
the briek lintel and the door frame may be covered by bedding t 2 Illlll thick tiles
to the concrete as shown.
It is a common practice for small spans to bed brick lintels directly upon
the heads of the door and window frames; such frames should be set back for
not more than 25 mm from the external face of the wall (see c, Fig. +4).
. Slone Lintels or Helld$. · These are rectangular bloch of stone of varying
thickness and depth; tht; latter should be at least 215 mm. It should course with
the adjacent brickwork as shown at 0, Fig. 12. Additional examples are shown
in Figs. 22, 24, 58 and 61-
Concrete Lintels.-A suitable mix of concrete consists of t part Portland
cerr:ent. 2 parts sand and 4 parts gravel or broken brick or stone of 20 mm gauge.
The lintel may be cast in situ (in position) or precast (formed and allowed to
set before being fixed); the former is cast in a wood mould (with]2 to 38 mm
thick bottom and sides) which is removed when the concrete has set. The
precast method is more often employed as the lintels can be formed in the wood
moulds well in advance to allow them being sufficiently matured for fixing when
required and the construction of the walling above them may be continued
immediately after fixing. As concrete is comparatively weak in tension, the use
of plain concrete lintels should be limited to spans not exceeding 900 mm and not
used to carry point loads, otherwise failures may occur which arc usualJy due to
shear and which may produce fractures such as that indicated by the brokell line
U at Q, Fig. 12. If this span is to be exceeded, the lintel must be strengthened by
using mild steel bars or some other form of steel reinforcement. A simple type
of TtI'nfOTced concrdt lintel is shown at p and Q; the number and siz.e of the re-
inforcement depend upon the span, width and load to be supported; the steel is
placed in the moulds and at about 25 mm from the bottom; the concrete is
poured in, care being taken in packing it round the reinforcement. The ends of
the bars are hooked as shown in order to increase the bond or grip between them
and the concrete. If precast, the top of the lintel should be marked so that the
2'
fixt~r
will h,'d it WIth the r("i,,(nrccmcnt lowt·rmost. Olhercx:lmple,; of a reinforced
COncrde lintd arlO -:hOIIIl at A and c, Fig. 25, and B, K and 0, Fig. 58.
An example of A hoot-shaped lintel is shown at H, Fig. 55.
ARCHES
An arch is a stnKtun: compri~ing a number of rdatil'c1y small units' such as
bricks or 1TI;bonry hlocks which arc wcdgo::-~hapeJ, joined together with mortar,
and spanning 0111 opening to support the weight above. Because of their
\Iedge-like form, the unit>. suppmt eAeh OIlu:r, the load tends to mOlke them
l'Ol1ll'lKt and cnahles them to [ran~mlt the pres~ure downll.lTds to their suppOrts.
Terms.-Thc technical term~ ipplicd to an arch and adjacent structure ;ire
shuwll in the isometric sketch (Fig. I]); thc following i~ a brief description :-
I '!lus.win.-The wedgc-sl,aped bricks or blocks of stone which comprise an
arch; the last \oll~soir to be placed in po-:itioTl is usuaily the central onc and is
known as the kty brick or key stuni; It is »ometimes emphasized by making It
larger and projectmg It abol'(' and below the outlines of the arch. The key shOll n
In the sketch consists of sel"Cral 12 or 20 mm tIleS.
Ring, Rim ur RinK Cvun(.-~Tbe (ircuJar course or eour~es comprising the
arch. The arch 111 Fig. '3 consists of three half-brick rings, the olle at D, Fig. '5,
has two half-brick rings, and those at 10 and [', Fig. IS, and I· anuJ, Fig. +1, have
each a olle-hrick ring.
Extrado$ or Back.- The external eurre of the arch.
Intrados. The inner cune of t.le arch.
Soffit.-The inner or under surface of the arch; in sarno:: localities the term5
" soffit" and" intrados " arc accepted as meaning the same.
Ahutmenl$.- The portions of the wall which support the arch.
Sketooacks.--Thc inclined or splayed surfaces of the abutments prepared to
receive the arch and from which the arch springs (see A, Fig. 15).
Springing Point.s.- The points at the intersection between the skewbacks and
the intrados (see A, Fig. 15).
Springing I.ine.- The horizontal line joining the two springing points.
Springi'T.s.-The lowest \"oussoirs immediately adjacent to the skewbacks.
Crown.- The highest point of the extrados.
Haunch.- The lower half of the arch between the crown and a skewback.
Span.- The horilontal distance betwecn thc reveals of the supports.
Rist.-The vertical distance between the springing line and the highest
point of the intndos.
Cmtre (or Striking Point) and Radius (see Fig. 1]).
Depth or lleight.-The distance between the extrados and intrados.
Thicknl'SS.- The horizontal distance between and at right angles to the front
and back faces; it is sometimes lefcrred to as the width or brFtldth of the soffit.
, Sud and reinforced concrete arches of large ,pan are adopted In bridge cOnstruction.
T 22 BRICK WALLS
In some districts the teIll1 " thickness" is considered to have the same meaning
as" depth ", to remove any doubt, the arch at A, Fig. IS, would be specified as being
a" flat gauged arch, 290 mm deep with 102'S mm wide soffit, to a 1135 mm opening."

Bed Jcnnts.- The joints between the voussoirs which radiate from the centre.
Spandril.-The triangular walling enclosed by the extrados, a vertical line
from the top of a skewback, and a horizontal line from the crown; when arches
adjoin, as in Fig. 13. the spandril is bounded by the two outef curves and the
horizontal line between the two crowns.
Impost.- The projecting course or courses at the upper part of a pier or other
abutment to stress the springing line; sometimes moulded and known as a cap
(see Fig. 13. and D. Fig. IS).
Plinth.- The projecting brickwork at the base of a wall or pier which gives
the appearance oi additional strength; also known as a hase.
Arcade.- A series of arches, adjoining each other, supporting a wall and
being supported by piers.
Classification of Arches.- Arches are classified according to (a) their shape,
and (h) the materials and workmanship employed in their construction.
(a) Themore familiar forms of arches are either fiat, segmental or semicircular,
whilst others which arc not so generally adopted are of the semi-elliptical and
pointed types.1
(h) The voussoirs may consist of either (I) rubber bricks, (2) purpose-made
bricks. (3) ordinary or standard bricks cut to a wedge shape and known as axed
bricks or (4) standard uncut bricks. The following is a brief description of
these bricks ;-
1. Rubber Bricks, Rubbers. Cutters or Malms. - These are soft bricks, obtain-
able in various sizes, and of a warm red or orange colour. They can be readily
sawn and rubbed to the desired shape. They are used in the construction of
gauged arches (see below).
2. Purpose-made Bricks.- These are specially hand-moulded to the required
shape and are used for good class work in the construction of purpose-made
brick arches (see below). Owing to the standardized form and size of many
arches, stocks of the more commonly used purpose-made VOUSSOlfS are carried
by the larger manufacturers, and delivery is thereby expedited; such bricks
are usually machine-pressed.
3. Ordinary B7I·ck~· CUi lu Wed,!;'te Shupte. - These are st<lmlard bril;ks which
have been roughly cut to the required wedge shape by the use of the bolster
and dressed off with a seutch or axe (see 34, Fig. 19). They are used in the
construction of axed brick arches (see p. 24).
4. Ordinary Standard Uncut Bricks.-Wben such bricks are used in the con-
struction of arches, the bed joints are not of uniform thickness, but are wedge-
shaped. They are used fornJUgh brick arches (see p. 24).
Flat, Straight or Camber Arch.- There arc three varieties ofthis type, i.e.,
OF A POR.TION OF A
1 The~ are illustrated in Fig. 19, Vol. II.
BR.ICK AR.CADE.
ILLUSTRATING TE.R.M5
FIGURE 13
 A R CH E S
(a) gauged Rat arch, (h) purpose-made Aat arch and (c) axed brick Aat arch,
depending upon the class of bricks and labours used in their construction.
(a) Gauged Flat or Camber Arch (sec A and c, Fig. I$ ).- Rubbcrs arc used.
T he extrados is horizontal and the intrudos is given a slight curvature or camber
by providing a rise of 1·5 to 3 mm per 300 mm of span; thus the arch at ,\ would
have a rise of approximately 12 mm. The reason for the camber is to avoid the
appearance of sagging which is produced if the intrados is perfectly ho rizontal
and which defect would be accent uated if the slightest settlem ent occurred . T he
angle of the skewbacks may be 60° (as IIhown at A and c) or th e amou nt of
skewback (the horizontal distance between the springing poin t and t he top of the
skewback) may equal 38 mm per 300 mm of span per 300 mm depth of arch (as
shown at A, Fig. 48, and A, Fig. 54). The adoption of the laller ru le gives a more
pleasing appearance (compare A and c, Fig. 15, with A, Figs . 48 and 54); if it had
been appl ied to the two arches in F ig. 15, the amount of skewback at A would be
1135 290 . 685 290
J8x _ - x - = 139 mm, and at C It would he 3Rx - x - =84 as com-
300 300 300 3 00
pared with 167 mm, which is common to both arches when the skewback has a
slope of 60°.
I<. E Y DETAIL SHOWI NG THE
FIGU RE 14
23
This type of arch is not very strong and should be limited to spans of from
I 220 to I 520 mm unless they are ~trengthened by means of a steel bar or angle,
as desc ri bed on p . 2 1. Ohservc t hat in each case the extrados coincides w ith a
horizontal joint of the adjacent walli ng and thu~ a split course is a\"oided (sec
p.20); the intrados of the arch at A, Fig. 15, also coincides; with a bed joint;
this; is not alway~ desirable, as the brick at T is difficult to cut on account of the
sharp edge produced; such is :l\oided if the intrados comes midway up the
course (see s, Fig. [5).
" Cauge " means " m ell~ure" ;md a ch>lracteristic of gauged work is its
exactness . T he bricks arc accurately shaped a~ described below and the bed
joints are \·ery thin, bcing as fine as 0·8 mm, although a thickness of joint va rying
fmm 3 to 6 mm is much Ll\oured. Such accurate work is possible by the use of
rubbers and a jointing m>ltcrial known as pUll)" lim, (lime chalk which has been
well slaked, worked up to a consistency rl:"~clllhling thick crcam and passed
through a fine sic\·c).
\\·h •.'I\ urn'''''g Ihis Heh to seak. Ihc slUd~m ~hould nOle thaI all bed jOints of
thc '·OUSSll,rS radiate w\\aru s thccentr" and thJt Ih" 75 mm meJsur~m"nts (or 50 mm
if th" Re"erJI "ailing is eOlls[rUCled of SO mm bricks) arc sel off along the t;rlTadoJ.
A P P L CATION OF ARCHES ETC
¢,
5 E C T ION • F G'
 BRICK WALLS
Students make a common miatake in meuuring off along the intradol. When the
bricka are 65 mm thick at the extrados, "tiaractory jointinr retulu ir the number of
vouuoin in the arch when divided by .. gives a renuinder 0 ',i.t., '3. 17, ::t I, etc.
Cunstnlch'01I 0/ Art/I.-In order that the rubbe~ shall be coIT«t1y shaped, •
full-si::te drawing of the arch (showing the vouuoirs and joinll) ia prepared and thin
pieeea of ::tinc, allied tmtputr, are cut to the Ihlpe of the vouuoin shown on the
drawing. The btwi. or inclinations are markcd on each voupoir by tranferring
them from the templet which is placed on it. The voussoirs are then sawn to shspe
with each saw-cut parallel and near to the marks. They are finally dressed down to
the marks by rubbin; each cut surface on a .Iab of hard stone or by using a rasp
(lee p. ,~8). A 'So nun long groove <about 13 mm deep and::t5 mm wide) is formed
on each bed to fonn a key for the mortar and each rubber is num~fed in accordance
with the corresponding number on the drawing for guidance to the bricklayer.
The wall at each side of the opening will have been built and the skewbacka
prepared 10 receive the nch, as indicated by the thick outline N shown" A, Fig. IS.
The turning piUt (lee A, I) and E, Fig. ,p) upon which the arch i, to be oonstru.cled
will hive been carefully fixed in correct po.itlon. When very fine joinl8 are reqUIred,
each vOU5soir i. dipped into the putty and its bed covered. any putty in the groove
is removeJ, and the brick is placed in position by pressing the bed coated with pUlly
against the adjacent brick. When all of the vou.~oirs bave been placed in position,
cemeot grout it poured into the jogglea formed by the bed ,roove,. It is usual to
work from each .kewback towards the centre and complete wllh the key brick. The
voussoirs are kept plumb by using a rtroight-tdgt (a 75 mm by::t::t mm piece of well-
teasoned wood about I Sco mm long) and, I I the work proceed., it i. plaeed horizont-
ally against the facea of the walling It the skewbacks when any vou$$oir not in true
alignment is tapped either backwlrds or for..... rds n required.
If thicker joinll are desired, the mortar i, applied by a t,01l;el (see 31, Fig. (9)
in the usual way, care being tlken thlt the joints are of uniform thickness Dnd radiate
to D common centre. This is ensured by usin~ a cord or " line" as shown at A,
Fig. 4'; one end of the line is attached to the natl driven into the nrut at the centre;
the position of each vOUSloir and its bed joint is marked along the top of the turning
piece, and ss each vounoir is placed in position the bed is made to coincide with
the line which is ,tretched taut. A piece of wood. called I trammel or radiuJ rod
(see M. Fig. 4'). may be used to traverse the r.tce of the arch instead of the line.
A templet or wood patttnl, ahaped ...hown at a, b, t, d" A, Fig. IS, may be
employed to ensure thlt all of the skewbacks an: made to the (XIrrtCt angle. The
brick. forming a skewback can be readily and acc urately cut if a line parallel to it is
marked on the waU, allhown by the broken line x at A, Fig. 15, when the measure-
men" taken along the .ITises of the shaded bricks which are intercepted by the mark
are transferred to the bricks to be shaped.
(b) Prnprue.made Bmk Flat ATch (see II, Fig. IS. A, Fig. ~8, and A, Fig. 54.).
- Thill arch differs from the guuged Ilrch type in that purpose-made bricb (sec
above) are used instead of rubbers; the jointing material and the thickness of
the joints are the same as for the general walling; the camber and size of skew-
back are as described for gauged arches. This type of arch is frequently
employed in good-class work.
(e) Axed Bmk Fillt ATCh.-This is similar to (6) except that iu appearance
is not so satisfactory as the voussoirs arc ordinary bricks cut to a wedge shape
a8 described on p. u. This type of arch is now used oaly for common work.
Segmental Arcb.-Half elevations of two varieties of this arch are shown at
F and G, Fig. 15. The geometrical construction for determining the centre for
the curved extrados and intrados and from which the bed joints of the voussoin
radiate is shown. There are four varieties of this type of arch, i.e. :
(a) Gau.ged Segmental Arth (see G, Fig. 15).-lt is constructed of rubbers
upon a temporary wood support called a cmtre (see f, Fig .•p). Cross joints
may be omitted if desired.
(b) Purpose-made Brich Segmmtal Arch (see F, Fig. 15).-This is similar
to the above, except that purpose·made bricks and not rubbers are employed
and the thickness of the joints is the same as that of the adjoining brickwork.
(c) Axed Bn'ch Stgmmtal Arch.-Whilst this arch resembles (b) its appear-
ance is not so good, as it is constructed of ordinary bricks which have been cut
to the required wedge shape.
(d) Ruugh Brick Segmental Arch.--':
This consi.II of one or more half-brick rings conlltructed of ordinary stock un<U1
bricks; as the bricks pre not cut, the joints are wedge-shaped. Such arches were adopted
when appearance wu secondary (as in pJUlered walls) because of their relative cheapness.
The arch was used to relieve a wood lintel of the weight of superincumbent brickwork.
Such lie called Rough Rtlin;j", 0' DiJcha,ging A,,,her; they are also l ometime. referred
to 1$ :Jack Ar,hts. Rough ,tliroi1lll a,thtS art now obJoltt~. They were formerly employed
when openingt exceeding ,.::t m spans were provided with compalalively thin wood
lintels. R~inforced concrete lintels, des1gned to suppon the brickwork, etc. sbove them,
Pn: now preferred to wood. lintels, especially for large spalls
Semicircular Arch (see D and E, Fig. IS, which shows half elevations of two
varieties).-The impost may be omiued. It is constructed on a centre (see p. 82
and 1, Fig. 41). There ate four varieties of semicircular arches, i.e., (a) gauge-d
semicircular arches, (b) purpose-made brick semicircular arches, (c) axed brick
semicircular arches, and (d) rough brick semicircular arches. Excepting for
the shape, they are similar to the four classes of segmental arches. An example
of a gauged semicircular arch is shown at E; this may have cross joints to give
a " bonded face." The purpose-made brick type is shown at D and the axed
brick arch is similar; the number of rings may be increased if desired. The
rough brick class, like the segmental arch, has V.shaped joints.
The arches illustrated in Fig. IS have been related to the small building
shown in part in Fig. 14 which is an example of a typical working drawing, it
being fully dimensioned to enahle the hricktSlyer to set out the work accurately.l
Stone heads and arches are described on p. 49.
WINDOW SILLS
A sill provides a suitable finish to the window opening and it affords a
protection to the wall below. Sills may be of brick, brick with one or more
• Although the thickness of the join" of the brickwork (including those of the archei)
haa been shown in Fig. IS, it il usual for Itudent. when preplrin, homework ,hcetl to
.how the jointl by lingle lines only.
 E l E V A T I 0 N S
I!!I///~ o F A R. C H E S
1\ B \ C '<

~ \~;7
FLAT ARC;' AT /'B' "G.14

"
. II ~s
IFLAT '0 A"-C" AT . ARCH AT DOO~ 'C" FIG .14

FIGURE 15

courses of tiles, tiles, stone (natural or reconstructed), concrete, terra-cotta and
r WGod. The top of a sill should have a slight fall outwards to prevent the lodg-
ment of water; this slope is called the toeathering of a sill.
Fig. 16 shows three forms of external sills.
That at A shows a section and part elevation of a brick sill upon two courses
of tiles. Stahdard bricks are placed on edge and are slightly tilted. The tiles
r vuy from 13 to 45 nun thick; those shown are 16 mm thick. Ordinary roof
tiles-(known as plain tiin, see Fig. 72)-are sometimes used; these are
ap. roximately 270 nun by 165 mm by 13 nun. Purpose-made tiles, called qudrry
liln, arc thicker than plain tiles and are usually square of 150 to 300 mm length of
aide. The tiles are given a 2.0 mm projection beyond the face of the wall (see
section) and a zo mm projection beyond the jamb (see elevation); they are laid to
break joint (see also A, Fig. 41). The tiles must be solidly and uniformly bedded
in mortar otherwise they may be easily damaged.
An alternative arrangement is shown at B, Fig. 16, where a double course of
tiles is 'bedded on a brick-on-edge course. An equally satisfactory and in-
expensive finish is provided by a double course of tiles bedded on the top course
of the general walling (see D, Fig. 14). The tiles l1l2y be given a much greater
slope if desired (see E, Fig. 55), and the brick-on-edge course may project 20 to
25 mm beyond the face of the wall.
An internal sill of one course of tiles (F) is shown at A, Fig. 16.
Lead-covered brick-on-edge sills are shown in Figs. S6 and 57.

"
26 BRICK WALLS
The sill at c, Fig. 16, is of moulded concrete, or reconstructed stone (see
Vol. IV). The top surface is weathered and slightly moulded; it has a ~roo\'e
to receive a wrought iron weather bar (sec p. 104). The underside is grooved
or'throated to throw off the water and prevent it from passing underneath the
sill and staining the brickwork helow. The ends of the sill are called stools or
seatings and pro\ide lc\'c! beds to receive the jambs.
In all cases the sills should course wilh the adjacent walling ill order /0 atloid
the umightly splil courses which ha'IJe bun re/erred to 011 p. 20.
Sills should be protected during the construction of the building, other,vise
falling bricks, etc" may cause damage. This protection is usually in the form of
pieces of wood w:,ich rest upon the sills and are tightly fitted between the re\·eals.
Stone sills are described on p. 49.
THRESHOLDS
The bottom of an external door opening is provided with onc or more steps
which form a threshold. Such may consist of bricks, stone or concrete.
Fig. 14 shows a threshold cOllSisting of three steps which are formed entirely
of bricks Iaid on edge.
An alternative to this, to a larger scale, is shown at D, Fig. 16. Ordinary
standard bricks may be used, but they must be very hard, othemise the edges
ur arri~c~ wiil be reauily tlamagcu. The steps must have a satishctory founda·
tion, hence the concrete bed. The height of each step, called the riser, is 130 mm
although this varies from I 15 to '75 mm. Th~isers consist of bricks laid on end
and the rest of each tread (or horizontal portion) comprises bricks laid on edge.
Treads should be at least 280 mm wide so as to afford adequate foot space. The
top step is given a slight fall {about 3 mm) to discharge water away from the
door. The two lower steps ha\'e returned ends; this gives a much better
appeolirance than when all steps are of the same length. The bonding of the
bricks is shown on the plan and elevation. The whole of the brickwork should
be in cemf.7lt mortar.
A single step in bricks on edgo is shown in Fig. 13.
The threshold at E, Fig. 16, consists of two steps' having brick.on.edge risers
and 60 mm thick. stone trcads. The stone must be extremely hard and fine-
grained, <lnd the up?er surfaces should not be polished, otherwise they become
slippery, especially in wet weather. Unless the stone is hard it win wear badly
and the arrises will be readily damaged. The edges may be slightly rounded,
or splayed (chamfered) or-providing the stone is particularly hard-square as
shown. The treads must be well and uniformly bedded in cement mortar.
This form of step is also detailed in Figs. 42 and 48.
Stone steps are shown in Figs. %4. 43 and 65. Similar steps may be formed
in concrete, although thesc do not look so weU as those in stone. A conc·cte
step, which is a continuation of the concrete floor, is shown in Fig. H.
It is advisable to defer the construction of thresholds until the completion
of the b~ilding, otherwise they may be damaged during the building operat.ons
unless adequately protected.
COPINGS
Copings arc provided \0 serve as a protectile cm-ering to walls such all
boundary walls (yard and garden walls) and parapet walls (those which arc
carried up abOle roofs). Their object i~ to exclude water from the walling below.
Vl:' ry serIOus dnmagc may hI:' caused to n waH if watcr gains acc.,ss, especially
dur;nR culd weather when the waleI' may free~e. Under such cundltiuns the
resultinR "xpallsion may mpidly disinteRrate the upper courses of the briekwurk. In
addition, the wutcr may penetrate sufficiently to cause dampness to hedrooms, etc.
The most effective coping is that which throws the water clcar of the wall
below. The fewer joints in the coping the better, and the jointing and bedding
material should be ument mortar. Copings may be of bricks, bricks and tiles
or slatcs, stone, terra-colla and concrete, and all must be sound and durable
Some of the simpler brick copings arc shown in Fig. 17. They form an
effective finish to a brick bt;ilding.
A portion of a garden wall is shown at A, Fig. '7, and alternative copings
which would be suitable for this and similar walls are shown at B to L inclusive.
Brick-on-Edge Coping.- The section at II and part elevation at c shows this
type, which consists of ordinary hard and durable bricks laid on edge. It has a
simple but satisfactory appearance , is inexpensive and is adopted extensively.
Another applicat:on is shown at M, Fig. 36, and in Fig. 74. Sometimes the
bricks are placed on end, or as shown in Fig. '3.
the coping may consist of
two courses with the lower set back about 13 mm and comprising bricks-on·end
and the upper course set back a similar amount and consisting of bricks-on-edge.
Bulloose Coping.- This ;s shown in section 0 and the elevation IS simila: 10
that at c. The double bullnose bricks are placed on edge.
Semicircular Coping (see ~; and F).-The purpose.made semicircular bricks
are bedded upon an oversailing stretching course of ordinary bricks. The
space between the stretchers (about 60 mm as shown in the section) should be
filled solid with pieces of brick and mortar if the dwarf wall is likely to be sub-
jected to side stresses from traffic, etc. The curved surface of the coping and
the weathered or jlaunched bed joint cause water to get away quickly, and the
projecting course assists water to drip clear of the wall.
A similar coping, shown at G and H, consists of a top course of double bullnose
bricks placed on edge upon a projecting CQurse of bats (or stretchers similar
to E with the intervening space filled as above described).
 "

WINDOW SILLS THR.ESI-IO...DS

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THRESHOLD OF STONE TRE,trr£)S

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rlGURE 16
I j
:z8 BRICK WALLS
Brick-07I-Edge Coping with Tile CrtMing.-One form is shown at J and K.
The tile course is known as a creasing and serves to throw the water clear of the
wall. The creasing may also consist of two or more tile courses, laid in cement
to break joint. A creasing consisting of a double course of slates in cement may
be used instead of tiles.
Saddh-lxuk C&pin.g (see Land M).-This is effective, it provides a satisfactory
finish and may be used in conjunction with either a tile or slate creasing. Brick
or terra-cotta saddle-back copings can also be obtained which have throated
projections and resemble the stone coping shown at C, Fig. 27.
A vertical joint in a coping is a potential weakness, and therefore one of the
demerits of brick copings is the comparatively large number of such joints
which have to be made. Hence it is advisable to provide a horizontal damp proof
course on the top course of the brickwork before the coping is fixed (see p. 17).
Whilst a simple brick coping can form an attractive feature of a brick
structure and is extensively used, copings of stone are often preferred even for
brick erections. Stone copings are illustrated in Fig. 27.
PLINTHS
The projecting feature constructed at the base of a wall is known as a plinth.
It gives to a building the appearance of additional stability.
Three forms of simple brick plinths are shown in Fig. 17.
Brick-an-End Plinth (see Nand o).-As is implied, this plinth consists of a
course of bricks laid on end, projecting about 20 mm and backed with ordinary
brickwork.
Splayed Plinth (see p and Q).-This comprises two stretching courses of
purpose-made splayed or chamfered bricks similar to those shown at R, Fig. 2.
If preferred, the top course may consist of headers similar to that at s, Fig. 2.
Moulded Plinth.-One of the many moulded types is shown at Rand S, and
consists of a simple curve (called a cavettQ mould) and a narrow fiat band known
as aJdIet.
Stone plinths are detailed in Fig. 25.
TOOLS. CONSTRUCTION. JOINTING AND POINTING
Tools.-The tools in general use by a bricklayer are: trowel, plumb-rule,
straight-edge, gauge-rod, line and pins, square, spirit-level, two-foot rule,
bolster, dub hammer, brick hammer and chisels. Other tools used for special
purposes inaJude: bevel, scutch, saw, pointing-trowel, frenchman, jointer,
pointing-rule and hawk.
Trowtl (lee 31, Fig. 19).-COnlilu of a ateel blade and shank into which a
wood handle i. fixed; used (or li(ting Ind sp~lding manu on tn I wall, forming
joinll ""U .;'.ltt;ng briclu. h i, the chief tool of tho bricklayu.
Plumb-,ul~.-A dressed piece of wood, 100 mm by 13 nun by I 400 mm to I 800
mm long, hiving parallel edit'S, holed nur the bottom 10 permit Ili,ht movement
of I lead plumb-bob which it luspended by a piece of ... hipcord; Similar to that
shown at A, Fig. a8, but with parall~lloni edg~s; us~d for plumbing (obtaining or
maintainillf I vertical face) I wall.
StMig"t-~dg~.-A piece of wood, about 75 mm by 13 mm by 900 mm long hiving
pU1IIIci edges; used for t~ting brickwork (especially It quoins) Ind checking if
fac~s of bricks are in alignment. Longer straight-edges are used for I~velling CQn-
crete, etc.
GtnIg~_,od or St"'I)'-rod.-Simililr to the straight_edge but 100 mm by 19 mm by
a'7 m long, upon which the CQurses, inchlding the joints, are marked by horizontal
lines; courses which conform with the tops and bottoms of window lills, springing
points of arches, etc., are also indicated on the gauge; used at quoins in setting out
the work and ensuring that the (;OUr$('S are maintained at correct I~\'e l Ind uniform
th1ckness.
Lin~ and Pi'll (see 33, Fig. 19).-The line (at least 30 m long) is wound round two
steel pins: used 10 mlintain the correct alignment of courses.
Squar~ (see 26, Fig. '9).-ConsislI of a st~el blade and wood stocle or entirely of
"eel; used for setting out nght anglea from the face of a Will (IS required (or open-
ings), testing pcrpends and marking brickt preparatory to cutting.
Spirit-It'litl {see 17, Fig. 19).-UseU, in conjunction with the straight-edge, for
obtaming horizontal .urfaces.
O~-m~tr~ Ru/~ (see I, Fig. 67l..-Used for tlking measurem~nta.
BoIJt~, (see 35, Fig. '9).-Made of steel; used (or cutting bricks; the edge of
the tool is placed on the brick where requ.ired when a smart blow with the hammer
on the end of the steel handle is usually IUfficient to split the brick.
CM Ha",mer Or Lump HQlII''''~r.-Similar to thlt shown It a7, Fig. 19, and with
the head weighing from I to a kg; used in conjunchon wilh the bolster, chisels, etc:.
Brick l1ammer.-Similar to that at K, Fig. 69, but without the claw and with
a chiselled end instead of that shown p<linted; used for cu ning bricks (especially
firebricks), brick plving, striking naill, ~tc;..
Chiul,.-SimillT to those It I and 5, Fig. 19; those shaped a~ .hown 1It 5 a~
uiullly 19 mm wide with 300 to 450 mm long octagonal steel hlndles; used for
cutting aWly brickwork, etc.
Brod (see 30, Fig. 19).-U.ed for setting out angles.
Scutcn or Scoun (s« 34, Fig. 19).-t:.ed for cutting soft bricks and dressing .;ut
surfaces.
Saw (similar to that shown at '9, Fig. 67).-U.ed for sawing rubbers (see p. 12).
P<>imi,,# TTO..:el. Similar to that at JI, Fig. 19, but m" .. h ~m.lI"r; used for
placing mortar into joints, etc.
Frlffltnman.-A discarded table knife the blade of which i. cut to a point which
is bent 10 mm at right angl('$ to the blade; used for tuck pointing (see p. 31).
Joi"'~r (lee 3:l, Fig. 19).-This hu I steel bllde (50 to 150 mm long), the edge of
which is either Rat, groo\'ed, concave or convex rounded; used for jointing and
pointing brickwork (s« p. 31 J.
PointiJ1i-ruh (see 18, Fig. 19).-A dressed piece of 7S by ~2 rom wood having a
bevelled edge with 10 mm thick wood or cork diltlnce pieces fixed on the bevelled
sid~; used for jointmg (see p. 31).
Han,k or Hand Board.-A 125 mm by 125 mm by 13 mm board having a ao mm
diameter stump handle in the centre; used for holding smlll quantities of mortar
during pointing operations.
d
 '9

K.EY DETAIL OF" GAR.D£N ENTR.ANCE ~ '~1I7

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FIGURI! 17

]0 BRICK WALLS
Construction of a Wall. 1 - The corners or leads arc fir~t built to a height
of several courses (sec u, Fig. 2) and the walling between the corners is completed
course by cOurse. :\formany the leads should nuL exceed 900 mm in height.
Each quo in is set lruly vertic,,) by placing an edge of the plumh_rule against one
of the faces, any adjustment of the bricks bein)1 made until the ",,11 is true; the return
face is then plumbed. The gauge-md is llsed to ensure that the brick courses arC"
correct. Each course is now constructed, aided by the line and pins; Om, of the
pins is inseneJ in and near the top of a vertical joint (usually on the return face of
the wall) and, after the line has been stretched taU!. the second pin is inserted to
bring the line len:l with the top of the course to be built and at ". slight distancc
(about 3 mm) from the face.
Beforc being laid in position the bricks should have been wettl"d' (particularly
in hot wcathcr) to prc'/cnt thcm from absorbing moisture from the mortar.
In constructing a ,vall, the bricklayer collccts sufficient mortar On the nnwel and
spreads it on the last completed cour.c for scveral bricks ahead (not less than ')00 mm
length of bed being recommended). He then prcsses the point of the trowel into the
mortar and draws it in zigzag fashion along the centre of the laver to form a level and
uniformly thick bed .-\ brick is taken, placed in position, and pressed into the mortar
against the last la id brick; ~ s~art tap with the edj.(e of the trowel or the end of the
handle may be nccessary to bnng the brtck into Ime. The mortar whIch has been
squeezed out beyond the face of the "all is " cut off" by and 'collected on to thc
trowel' and returned to the heap of mortar on the bOHd. The cross joint is then
formed, a small portion of mortar being taken On the trowel and pressed on the end
Or side of thc brick to fonn a vertical joint against "hich the .lext brick is pressed.-
" Plumbing-up" by means of the plumb-rule should be frequently resorted to
as new brickwork has a tendency to overhang; the work is corrected and a \'ertical
face obtained by tapping the handle of the trowel (or using the brick hummer)
against the bricks concerned.
Perpends must be !ccepl venical; this is checked as the work proceeds by placing
the straight-edge flat on the COurse and slightly projecting beyond the f"ce. The
stock of the square is set against the underside of the straight-edge with the blade
coinciding with th" last-formed vertical joint ~nd (if the work is satisfactory) with
tbat in the Course next but one below.
The plumbing of the reveals of openings and the perpends adjoining them should
receive special attention.
in, the construction of thick walls, mortar is spread on the bed and the outer
bricks On both faces are fi,.st laid as described above; th" inner bricks are then
pressed and rubbed into position to cause some of the mOnar to rise between the
vertical joints, which are finally filled flush with liquid mortar or grout.
Hand_mad" bricks, having only ont frog, should be laid with the frogs uppermost
to ensUre that. they will be completely filled with mortar. Machine-pressed bricks,
having two frogs, should bave the" lower" frogs filled with mortar b"fore b"ing laid
in position. Car" mUSt be taken that certain textured or rustic bricks are laid On their
proper beds; it is not uneommon to see these laid" upside-down".
Jointing and Pointing,- Joints on t!-e face arc usually compressed by one
or other of the methods referred to below so as to eliminate pore spaces along
which water may pass. The nature of this finish depends upon the type of
I bricks used and the appearance required.
1The setting out of buildings is described in Chap. I, Vol. II.
• C"rtain smooth-surfaced machin,,-pressed bricks should not be watered, otherwise
they are difficult to lay.
I The mortar may be left slightly projecting if the surfac" of the wall is to be plastered.
• The projecting mortar which has b""n removed is often trowelled on to the end of
the brick to fonn the v"rtical joint. When this is the only mortar applied; the joints are
inad"quate1y filled lind inferior work results.
-
\Vhen this finish is done in sel:tions as the brickwork proceeds the operation
is called jointillg; when it is deferred until afterwards it is known as pointing.
The following examples are illustrated at T, Fig. 17.
Struck Joint. -This is probably more extensively :lsed than any other. It
is a good weather joint as it permits of the ready discharge or water. Its
appearance is not entirely satisfactory for every class of work as it exaggerates
any inaccuracy of the lower edges of the bricks (owing to the difference in the
thickness of the bricks which may exist); its smooth mechanical character
detracts from the appearance if adopted for bedding and jointing sand-faced
bricks of good texture. It is best used in conjunction with smooth-surfaced
machine-pressed hricks of uniform colour.
This joint is formed when them~rtar is sufficiently stiff(usually after four stretchers
or their equi, alent have been laid) by holding the handle of the trowel below th" bed
joint and smoothinj.( the mortar several times in One direction with the blade to an
approximate bevel of 60°. The vertical joints are usually fonned by pressing the
tip of the trowel down the centre to produce a V-section, or these joints may be flush
(sec below). The vertical joints arc first struck, followed by the bed joint.
Overhand Struck Juillt (sec broken line at x) .-It should not be adopted as
water collecting on the ledge may pass through the mortar to cause dampness
on the inside, or frost action may destroy the upper edges of the bricks, especially
if they are not of good quality.
Flush or Flat Joint.-As shown, the joint is flush with (in the same plane as)
the face of the brickwork. When rubbed, it forms an excellent finish for first
class faced work.
,
Mortar i. pressed into the joints during the progress of the work, any dcprhsions
arc filled by the addition of mortar, and when this is " semi-stiff" each joint is care.
fully rubbed in one direction by a piece of rubber held against the wall. This gives
a satisfactory t"xture which agreeably conforms with that of a sand-faced brick.
Provided the mortar is of good quality, this joint gives a satisfactory finish to
rustic brickwork if it ;5 just left as the mortar is cut off with the trowel, no attempt
being made to smooth the surface of the joint. The faidy rough texture of sucb
joints gives to rustic brickwork a mOTe satisfactory appearance than smooth struck
jomts.
The flush joint is also adopted for walls requiring smooth internal faces
such as may be required for factories, cellars, coal-houses, garages, etc.
Recessed Joinl.-This is very satisfactory for facing work of good textured
bricks and good quality mortar. The bricks should be carefully selected of
uniform thickness and the bed joints should be at least 10 mm thick.
The joint is mad" by applying a jointing tool immediatdy after th" projecting
mortar has been cut. This tool may b" similar to the jointer (see 3~, Fig. (9) or the
improvised tool shown at v, Fig. '7; the thickness of the rubb"f should <:qual
that of the joint. The rubber accommodates itsclf to any irregularities of the brick
edges as it is press ed in and worked to and fro until the mortar is removcl. That
sbown at v is suitabl" for th" b"d joints, a similar shorter tool being used for the
vertical joints. The bricks must be hard and durable, otherwise any water collecting
on the ledges may become frozen and cause pieces to flake off.
 WALL PLASTERING
Keyed Joint.-Such joints give an appearance to the brickwork which is
distinctively attractive.
It may be fonned with either the convex rounded jointer (s~ above) or the wood
jointer shown at W, Fig. '7, which varies in thicknc» with that of the joint. The
vertical joints are formed first, followed by the bed joints. The latter are formed
by using the jointer in conjunction with the pointing rule (see 18, Fig. 19); the rule
is usually held by two men against the wall with the bevelled edge uppermost on
the sante level as and parallel to the lower edge of the joint; the jointer, resting upon
it, ;s p ......ed into the soft mortar lind passed along seve .... l times in both directions
until the required depth is obtained, the surplus mortar falling between the distance
pieces of the rulf:. The vertical joints should have a slightly less impression than d·.e
bed joints.
Vee-joint (see broken Jines at z).-Its effect is to give the appearance of narrow
Joints, especially if the colour of the mortar resembles closely that of the bricks,
It is not recommended . The joint is made as described for the keyed joint
and with a steel jointer having its lower edge suitably shaped,
[7ojecting Joint.-As stated in a footnote on p . 30, the inside faces of walls
which are to be plastered (in addition to external surfaces which are to be rough-
cast) are left with the mortar projecting. This gives a good key for the first
coat of plaster, as shown. Another good key is afforded if the joints are raked
out to a depth of about 12 mm before the mortar has set.
In addition to its fonn, consideration should be given to the colour and texture of
the joint. Bricks of various colours and textures are now obtainable, and it is very
important that the colour of the mortar should conform with that of the brich.
Thus, mortar composed of Hme and yellow sand is very suitable for certain sand_faced
bricks.
Pointing and Re-Pointing.-It has been stated that pointing is the method of finish-
ing Ihe joints after the whole of the brickwork has been completed. It m~y be applied
to a new building just beforecomplehon, or It may be used on existing buildmgs when th~
joints have become defective
The first op~ration in pointing is the removal of the mortar for a depth of 12 mm to give
an adequate key for the fresh mortar. after which the face is hrushed down with a oa,s
broom to remove pieces of mortar and dust and finally well drenched with water. The
mat~rial used for refilling the joints may be either lime mortar or cement mortar and the
colour should conform with the brickwork (cement can nOw be obtain<'d in a varietv (>f
colours for this purpose). . is 16 mm; this is sufficient for all but very rough walls.
Waterproofed lime and Portland cement mixtures are now extensively used for
pointing; the former mixtule may consist of ! part lime to 3 parts sand gauged with a
solution of I part waterproof compound to 15 parts water; alternatively a mortar com -
posed of I part waterproofed c<'ment (contain;,,!: ~ pH C"nt. of the wnt" rproofin" com-
pound) to 3 parts sand can be used.
The form of joint to be used for pointing Or re -poimin/{ depends a good deal upon tl:e
condition of the brickwork. If the edges of the bricks arc true <lnd in l<ood condition tr.e
joints may b e selected from th e struck, flush, r"cessed or keyed ,'arietics described aboH;
if the edges are damaged, the mortar should be finished with the flush form of joint.
Tuck Pointing, as illustrated at T, is occasionally adopted where the jointing
materi",l has become defective and the brickwork at the joints has become ragged.
Generally it is only used when an alternative flush joint would cause the joints
to appear excessively wide; in course of time it becomes defective.
Tuck pointing is done in the fo ilowing m~nner: The joints are raked out, brushed
and watered as be fo!"e describe d . Co!our"d cement may be used to match th " =IOI.;r
3'
of the existing brickwork and this is trowelled with a flush joint and rubbed as
described for flush jointing-a small trowel being used together with a hawk (see
p . ~8) to hold the mortar, AS mm or 6 mm wide by 3 mm deep groove is immediately
and carefully formed along the centre of each joint. With the aid of the pointing-
rule and a flat edged jointer (J2, Fig. 19) the groove is filled or" tucked in " (hence
the name given to the pointing) with putty lime (lICe p. ~3) to which a small amount of
silver sand btu been added. The putty is given a maximum proj~tion of 3 nun and
both top and bottom edges are neatly cut off by means of the frenchman (see p. ~8),
the bent pointed end of which removes the surplus material as the knife is drawn
along the edge of th" rul" . Th" b"d joints ar<: formed lint, in ahout 2'S m I""gths
(when two men ar~ working together), followed by the vertical joints.
Bastard Tuck Pointing,- This is an imitation of tuck pointing and is formed
entirely of the infilling mortar. The profile of the joint is similar to that of
tuck pointing but the band which projects consists of the pointing material.
Whilst this does not look so well as th() true tuck pointing, it is more durable,
but the projecting mortar is apt to become affected by weather action.
Another form of pointed joint which projects is known as a beaded joint.
This is indicated by broken lines at Y, Fig. 17. It is formed, in conjunction with
the pointing rule, by a jointer having a concave edge. It is liable to be damaged
and is not recommended.
PLASTERING TO WALLS
INTE'RNAL PLASTERING
Plastering is a relatively cheap means of providing a durable hygienic
surface to walls and ceilings,
First-class plastering is done in three layers, i,e, ;-render coat (10 mm)
(known also as a pricking coat), floating coat (6 mm), and setting coat (3 mm), to
give a total thickness of 19 mm. Now, for much general building work, the
render coat is omitted, the floating coat is made thicker and the overalJ thickness
Formerly, lime pluster was the bas'.c material for this purpose, mixed with
sand and, more latterly, ceITjent, for cer~ain layers; the constituents are measured
by ·,-o!um;:. Thus for walls, a tipi;::a! sp""cification for the first coatI used to be
(and still is, in some are<'ls)! cement; I lime putty: 3 sand, incorporating 0'535 kg
of c!~:m ox hair ;1(:' 0'1 m 3 of this COM. " -.;;ff; for the second coat, I lime
putty ; 2 sand; with ncat lime putty for the final coat. The lime used was the
'101I-hydrau[j(2 or fallime prepared in a pit on the site one month before use by
1 An alternative undercoat s t,H chosen in SOme places is black-pan mortar obtained by
grindmg down 3sh~s In a pug_mill and addmg lime.
• A second typc of lime is magnesian lime som~imcs used for plastering and mortar
mixes.
. A third is hydraulic iimt' which can set under water (unlike the non-hydraulic type).
It was Once used for concrete mixes before the introduclIon of Portland cement; it is stlll
uscd for mortars.
32 BRICK WALLS
mixing qvidtUme (CaO). obtained by burning limestone in a kiln, with water to
{ann liIIU pt4ty. The latter process is known as sl41tmt or hydratitm and the
putty haa the formula Ca(OH)I' Such mixes containing lime and cement shrink
on drying out, hence each coat was allowed to shrink before further coats were
added. This lengthy procedure delayed completion of the work and lime pin-
te~ have been replaced almost entirely by calcilDft nIlplulte or gypnnn pJtUt~sl
for th~ have the following comparative advantages: set within a few hours,
produce a harder finish. expand slightly on setting and. finally, they enable
decoration to proceed at an earlier date.
Lime is stilJ used in two ~ays because it improves workability, making
plastering easier, and in some cases accelerating the set of gypsum plasters (sec
below), viz.: (I) to gauge gypsum mixes [see (c) below), and (2) in lime mixes
gauged with gypsum plaster [see (b) below]. For these purposes, hydrated lime,
obtainable as a powder requiring mixing with water only 24 hours before use is
ofter,.a more convenient form of lime putty than that obtained from quicklime
on the site. The addition of lime reduces hardness and in final coats decoration
b); oil paints cannot proceed until the wall has dried out; this may take from 6 to
12 months. Distempered finishes are unaffected.
Calcium Sulphate Plasters.2-These are in two groups subdivided into
t'tI'ur classes A, B, C and D, in B.S. Il91.
Gypsum (CaSO,.2H 2 0) is the raw material for the first group (classes A and
B); it is mined in this country and several parts of the world. When gypsum
is heated, water is expelled and a white, grey or pink powder is obtained. This
is class A plaster and is known as Plaster of Paris (CaSOdH,O). When mixed
with water it sets within a few minutes, so it is unsuitable for general plasterwork
but it may be used for patching. An additive (a retarder) must be incorporated
with it to delay the set and so produce class B plasters (retarded hemi-hydrate
gypsum plasurs) which are softer than the two remaining classes.
The second group, classes C and D, are based on chemically produced
anhydrous calcium sulphate (CaSO,) obtained as a by-product or by heating the
gypsum to a higher temperature than for group one. These classes are slow in
hardening and so the additive is an accelerator to make them suitable for
plastering.
(a) Plalter of Paris-class A.-A neat mix of this or one gauged with lime
(i.e. 1 to 1 plaster: I lime) can be used for repair work in small patches.
(b) Retarded hemi-hydrate gyp~m plaster-class B,~ is ct:Iadc in three main
1 Commonly, but inadvisably, also kn~'n as" hardwal1 plaster."
t An additiOn to this range is Perlite platter (e.g. Murilite) in four grades: (I) liS all
undercoat on brickwork. (2) on metal lathing, (J) onltoncrete and plasterboards and (4)
as a finishin(/: COat. It docs not need the addition of an,aggregate such as sand for it is
lupplied ready for use incorporating expanded per-lift (Q very light mineral of volcanic
o rigin ) Bnd I(ypsum plastEr. The pmduct is therefore read), for use on water being added,
it i, one-third the weight of, and has better insulating qua}itie.; than, ordlOHry sanded
mixes. , - 1 E.g. Sirnpite, Statite, Xdite.
I E.,. Clrrisle, Gothite, Thistle.
types :-undercoat, finishing and dual-purpoee; it Ihould be made in small
batches.
For undercoat work (known also as browning) the normal proportions are
1 plaster: 3 sand for brick walla and 1 : Ii for concrete surfaces. Hair is
sometimes added to the mix on backgrounds such as metal lathing to reinforce
it especially whilst it is setting.
This class is also used to gauge traditional I lime: 3 sand batch mixes where
one part of plaster is added to about nine batches of the coarse stuff. Lime
hastens the set,
Class B finishing coats are used neat on strong backing coats of plaster and
sand, and on those of cement and sand. An alternative finishing coat is i to i
plaster: 1 lime, but this is a lime mix gauged with plaster and has a softer finish.
A special finishing type (without lime) gives the best surface on plasterboards
and fibre boards.
The dual-purpose grade can be used for both under and finishing coats
except for one coat work on plasterboard or fibreboard.
(c) Anhydrouf gypsum plaster-class C.l_ This is also made in the same three
types as above; due to the slower setting time these can be worked longer.
For undercoats a 2 plaster: 1 lime: 5 sand mix is suitable. Finishing
coats can be applied neat or have a small amount of lime added to aid plasticity.
The dual-purpose type is used for both coats.
This class is unsuitable for finishes to plasterboards and fibreboards as it
has insufficient adhesion.
(d) Keene's or Porion Plaster-doss D.~This is made in the same three
types but is generally designed for use as finishing coais. As they provide a
hard surface, they are much used for external angles, often on a cement and sand
backing (see p. 107).
Like (c) above it is not usually suitable for a board finish and lime slwuld not
be added to finiyhi"g coats.
General.-The mixing water must be clean and free from impurities. The
sand should be clean and well graded; rounded particles are preferred to the
harsher kinds and a clay and silt content, up to a maximum of 5%, aids work-
ability. Plaster should be stored in a dry place. Cement should not be mixed
with gypsum plasters. Strong layers of plaster should not be laid over weaker
ones. Class n plaster can be allowed to dry out immediately after appli-
cation, but classes C and D require up to 48 hours for adequate hydration and
so should not' be permittcd to dry out during this period .
All classes should be.applied before they start to stiffen and re-tempering after
the commencement of the initial set must not be allowed . Tools and the mixing
boards (spot boards) must be thoroughly cleaned after each batch has been used
because portions of old plaster left on the boards will accelerate the set of the
• E.g. Keene's, Parian, Supavlte. Olten tenned Keeoe', ummt.
, ,
 WALL PLASTERING
next mix. The intermixing of different classes is inadvisable. Gypsum
plaeten cannot be ueed in damp situations and lime or preferably cement plasten
are better in such places. Plastering with the latter mixes must be given time
to dry out and shrink after each coat; this lengthy waiting time is eliminated
with gypsum plasters.
Due regard must be paid to the nature of the background and an appropriate
mix selei;ted as described above; gypsum mixes are best for concrete walls.
For brickwork I cement: ~ lime: 9 sand, and I class B plaster: I t to 3 sand
aceording to the porosity of the bricks are suitable (the denser the bricks, the
Mronger the (llix) for undercoats. Walls lined with fibreboard, plasterboard,
metal lathing and wood wool should be treated as for ceilings-see pp. 6]-68.
Brick walls must have their joints raked out 10 nun or keyed bricks can be
used. Smooth concrete surfaces must he roughened by (1) hacking, or (2) the
application of a thin I cement: 2 sand splatterdash coating, or more easily (3) by
applying a retarder to the formwork which prevents the setting of the outer skin
of concrete enabling this to be wire brushed and roughened. These provisions
are vital in ensuring adequate adhesion be-tween the background and the under-
coat; similarly, render and floating coats musl l>c scnu:hed whilst they arc
setting to give a good key for later coats.
Excessive draughts must be prevented whilst the set is taking place, the
drying out should be allowed to proceed naturally, traffic on floors having a
plastered ceiling should not he allowed u:1til the set has been completed . The
cracking of plaster frequently ocrurs where there is a change of background, as
for example, between the walls of a house and the ceiling. This can be pre-
vented by having a cornice or by making a horizontal cut with the trowel at the
junction.
The plastering of ceilings is described on pp. 67-68.
Plastering Technique.-Door and window frames, skirting plugs and similar joinery
work- known as fi.~st fixing- having been ccmplet"d, thc surfaces to be plastned are
prepared as deSCribed above lind cleaned. W~ lllurfaces are don" first and those that are
very porous are dampened if necessary. Assuming that three-coat work is bcing used,
the render coat is mixed and applied evenly by a plasterer's trowel; this is made reaSOn_
ably true by a twa.-handed trowel about 1 to 2", long known as a Derby jfMt . If metal or
timber angJc beads (see pp. 122-123) are used instead of Keene's cement (see pp. 32 and
107) at the angle., they are fixed before the render coat. Bdore the undercoat has hardened,
the surface is well scratched to give a key for the next layer. ScrudJ or 1So mm wide strips
of floating coat are then formed vertically at ,·8 to 3 m interval., they are made plumb
and in exact alignment. Intermediate screttB are than made about 1 IT\, apart and the
ap""e8 between lOre filled ~nd. levelled "~hpf'rlre . The surface is al:uln rou~hcncd, the
setting coat applied, and this is polished ....·ith the steel trowel just before it sets; over-
trowelling is dcpn:cated at it can cau.e cra'l;lng (fine hair cracks). The technIque IS similar
for t ....·o-coat work.
Cement andOT lime undercoats must be allowed to dry bcfon: further COOts are added
and unlike gypsum mixes, the surfaces must nlSt be spnnkJcd with wOler.
Skirtings, architraves and other co'·er moulds should not be fastened~kno"n as
Itcllnd fixillg~until the plastering has set.
PLASTERll'OO FAILURES.-P(lppjn.f, pillillg and blouillg caused by unsound lime and thnt
which has not been slaked properly. The unslaked partides expand to leave small holes
in the plaater.
33
Poor adhesion etused by rngh suction of the backing, too ... pid drying out or by mois-
ture being imprisoned in the wall which subtequently emer~ through the plaster in the
fonn of blisters. Due also to inadequate key -.nd incorrect choice of plaster.
Crqcking due to shrinkage on drying out, it is associated with cement or lime m.ixeIJ.
Movement of the background is also respomible, as for e)[llmple the drying out or timber
ceiling joists. Caused also by using $8nclt cootaining more than S per cent &ilt and clay.
Failure to provide dillContinuity ($CC pre<:eding column) where the background changes
i$ another reason.
Ceiling Collapse. Wood lath and plaster ceilings are rarely used now, they collaple
(as will metal lathed ceilings) if the key i, inadequate or if they are vibrated by traffic
before they have set. Ceilings on concrete surfaces must be given a good me<:hanietl
key (see preceding column).
EXTERNAL PLASTERING OR RENDERING
Rendered walls are an alternative finish to facing bricks, they can be made
in different colours and are used in places where clay bricks would be out of
harmony with the surrounding landscape or where the only local brick is a con~
crete one of dull appearance. Rendering is used extensively as a waterproof
finish to no-fines concrete walls, such walls are made from 300 mm thickness and
upwards and consist of 1 part cement: 8 parts of large aggregate (13 mm); sand
is not included in the mix and a sound ""ell-insulated wall results because of the
air voids.
Gypsum plaster mixes arc quite unsuitable for external rendering; much
traditional work still exists and Ihis is made of lime mixes protccted by paint.
Cement: lime: sand mixes are now adopted and the proportions of these three
materials is again dependent on the nature of the background and also upon the
dcgree of exposure. A good key must always be provided, the bricks must be
well fired and durable and the joints raked out 13 mm; surfaces should be dam-
pened if they are too dry before plastering starls and strong finishing coats must
not be applied over weaker undercoats.
Of the many types of rendered finishes, the following arc popular : scraped
finish, roughcast (wet-dash), pebble dash (dry-dash) and machine finishes.
Smooth well-trowelled surfaces should be avoided as they tend to "craze"
(see prcceeding column), if cracks develop they are very obvious. The range
of cement: lime: sand mixes given below varies in strength in order to suit the
degree of exposure; two types of background are considercd: viz., (a) strong,
as given by dense bricks and concrete, and (b) moderately wcak as with light-
weight concrete, etc.
Scraped Finish.-l : I: 6 to I: 2: 9 on (a) and (b) backgrounds for both
undercoats and finishing coats, the top 1·5 mm of the latter is scraped oft Just as
it begins to harden. This removes the top fatty skin which tends to develop
during the application of the wood trowel which should always be used in
preference to the steel trowel.
Roughcast Finish_-I : 0 : 3 to I !: 6 for (a), with t : I : 6 for (b) as both
undercoats and the second coat. Whilst the latter is still soft, a mix of the same
proportions but includi:lg 60% of 6 mm gravel in the aggregate is thrown on to the
34 BRICK WALLS
wall to give the wet-dash finish. This is more durable than the next finish
described.
Pebble~dash Finish.-The mix and procedure is the same as for rough-
casting except that the thrown-on coat consists of dry pebbles or crushed gravel
only; the pebbles tcnd to drop off in time.
Machine-made Finish (Tyrolean).-The undercoat procedure is the same
as for the scraped finish. The final coat is thrown on by the blades of a small
hand machinc, alternatively it can be sprayed on by a hose delivering the mix
by air pressure.
THERMAL INSULATION OF WALLS
I. The subject of thermal insulation is described fully in Chap. lZ, Vol. 4.
The Building Regulations give approved specifications for Ihe thermal
insulation of walls; there are four main types: -
I. Cavity walls with insulation material applied to either side of the inner
leaf. For example a two leaf brick \\:all, each leaf at least 100 mm thick enclosing
a So mm minimum width cavity with 10 mm thick expanded polystyrene
insulating board stuck to the inner face of the inner leaf. The board is in
1800 and 2400 mm lengths, 600 and 1200 mm widths and 10,25,38 and So mm
thicknesses. The joints \0 the board arc covered with scrim cloth (p. 68) and
the face of the board plastered.
2. Cavity walls with a brick outer leaf and an inner leaf 108 mm thick made
of lightweight concrete blocks of density not exceeding 800 kgJm 3 . Note that
the usual block thickness a\'ailable is 100 mm and is made to satisfy the Regula-
tions. This type of construction is the most usual being cheaper than type I
above.
3. Cavity walls with the cavity filled with urea formaldehyde foam. Holes
are bored in the wall and the foam injected. This method has been u'scd widely
but failures have occurred due to water penetration.
4. Solid walls of lightweight concrete block rendered externally and plastered
internatiy, the block being 240 mm thick made of concrete of density not
exceeding 1000 kgJm 3 .
Thermal insulation of roofs is described on p. 141.

CHAPTER TWO
MASONRY WALLS
Syllabus-Classification of stones and brief description of tne quarrying, preparation and characteristics of limestone and sandstones. Surface finishes. Tools.
Natural bed. Defects in stone. Classes of walling, including ranuom rubble unrouned, random rubble built to courses, squared rubble uncoursed, squared
rubble built to ;;:OU1$e8, regular coursed squared rubble, polygonal, Ilint, Lake District and ashlar. Dressings to door and window openings, including inbands,
outbands, linlch, arches, sills, mullions, transomes, and step~. Plinths. Simple string courses, friezes, cornices, parapets and copings. Joints, dowels, cramps '
and plugs. Mortar jointing. Construction of wal!s. Liftin g appliances.
THE art of construction io stone is called masonry.l
BS 53<)0: Code IJf PrJuin' (ur Stone :\la~onry i:; rdevant.
CLASSIFICATION OF STONES
Rocks are divided into the following groups: (I) igneous, (2) sedimentary
and (3) metamorphic.
(I) Igneous rocks have been formed by the agency of heat, the molten
material subsequently becoming solidified. The chief building stone in this
class is granite.
(2) Sedimentary rocks are those that have been formed chiefly through the
agency of water. Most of them have been derived from the breaking up of
igneous rocks, the particles, conveyed and deposited by streams, accumulated to
form thick strata that have been hardened by pressure. The principal building
stones in this group are limestones and sandstones.
(3) Metamorphic rocks forrn a group which embraces eithcr igneous or sedi-
mentary rocks which have been changed from their original form (meta-
morphosed) by either pressure, or heat, or both. Slates (sec Chapter V) and
marbles come under this class.
Limestones and sandstones are those which are used chiefly for general
building purposes.
Limestones.-A limestone consists of particles of carbonate of lime cemented
together by a similar material . Portland stone and Bath stone are in this class.
Portland Stone , obtained from the I sle of Portland (Dorset), is one of the
best-known limestone~, and stone from one of the beds or seams, known as
Whitbed (sec Fig. 18), is one of the best building stones used in this country for
high-class work. Whitbed varies in colour from white to light brown, the
latter being the best; it is durable, and, on account of its fine grain, is easily
I More advanced masonry is described in Vol •. II and IV.
,
carved and moulded. The Basebtd~ is not so durable and should only be used
for external purposes after careful selection. The Roach bed is not suitable for
general building purposes on account of the large number of cavities which are
present, but because of its great strength and good weathering properties it is
used in the construction of sea walls and similar marine work.
Bath Stone, obtainable in the vicinity of Bath, is used for general building
purposes. It varies in colour from white to light cream or yellow, it has a fine
grain and, because of its relative sGftness, it can be easily worked.
Sandstones.- These are composed of consolidated sand and consist chiefly
of grains of quartz (silica) united by a cementing material. The quartz grains
are practically indestructible, and the quality of the stone therefore depends
essentially upon the cementing material which may be silica (forming siliceous
sandstones), oxides of iron (forming ferruginous sandstones), calcium carbonate
(forming calcareous sandstones), etc.
Many excellent building sandstones arc quarried in Derbyshire, Lancashire
and Yorkshire. Stancliffe stone (Darley Dale, Derbyshire) is light brown or
honey coloured, is very strong and durable, and , although relatively difficult
to work on account of its hardness, it, can be moulded to give fine arrises.
Woolton (L ancashire) stone is used in the construction of the Liverpool
Anglican Cathedral. Some of the Yorkshire stones arc exceedingly hard
(especially those from the Bradford and H uddersficld districts) and arc suitable
for steps, landings, flags, as well as for general walling wherc fine mouldings are
not required.
QUARR Y ING
The methods adopted in quarrying stone vat)' and depend upon the type and its depth
below the surface. Most stone is obtained from open quarries, but where it is very deep
(such as Bath stone) underground mining is used.
1 The basebed is slightly whiter and the texture is ~omewhat fineT than the whitbed;
it is easily worked on account of its fine and even grain, and is suitable for internal work as
for monuments and for purposes where carving or much fine detail is required.
 MASONRY WALLS
Fig. l8 thOWI a section through the face of an open limestone (Ponland) quarry. As
much as pou,ible of the overburden (which varies from a few f«lto 15 m Ihick) i, removed
by mechanical HalVator,1 hand picking and cnnn. The top Ind dtull caps arc loosened
by blasting.
After the roach bed hi! betn cleared, the stone il removed from each stratum. This
operation is facilitated by the presence of natural vertical jointB and horizontal beds of
wells which aepanle the layers of stone. Commencing from one of the right~angled verti-
CIII joints, a number of strong metal wedges (see c, Fig. 19) are inserted at intervals alool;l:
• llhell bed and gradually hammered in until the atone is split horizontally and the slab
bec;:omH detached; if necclSaJ')', it i. divided vertically by wedging (see e, Fig. 19). Each
block is now lifted clear of the stratum by means
of a crane, roughly squared up by the use of a
SKnCH large hammer and loaded into a truck for transit
""""..0
SfCTION
to the worb for final drcssing.
Blauing is sometimcs n«<led in sandstone
quarries because of the hardnes:s of the stone.
TH~H
F,I£E OF Briefly, a series of deep holes (about ~S mm in
diameter) i. fonned by a drilling machine at the
LIMESTONE required distance from Bnd parallel to the face of
QUARRY
the quarry; a small charge of black gunpowder
and iii fu~ sre placed in each hole .nd the hole
is panially packed or t~",..,e<.l ... ilh Hnd; the
Toe fuses are eonnc<:ted to a battery and the charges
'" fired; this explosion is sufficient to shake the
mass of stone; the holes are now cleared of
tamping and th .. s«ond or main c'hargcs insert.-d
and again fired simultaneously. This removes
II large bulk of stone which is only slightly shat_
tered because of the ule of two blasu. The large
'NHIT&W blocks are then divided by ~plitting and wedging
(see below) and roughly .quared up for dispatch
to the works for sub~q uent dressing. They
are from 0'7 to 0·8 m' in size, although mueh
larger block. an: obtainable.
There is very little overburden in many of
the s~ndatone quarries. Thus in the Stancliffe
(see p. 35) quarry it doe. not exceed ~ rn in
depth; the depth of the present working face is
FIGURE 18 50 m although some of Ih e best stone is obtained
II a deplh of from 2 to 3 m.
Blasting is not necessary in those sandstone quarrics where the beds are thin and
frequently divided by natund fissures. Thus, in quarries from which much of the
"wallin" Slone" used for" Rubble Work" (see p, 40) is obtained, the thickn~ss of the
beds of good building Slone varies from a minimum of So mm to a mllximum of I'~ m and
comparati,'ely liltle labour is required for its removal.
PREPARATION
Whereat fonnerly the whole of Ihe IMbours involv.-d in dreuing building Slone. after
removal from the quarry \\ere done by hand, by the" banker mason," mOSI of this work is
now executed by machinery. There are certain surfau firiishtt which can only be worked
by hand; these are described below.
Machine Dre5liing.-Themachines used include the frame saw, circular saw, ruhbing
bed, and pillning and moulding machines; some of these are shown in Fig. 36, Vol. II.
The rough block of Slone from the quarry is fint taken to theframt ww \\hieh oon"erts
it into. number of slsb. such as are shown al A, Fig. 19, the thickness of the slahs Yllryinll
in '""cowsn.... 'With rH\Uif.-ments.
I Eanh ffiO'.'ing machinery is described in Chap. I, Vol, IV.
The frame saw is the best machine for cutting hard stone. The speed of cutting
depends upon the number of cuts and the hardnen of the stone. Hard lI3ndlione may be
cut at Ihe rate of 150 mm (thickness) per hour and Ponland s:one may be cut at the rale of
300 mm per hour.
• The frame saw has a rectangular horizontal frame, suspended by roos, which holds
several (sometimes six) plain or corrugated steel blades, each blade being from 7S to I So
rom deep, 5 mm thick, and from 2 to 4'5 m long. These blades are parallel to and at adjust_
able di.rances from each other. Ekctric or other power is iupplied to give the frame a
$hort backward and tOni ard motion at a rate of from I So to 180 .trokes per minute .
During this procets, water is supplicd Immediately over the euts. At the same time
an abrasive sgent such IS sharp sand, chilled shot (small llcel balls) or carborundum
is applied along the length of the cut 10 assist the cutting action. Sand should be the
abrasive used for Ihe sawing of Portland stone as steel shot tends to discolour the stone on
account of rust.
The (rame is raised after Ihe sawing operation has been completed, the lable is pushed
clear of the frame, and Ihe slabs are unload.-d and taken to another machine for the next
dressing operation.
Assuming that these slabs of stone ne reqUIred for genelal walling, each is now con-
veyed to the circular taw for the cuttinll of the remaining fates. There are two types of
this machine, i.e., the diamond saw and the carborundum sm".
The diamond JQfI!.-This consists of a circular st.... 1 blade, one size being 1'5 m in
diameter and 6 mm thick. :Some 240 diamonds Ire secured In small U·shape.d sockets
round the edge of the hlade. The slab of slant: is clamped on to a moving table which is
caused to travel toward» thc billde at a unifonn rate; at the same lime the blade rotates
at a speed which , ... ries from 500 10 600 revs. per min.
The CUlling rate of the machin e depends upon its po"er and the hardness of the
stone. Thus a IS kw machine \\111 cut from 645 to 1000 ern' of Portland stone per
minute. Whilst this rale is consider~bly faSler than th~t of the frame ~W, the circular
saw .:-an only deal cffectively with stuncs which are leu than I m thick. Only limestones or
soft Mlndatones should be cut by mcans of the diamond saw, hard s~ndstones CaUse >In
cxcessive we~rjng action on the sockets and blade.
The carborurldllm sau'.--This has a So mm "ide continuoU!i rim of carborundum" hich
is dovetailed round the periphery of the steel blade.
Its cutting rate is half that of th e diamond sa"'. It is preferred to the diamond saw on
accoullt of the more accurate "ork which it produces, and it is therefore very suitable for
thc jointin;! (forming Ihe ends) of cornices and similar stones which have been moulded.
Cuts as fine as 6 mm are obtllinable.
Water il supplIed during Ihe cutting opcralion in order to cool the blade of each of thc
above two circular sa", Some circular ~ws ha"e two blades. Another lypc consists
of a bladc which traver~es the fixed Stone as it rotates, and it is therefore particularly useful
for cutting long ston es.
The "bow oper~tiom ~rc usuallY:l1I thHt arc neccss~ry for the cutting and dressinR of
stones for walling, but It is sometimes requircd to have the surface oi eHch stone which
will be expost'd when fi1>ed, rubbed SO as to remo,'e the machine marks. ThIS is aCCOm.
plished on a machine eall.-d a robbin;! INd.
This consists of B steel circular table, about 3 m In diameter, which rotatc~. The
stone is pluccd on the bed, clamped from above, and as the table rotale~, thc abrasi'e
action of carboru ndum, sand and water ehminHtes the machine marks.
Cornices, string courses, plioths, etc., arc moulded by m ~ant of pion;,,/! ami mOlllding
ma£hines. After the moulding op.muions ha"e been complded IS described below, the
stone 15 jointed into the required lengths by the carborundum saw as explaioed abo,·c.
Inters«tion. of moulding' ore usually "orked by hand, th e m~xjmum length of mouldingll
being machined "0 as to reduce the hAnd labour 10 a minimum.
A simple type of planing and mauldin,1/:" machinc consisu,.,f a cutting tool of cast steel
suspended from a box al an angle of about 4-5 &. Cutting tool. Art of varioul s hapes and
sizes and their C1Jtting edges Ire shaped the n:verse of the desired moulds. One end of the
stone is first hand-moulded to Ihe required'section. The 1001 traverses Ihe stone back-
wards Ind forwards until il conform. WIth the section cut al the end.
In another type of planer the stone i. fixed to I moving tabl .. below. fixcd tool.
 37

,~

"""'TW 13.

A ~
,x
<
:sPLITTING
2
bLOCK.. OF
:STONE. y '~"
I

~ 5 -,

••
•
j

,~
~
~

1
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u

FORMING ,.. :::J VERMICULATE.D UTICUUt.TED ~

TR.UE FA.CE ,to
~-
06.
''''"''"'
,TOC'"
,
MASONRY WALLS
In both of thf>W ~.~ •• flu tach Irlnt'rlt', th., box I1,Jlnmatically~" onJ,'a o~'t'r to bTln~
thc !vOl In the corr('Ct poslliul\ for Ihc.' return.
Anolh",r type of machin~ has four cuthnl( tonl~ and I~ therdnrr P:'ThCul... ]v clfe(:lI\c
for I.rgc cornlcr\!.
Thtr", i, .1$0 a mouldillR ~ppar.llu~ kn')\\ 10 as Ihf 1>"~U7f"llu D,,"'tIJ! w.d C(l"-"'~ Pltlllf.
Th .. cunsi~l~ "r an wir cOmrrCa.5()T "hleh ('l"'r3It'1; 1<>01501 '-"nuus 5hapt"S and SIZt'. cal1 ....1
pneumatic hammt'r!< The tinesl earn nil, n~ I' ("]1 a. 11ll" h"anl'sl dre~'m/!. can bl' ('x!:Cutcu
by IM~ tonI •.
Ha n d Oreliliing.-In the abst'flcc of madlllwry, th.: follol' mil Dre certain of thc opt'r-
alion. \lhLeh are performed by han,j;-
Spill/I"!!, ~IOp'''Il. Wcdll/ll/( Or ('v/)fftl.:.-.\ l"r/oi'~ block ,,( $\0"<; is split mlO smaller urlll~
U sho,," at II, hR. IC). S,ra,!:ht 1111<"5 "f<- marknl on Ill." .. ul Inl;' faces ;llon~ "Illen a
narrm, J:rOO\l' IS eh,,..,l1l;'d by mto~II~ of Inl;' punl;'h (u, !-o),l. Il)} <lr "",k chiS..! (';llkd "
nlek('r. :;hal1o" holl;'~ Oil 'S~ 10 22~ mm crIllH"8<1Tl' (('rm"J ~1,'"1l. th,' J!H><)"·. a ,t,·,·1 har Il
placed uIIJcr Ih(' ,I<,ne In Ihe ""llIc pl.. n~ ~. Ih("" ..:roo"· .• " ....·1 '''uc,·. '" II"U, "r ,,,:dll"1
and f('uth('rl ~rc plae.·J in Ihe hok6. anJ Ihc "I;'U~l'l ~rc IIr".!u"lI\" ,,,,.I ullilurrnly h~mmu ...1
in unlll th" MOlle Iplll~.
J.~rl!e blocks of han.! """dstone .11,· d",ul'<.l at the 'Iuarry a~ dc.enho.·u hut th,' "ork I~
e);pnliled by u"mll a plleum~lIe dnll10 f"'llI 100 to 'SO mm d,"'p h"ln tu renll,· Ihe
"oo.l!el.
S'IIJpp,"I!.- Th" I~ udopted for 5pllllmll n'.nl ,Ionts" b,eh an' "I>oul ,~o I\,m Ih,~k 10
~ph"inJ! II block of .Ione, a ~rOOH' 1$ forml'u on all lour "Uel and m Ih" unlf."" phln~. Thc
p,tehm)l 1001 (I. Fi)l. 19) " held "'r!leall~' ~IId hITuck smorlly "S;I " IIloved 1I10nl; .he
groou, on eIIch f ..ce. A P""CC of"il5le Slone 'I pl"cl'd unu('r the block ~nd ~ fl''' blo"1 01
a ht."\l'Y bammtr on the blll'r ,"h,en ,s prol«ud h,- a p,«e of"ootl) ",II lx' ~ufl,cl(.·nllo
InaI' Ih .. Btone. Ah('m"III"Cly, a eon"ouou~ mck ,. formtod "crou the top 3nd I,,'th s,de_,
the block I. turned mer on 10 a Imall stone "nd '1'111 "lIh a sman bIOI, from ~ h";I\")'
harnm('r. . 1"mrlll,l. n., ,.,,-hf.l.,r S,,,,,.·,,,/ (Sh' '. hl1 .. "II, D,·prc~.i,,05 ,Ir~ 'urtll'·u on Ih" r"u~h
HDtn or 11rn1131 stone •• M.t dl\"ld .. d inlO unliS by sa"lnjollmmt:"h,lIel<' ..ftcr 'I hal 00'"
quarTled, III" Ihen conta'n mOIsture (qua,..y .IIp) "hien r.. nders II eompara"Hh' 50fl
For",;", a TrrJr FlIu.-A tru .. face il ,\orknl 00 tne Slime 3. (.,110", 'InU u .hu"n 31
0, FiJE. '9. 'The marg,n<ll draff J' II finl formed by the ma50n "'1nll" a draflln.lot ChlKI
(,n, loig. 19) and "ood malkl flof) ordeclr,e hammer lind ch",d to rnno,r the !uperfluous
.Ione to a ll'\('1 s"ghll~ ~1<"" th:<1 of tne unpest hollo" on the rough face. The unfl
mUlt ~ level as t"l«I by II M..... l!hl-edll".. , although lin t"p<"ncntN m .. "", can d,.pcn~,·
""h th,s. A Ilmilar paulkl d .... fl'~ fornled at f on thc ·.~me pi,,",, ~5 f on ord.... Iha' tn ..
face Ihall \)e" out of "indinjol or t"i'I." This '. t,'st ... d hy pll1einll .mUjoIhl-cdll"S on Ihe
draft. lind "Jlhllnll" throu}lh as inJ,c~led h\" broken hnl'l ~I J. J)r~f" Co ~nd It IIrc Ih .. n
forml'd and Ihe "nole of the supcrfluou~ ,tonI' bt:1"«n thnn rt-rtlO\l...! by me,lnS of
the pllchinlilOOI (I). punch (6) "r point ('I). Afl('r conliouIlU. I'urro". h,lIe bet-n formed
aerOM Ihe (ace "ith the poinl or punch. Inc ridRrII may be remoHu b\" the ch,~1 cia"
(:.10) and malkl; Inc chi~I, ... orked paullcl 10 the furrows, the t...,lh prnl'nll",,: Ihc
form .. llon of holes. Diagonal drafu (K), '" ndd",on 10 Ihe m,1Tllonal u .... fu. arc r1('CI'S~3n'
for "orkinR II true face on .. larRe IIone. The adjaeenl ,urfde(" may ~ urcned In "
.,milar manner, the square (a6) hf-inll ...seu to enSUre Ihal the adjacenl lurfooc"5 ar(, ~qu"'e
and yllO for marking any necn.ssry lina.
Th .. term. pillHI I<or'\ or piau. faa are applied 10 the labour on a Slone to form 8 true
face. lIalf pfar" tlQP" dl'S("nbes a "milar hut rough .. r drn&ing, .uch as IS 001,' nO"CCSS8r\"
for bed. and joinll.
Sur/au "·ini.h .. ,.-The finishes "hien may be gi\en 10 the fllu (expoN'd surface) of a
none Ire many and urird. but Iholt applied 10 th .. bed. (upper and \0""( surfllcu),iom',
(en.u) and bade of the Slont Ire more limilrd, 81 the nscnllil requrremenll Ire n'1I50mlbly
smoolh lind .quare .urfacH.
The fini.h variea "ith Ihe Itone and the clan of "ork (or "nicn;t i, required. Thus
for r"IIb/.. 1I.1)or' of Ih .. rorodo", r"bIIlt, urKoUJ',..d cia.. (v-e FiJE. 10), ,'en' lillie I.bour i.
expended, "hercae certllin olner fin,shes Ire bo,h ellborate and costly. blone "hicn i.
rouRhly shlped and dressed .. known al qua.ry-d""td.
Qu.tTY DTe5aiq.--5lone quarned 10 mllny dlltr;CU i. ".lIed III 111 rou-JEh lIate.
In certa,n qUlTnea lhe IIO!"lt liea in Inin bedl and 'phllin" i•• !llh.t may be neceuary
10 iii th, 1>1",,,-,, IIIr \\.,11"'11 "" "nllUnl III Ih ....r ""lUI.,] ~n"",\h f~cea lind fluln ... s~ of heu.
~u.,h '·"lh·I'."·,·,I.~",,, i. l' ~n a ~ u lj-j'lfrJ ,11\,1 h." 1.....-0 used '-\Iens; .... "· ,n Ihl' eon-
~Irun"'n "I 100111'<-'"•• ('th~'r a'n '" '" ,,- ""IU'''''' "" II "m"unt ,r' bho'Jr, .uch 35/"""'''l'r-
,Irnl'.! ,,,,,..I """,:11,-(", lilll~h.,~.
II,m,"' .... ·,/rO'fll'd- \1". k"""" ,,_ I""""" ••jmr./. <{,,,,,'y-f,ut.l. qlldrry·pih}"d and
rmlrr-i",,·,I. lIs "pp,·.Ir;.".·,· ...,me"h.,t "'''''",1>1..,. th~1 ~ho"" ~I 1_. I'",. "). The f~el' I,
roullht<· ~h.,p,·,1 hy 111I"Ul~ 01 Ihe m",h h~ml11.-r 1~7. I·,jo!, I'll UM'U III 'CIl1'-""e Ih,' 1"TJ!Cf
r"'M-u !'on",,,. "f ,1"Il" and ,h"p,'" 'i"t", h\,,,J.,. M,· ."ml"lIllWI 5\jU:lrcJ, th .. ht...!~
;lnd J"'!1\i 1x-"1.!! .Ir<·~", U h~ck IIOn1l' 7~ ur 100"lm h"m tI,,- 1,,'(" ( ....,. PI.I" il1 I·'I!. 22), T'hh
l~ 0.1"",. lor u,,"~ th,' "1\1,"" to m;l,l 110,' h"uI1J"n,·~ .",,1 " "k"'l: II,,· pllchm1l tool Jlonll'
Ih,·",. 'rhi~ ... ,,,':>Iu Ih<' SlOl1", til h,' tiul'u !\lon' 0:1, ..... [,- I(>~(-th~r tu \:1\'t' r('''100113hl<'
um(,m1l Ih,ck }<JlIlb .
,\'r"'~'''t_''''', Thi. IS ~pl'l,,·,1 III th~ i.lcl"lof m.,1J hl"cks 01 .tuoc u..eu for 1<1'1'1."/
/If/obh .11,,1 n~'"I'lr w,,,,rd ,."bb/'-IFiIl. HI. '1"1>" I,'rlle' hlt..-k. ~rc- ojlll\;1\ TI}!ht ""l:k~ tu til<'
";olur,,II ... J (".,. 1' . .1'.' ,1\111 . ",•• II,·r 1.),,,-,,", .lIld II '5 11;" ,pIli ~urLlC"e "h'eh I'r"\ld~. the
t..",., Ih,· ,I".:htl< un,'"',, t"~lu,,' 11<"11.),1 \~r'" dl...-m. TIle.., '"":111 bIOl·k, are <\u,ekh'
~\ju"r ...1 ],,- ,'1'I'h-1Il1: tI,,· """h 10",11111"1 ..tlln/! Ill!' ",h:,". f"l1"""d h)' II.... punch
ElahOrate Dressing. -Th,· 1,,11"'''''11 "n' r.ofllt "I Ib,· f",,~IIt·s \lb,eh Jre \\ork(·J b\"
h.,nt! ,,\1 ·.!u.,rN _I'" . 5: It.'a_' .... ] pu"e~'·J_ r,,·k.·. 1,,,,I ... t!. furr<»H·d. rock.t:ceJ.
,e"bbl ... t. c,,,,,h.,,\. H'I\",cubt.~1 .,nt! a'l,eul~tnl
H'~II'I'<I ",- I)"" •. ,j 1St·,' \1. ,",,t". 1<,1 .\ Inl.· b<'" "h"l l"rm ... laR .ICll<:Tlb,·J .,hol'e.
Th",~ th.·" t..1~_h·J <If lim l h•...J ",,1\ Ihc h.,mmer ... "II>OdIoter (~) Ill" lonl1'oj;! a wril" of
_Iii 10 ~o mm ",0.1,' h"n.l~ "I' nh',,· ,,' I".~ p,'r:111d 1..,,1 ,,,,"k.,, hId; e,,\'~r th ... "h"le ~urf~ee.
'/'h,· ••· ",ark- m.,}" h,." ('lIhn h"r"."",~II>l·'· Z), \.-rI,t,,1 (3) or ~I "'1 nn.lllt" Of.H lofl a~
rnIUlH'd, .Intl '11 '*I~'\1jo1lh"l\l tb,' ht,.I~I"r ,. m ..,,·.1 III Ihe u""elloll flf Ih.· h~nt! UI c~ch
~IT<lk,·. Th" "., ,'omnhlll tini,h "h,,·h il "1'r1..-d to rcl""H"ly lI1"'rcO~I'" "o,k. and It
IS "Is" OIn ulI,·r!llt'd,al,· dr"_.~IIl.!! ,d"ch 's ~Uh'l''1''''nlh' 1.001.·,;, !hIlCd, l'IC. I\el' bdow).
.url.,e,· ,,"h Ih,· I'unch tb). It 1Il"'- t.,"" th~ '"rm 01 a '~I"IU ,.1 par"lkl fldl:l'S anJ h"l1o"l
(7). "r th,' punch mot'" h,· held ,oln"'~1 ...·lIie .• lly lind Jr'Hn 'n !O furnl ho/l",\. at about 2S
mm ~j'''rlll'i) 11'5 u",·d csl'<·e,.,II~ "" Ih"lImn p"r"oo~ol1.,rl1c hUl1JlI1o.:~.
f'",\,d. 1'..-1.1'"<1 '" /l"h~J ( ...~ 0, Fr/!. "II. Th .. i••1I111M to hUI lincr Ih,on punehcJ
"ork. Ih,' ~m,,!1 pit. bc,n!! (.. ,m.·J hy th .. ","Ilt ('Il. bnr JTt"S-.~IIII1 ;~ SO"Il:I,m,·, ".,Ileu
r/vu-pi.-/'rd or ,/,,,,,,,-,/,,£1,,./ It I~ u,,·tI for '1uom~ aod oce~",o".,Ih- for J(enl'nl faced
\\ork.
'/"00/..,/,,, /J,II/,,J h,.., 1', Fi),l. I'll. -TIlt' I~e .. "hrst houtl'u II) bTln£ II 10" rC.llular
5urf~e,·, aff"r "h'eh d H'nes \If eOmllllUl,," "nd p.lTalld hOTll"nl,,1 (Io) .. r \('TI,cal (1'1 Or
ul;Il1on~1 {izi lin .. ch"d III1("s ,Ifl' f"tmrcl '\'Ih II,.. h.,I"n!! \Or bruaJ tool (l'l \lh,ch IS
causnl to m"',· 111 the ,II"~tlO" (If II" ro/<:t. II 1~ u,,,~1 to 'J><'C,f.. Ihc numIK-r of hn", rer
2 ~ mm Ih~ num1>.,r ,.'''-'''!! irhm l'i to 10, d,'p"n,llnlf ul'"n th .. h~rdneu uf th .. ,1"111' .100.1 Ihe
d"o.:ln of lin~n" .. re\julln!. Thh " ~ common Jrl'S~IO),I f<IT :"hIH "ork (~ce p ... 7). '\Oll'
Ih .. d'IT....·ne'· ,0 Ihe "l'jW...."',.,. het" ,·.;-n boa~leu dnd I,I()I~'I\ "vrk, In Ih., forn,.,. th., 1lldrks
"fl' H.'t lind nnt CCl,,1!I1UClU,. "),"re;>, III t,ooled "ork thc 1m.,. ,IT~ d...,per .mt! .ire comllIU<)U<.
FIIl,,,,,,-J ,., FI'II,·d(~.·c Q. 1"Il. I<)}.- The ~url~..,.· is fir" boast.,d ;tIlt! th .. n rubheu (5""
p, .110\; i> to 10 mill ",d~ flul.., (se.· ~el'on ,\) H(" th .. n r~rcfull .. forml't! b\'. 1I:0UII:e (1.l1
,·"h.. r, "r\lc"ll,' ('of) \.Ir h"ri2<>11I.,II<·, I ~l. I.rn,·s 5h('1\\ "'1: the ~rn!loh of the flutu ~r~ ho;zhtl,'
M:""'d ~nd Ih.·,c Serl(' '" ~ ~u1tl~ 10 tlie m,l.on a~ he "orh Ihe ~(lUQ~ along each. This
fin,sh .. I(>ml'l"l\~~ appl"..d I" Ihe hlkls or 11;.1 h~nlh 01 cornices, .tri"ll eourSt", uoor
~od \\",do" arehnn'''', ele.
Nocic-faud, Rl1SlIra'nl '" 1'lfd,-/"u,1 (SC'<" R. h.l! I'}), \flu tn(" mar~",~1 dr~ft. hne
IK-en "orked (1« abo,r), thl' Pllchmlt 1001 i. uscd \0 r~mo"~ een .. ,o of th,' supcrtluous
Itone 'n Ihec("nlre "h,eh ,s left r;,,~ ..d or roulln to Imll.lt ......",k-hkl' surf"..,., It'" boltier
Ihan hammer-dressed "ork .",0.1 's \Omel;m(", appl"'d I" plonlhs to ),I,,-e a ICmbl~nee of
'''enRth and 5OIId,ty.
S(tlbbl,d Or Smp"hJ.-ThIS " SImilar to Ibe lattl"t, Ihe sc3hblllll! or !\Cappllllil: h~mn"'l
(Ihu\\ n by brokl'n 1111" al 2Q) belnl<: used 10 r.. mo'·e ">I11e of the orr"llul.ntICi.
D,tlKlftd or Combrd.· Th'I fimsh IS 1I"" .. n to soft l,me51~n('., such h Uath alone, by tI\l"
'pplicallon of drap (all. Thl'K drill' arc .Ieel pidtCll (lbout 1'S mm thIck) hning
Krrated WI",.nd IBded Into" ~oallC," " sccond ...nd " nne," Mccordlllg to Ihe number
J
 DEFECTS-MASONRY
of teeth per:lS mm. After the surface: of the stone has brt-n brought 10 the requIred Ic'-cl
by means of the dummy (the: head of which is mad" of zinc or PC'" let and is shown at z~)
and :oafl stone dusel (19), thc ants., drag IS dragged backwards and forwards In d,ffucnl
directions acron the surface until thc 1001 mnks have been eliminated; tillS is followed
by the IIKOnd drag and finany b, thc fine drag until all 5(:ratchc$ hdV", disappeared.
Vnmic"IDttd (see s, Fig. 19).-Thc face is brought 10 .. 1c'-cl ;md smooth fmi.h.
Marginal draftl are lunk at least 10 mm below Ihc surface, wh .." slnklngs aTC then \\orkNl
10 a depth equal to that of thc drafts (see Sl'CtLon L'L') so as 10 fonn II ,\lndmll snake-like
(t:tTlmnous) rid~ ",hieh is oftcn continuous (as shown m T) and "hlch h~s to be can-LoU
by meanl or l{Ouges (I).
R~IIClllattd (see v, FiR. 19).-Thil is SImIlar 10 '·ermleulUled. e)(eepllng that the
ridge. or veins are 11'$5 wonding ~nd arc lonked up 10 fonn" network of ITregulady lih~ped
sinkingll, or r,ticlIl,J; the bottom of th""e hullows IS sometImes SP~Trow-plckcd (see
p. )8) wIth a fine pomt (9) as sho"n lit ,'.
Neither vennicullltr-d nor retlculated ruslieated dressings lire applIed much tu modun
work, probably on account of theIr ("xpe""e, but they arc occasionally adopt_~d for <tuums
and to decorate lind emph~slze honzonlal couNies. They mUSI be done with gr~al carc
Dnd 10 D bold scale If Ihey arc 10 be efTccllvc.
Ch isel Drafted Margins.-Ilesidcs margin"l dr"fts "hich val')' from zo to So mm and
are necessary m the working of II true face (sec p. Jg), dnlfls arc also used for the sake of
appearance and some of IheJe are shown III F~II: "). These may he pitch(.oJ (!lee I.), Iquare
(N and s) or chamfered (Q and v). Stones \\hlch h,.,e ~en hammer-faced must be pilched
or roughly trued up ~t the e<ig... I f rlo .... _fitting Jomls Uf' nee(I,,<I Draft",l m~rP.'in~ arp
usually given a boasted finish (N), or the surf~ces may be rubbed (s) or tooled (II). Quarry-
pitched wall mil: mUSI have drafts (called angle, dm/t,) worked on both SIdes of Ihe arr~s of
each quom stone and on jamb. of door and wmdo" op~mngs (see II, F'll:. 20). Th,s 19 to
permit the usc: of th~ plumb mle andlme to ensure plumb and accur~tc "ailing durir.g It.
construction, the face of the drafts I:,,·ml: the lme of the wall.
Too ls.-A few of the man~' lools u5"d bv Ihe mason ha,-e bCt'n referred to on the fore-
lIoinll: pages and illustrated m hg. 19. Chisds are struck either ",th the mallet (24)-
which ,s made of hardwood such as beech or hlckory-or the hammer. The stnk,nll: "nds
of mallet-headed chisels arc broader (""" S, 9 3nd I J) than thos" " hich ue hammer-hcaded
(,.g., I and 6) to pr,,'ent damaKin!!:_ the mallei. CuttinJl tools wh,ch ha"e 10 "ithstand
heavy impacts are u~u~lh' made entirely of caSI sted, others used for the dreSl'ing of soft
stones may hl"e wood handles (. 9) and Ih...,;e are Slmck ,,,th the dummy (ZS) "hich ha< a
zinc or pewter head. Olher tools, such 3S the tro"c1, square. linc Jnd pms, bevel, etc.,
ha"e been described on p. 28.
Natu ra l Bed.-Sedimenla.,.. rocks. such as limestones and sandstones. arc stratified
or laminated (due to the deposition of successi\e layers or laminae duriog the fonnation
of the stone) and occur in beds of \arying thickness. The laycrs arc usually parallel to
the bed and the tenn .. natural bed " is applied to Ihe surface of Ihe slone which IS pa .... llel
to these lay .... rs or bedding planes.
The beds ne generally mort: or less hOTlzontal, although III some quanies they arc
inclined (see A. Fig. (9). Some stones sho\\ the laminations "ery dearly. in other varieties
the bed can only be detected .... ith the aid of tbe m,eroscupc:. The direction of the natural
bed of eertam sandstones II indicated by an exammatlon of the small embedded flakes of
nica (a silicate of a shining dark hue) ..... hich lie flat and panlld to the bed, and that of
.orne limestones by the position of the minute shells whIch lie flat in the direction of the
bniding planes. The tTllined mason can usually ascertain the lie of the bed on working
tlw 1I0ne, il being euier to dress .t in the direction of the planes. In order to pre~'ent
m" .akes, it il the practice in lJCfTle quarries to mark the direction of the natu .... l bed on
each .tone before dispatch.
It i. important that tbe Itone shall be built in the correct position in relation to the
natural bed, otherwtsc ser,oul defectl may occur. Thus for:
(0) Gene_ral "alhng, the Itone Ihould be bedded on the natural bed 110 that Ihe lamina_
lionlue hOrl20ntllind at right angles to the prenure Ind Ihulthe lIone IS belter able to
IUpp?rt the luperimposed ..... eiiht. Thil pos,tion i, indicatr-d by thin panllc1 lines at
I , Fig. :I~.
A wall should ~ be conllructed or It ,nes "hich are .. lsee-bedded," i.e., wilh the
39
laminae ,·"rtical and parallel 10 Ibe face of the wall, for in Ihi$ polIL!ion the aClion of the
"cather m~y c~u,e decav alonl: the ed~es of the Slon", and, in .... xtreme cases the exposec
la~'cr m .. y s~parate and flak" off
(b) Cornices, strinlt COUr~"8 and similar projcclinlt coUTSCS sh(luld be constructed of
stones wh.eh arc" edlte·bedded" or "joint-bedded." i.t., the ,t<Jnes are bedded with
Ih~ laminations .·ntiral and al rif.!ht (lnf.!les 10 Ihe fdce of the wall (see z', Fig. 24), otherwise
the mouldlll~ may be dcf.lccd by weather ~ction.
If the n~tur~1 bed wcre \'Crtic .. 1 and pHallelto the f.. ceofthe wall.l'Orlions of the IlOne
m1\' flake ofT"u al o. Filt. ,,6, "here part of Ihe cornice on the Icft of the broken lme may
become dClach ... d. Similarly. if the nMuf\ll bed "ere borizonlal an\' undl'rCUI mouldinjt!l
"lid hori1.OIIIal fillets (flat b.mds) would tend to disappl'ar, ~.K., the lower portion below
the broken line at P, Fig. 2(i.
An e>;ceplion to this rule Dpplie$ to quoin cornice, elC., stones which are returned, DS
tnc r~lurn f"cc~ would he fsc,,-bedded and would result in rapid IlH~ of shape; therefore
such must be car"fullv selectcd compact stone., fTl'e from ob,-ious laminations, and
b.:dded on the natural bed. .
(r) .'rcb,," should be constructed ha\'ing the natural bed of Ihe ,·otlssoir& nonnal 10
th" fllce of th" "rch and perpe,'!d,cular to Ihe lioe of thrust (sec 3', Fig. Z4)·
DEFECTS
The following arc some of the defects in stone :~
I'tnts.- These :lr~ small fissures or hollows in the stone which may cause
it to deteriorate rapidly, especially if e.\posed. Stone with \'ents should not be
used for huilding purposes.
Shakt$ or snailuttp are minute cracks in the stone containing calcite (a
carbonate of lime) and forming hard \·eins which, in course of time, project
beyond the general face on account of their gr~ater durability. It is not advisable
to use stone containing them on account of the difference in texture which
resultS.
Sand-holes are cracks which appear in the stone and which are filled with
sandy matter. Clay-holes are vents which contain matter of a clayey nature.
Both are readily decomposed when subjected to the action of weather, and the
stone should be rejected.
Afoult is a defect which causes the stone to have a spotted appearance
dlle to the presence of small chalky patches. Such stone is unfit for building
purposes.
An inherent defect which occurs in Portland stone is the preseoce of shells
(known as shelly bars), fossils, cavities and Hints. These ar~ often not detected
until the large blocks from the quarry are being converted into smaller units,
the saw-cuts revealing their presence. The affected portions must be removed
and therefore waste results.
The presence of clay and oxide of iron is apt to cause disfigurement of the
stone, producing brown· coloured bands which interfere with the unirormity in
colour of the stone and diminish it!! durability.
 MASONRY WAllS
ClassmcatioD.-The various classes of walling may be divided into:
I. Rubble Work, which consisls of blocks of stone that are either
undressed or comparatively roughly dressed and having wide
joints, and
~. Ash/ar, consisting of walls constructed of blocks of carefully dressed
or wrought stone with narrow joints.
RUBBLE WORK
I, Rubble Work includes:
(i) Uncoursed.
(a) Random Rubble ( (ii) Built to courses.
(i) Uncoursed.
(b) Squared Rubble
( (ii) Built to courses.
(iii) Regular cour~d.
Polygonal walling.
( (i)
(e) I\IisceilaneoU9 (ii) Flint walling.
(iii) Lake District masonry.
(a) Random Rubble.- The stones aTC those which have been quarry dressed
(see p. 38). The principles of bonding referred to on p. 3 apply equally well
to this class of work as they do to brickwork. Unlike bricks, the atones an:
not of uniform size and shape, and therefore greater care and ingenuity have to
be exercised in arranging that they shall adequately distribute the pressure over
the maximum area and in the avoidance of long continuf'us vertical joints.
The bond should be sound both transversely (across the thickness of the
wall) and longitudinally. Jransverse bond is obtained b}' the liberal use of
headers (or bonders) and throughs Headers are stones which reach beyond the
middle of the wall from each face to overlap in the centre (sometimes called
dog's tooth bond). Through stones or throughs extend the full thickness of the
wall (see Fig. 20). Satisfactory stability may reasonably be assured if one·
quarter of the face consists of headers (approximately two per square metre), in
addition to one.eighth of the face area of throughs (one per square metre).
UnlCH the ~Iative impenn"bility of the aton" ia utilfactory il is not adviuble
to use through Ilonet for external Wills, II moisture mly be conducted through than
and cawe dampnCH on the internal flees. This mly be prevented by either Ca)
usIng three·qulrter bonden or (II) using through. extending to wlthm 20 mm of the
Internal race and covering the ends with Ilate bedded on aood mortar. The laller
method i. only applied if the internal flKes of the Will. are 10 be plastered.
The footings should consist of concrete (see section CC at A, Fig. 20) or, in
the case of garden walls, large eat-bedded .tones twice the thickness of the wall
in width (u in elevation at A, Fig. 20).
<a) (i) Random Rubble, UncoUJ"Sed (see A, Fig. 20).-This is the roughest
and cheapest form of stone walling and consists of stones which are usually
quarried near, if not on, the building site. The face appearance varies consider-
ably on account of the great difference in the sizes and shapes of the material used.
The" waller" takes the stones, morr or less at random (hence the title), from the
heap and builds them in to form the strongest bond, any inconvenient corners
or excres.::enccs being knocked off the stones if such will assist in this operation.
The larger stones are Aat-bedded and packed or wedged up with small pieces
of stone or spalls (see figure); the inten'cning Sp:l.ces arc then filled in with the
smaller stones, no attempt being made to form \'ertical joints. The joints
are well filled and flushed .... ilh mortar; these are sometimes of considerable
width on face, l>eing as much as 50 mm or more in places. A reduction in the
quantity of mortar results if small pieces of stone are driven into the mortar
at the face joints; these splinters may also bC' used to wedge up the stones;
such joints are said to be glJ[ltted (see A). The larger stones are selected for
the quoins and jambs to ~i\'e increastd strength and, incidentally, to improve
the appearance.
Boundary walls constructed of this class arC' usu:ally gi\'en J. slight batter on
both faces. as shown. tn gl\'e addittonal stability (see p. 54).
It is common 10 build dwarf walls, such as garden or field boundary walls
or fences, of common ruhble tdthou! mortar. ~uch is known as dry rubble
walling. The stability of these walls is entirely dependent upon the careful
inft'rlocking and honding of the stones.
(a) (ii) Random Rubble, Built to Courses (R, Fig. 20).-This wallin~ is
simIlar to the above, cxceptinK that the work is rouJi:hly levelled up to form course's
varying from 300 to 4.'0 mm thick. These courses usually coincide with tht:
varying heights of the quoin and jamb stones.
In the construct,on of Ih(" "'-111, the qUOin) ar~ budl Ii .... ' (as for brickwork~see
p, 30), the line II stretched level ... ith the top. of thcquom stun.,s, and th~ inlcrv"mnJol'
...alling is broulfht up 10 Ihll level On" of the courses IS sho ... n number~d In the
order in ... h,ch thc ltun" would be bC'dd.,d. The stones arc s~, In muTtlrand~,
every caurK thc work i. well flushed wilh mOrtar and pr~u.,d Inl" the mt .. mal jOints.
This forms a stronger wall than th~ uncoursed type (long continuous vertil,:al
joints being more readily avoided), although the somewhat regular horizontal
joints at the courses detract from its appearance.
Provided the site and stone are satisfactory, one course of through stones at
Il (equal to twice the thickness of the wall) is a sufficient foundation for boundary
Wills, otherwise a double cour~ (E and F) would be required ~s shown in the
section.
NOII.-Ahhoulfh Ih~ II1Ulll1lled " ..mplu refer 10 boundlry Willi, this fonn of
construction ha. been adopted m Ihe erecuon of thousands of houKs Ind flnn.teld.
in VlriOUI partl of the country.
 RUBBLE WORK
(b) Squared .lIbble.-The stone used i. generally onc which is found in
quarries in thin beda, or in thicker beds of laminated 8tone which can be easily
aplit into smaller units. Little labour is neceuary to form comparatively straight
bed and side joinu; the stones au usually squared and brought to a hammer-
dreeaed or straight-cut finish (see p. 38) although they may be given either tooled
(see p. 38) or draggtd (see p. 38) surface finishes.
Fig. 21 show,! a gable wall (i.e., an end wall which is continued up to and
sometimes above the roof line and the upper P9rtion of which conforms with
the shape of the roof) of a building which may be constructed in anyone of the
three types of squared rubble. A portion of the wall is drawn to a larger scale
in Fig. 22 and details of three varieties are shown. The stones fonning the
window may be given a smoother finish than that of the general walling so as
to form a contrast. A description of the head, sill, mullions, transome and
coping is given on pp. 41)--52.
(b) (i) Squared Rubble, Uncoursed (F, Fig. 22).- This is often known as
Square-snecked R~bb/e. The stones are available in various sizes and are arranged
on face in several irregular palterull. A vely effective appearance results if the
walling comprises a series of combined units consisling of four stones, i.e., a
large stone called a riser or jumper (generally a bonder or through stone), two
thinner stones known as levellers and a small stone called a meek or check.

I/.. U B B L E W 0 R. I<.
RANDOM II.U&& L f UNCOUUfD RANDOM It. U& & L E &U I l T TO COUII.S E S
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FIGURE 20

{,
 MASONRY WALLS
Although uniformity is neithe r essential nor desirable, it is found that an extremely on plan, the side joints of the face stones are only dressed square for about 75 mm
well.bQnded wall of pleasing appearance n:sults if the approximate depths of the
snecks, levell ers and risers are in the proportion of I ; <I; 3 respectively; thus, if th e from the face which is usually only quarry-dressed (see p. 38). Another form
depth of the sneck is 75 mm, that of the levellers would he about Isomm and the depth of snecked rubble is shown at F, Fig. 23.
of the riser would be approximately 225 rr.ffi, as shown. The vertical joint between (b) (ii) Squared Rubble, Built to Courses.- The stones are similar to those
each pair of levellers is more or less centrally over a riser, and the snecks link up with
the risers. used for snecked rubble, but, like the random rubble built to courses class, the
The snecks arc characteristic or-this c1~ss of wall (hence the name) and their work is levelled up to courses of varying depth. The squared "face stones may
object is to prevent the occurrence of long continuous vertical joints. As shown be arranged as shown at B, Fig, 20, or each course may consist of quoins, jamb
stones, bonders and throughs of the same height, with smaller stones built in
between them up to the height of these larger stones, to complete the course.
K.EY DE.TAI L <f This latter arrangement is sometimes known as Coursed Header W?,k and is
shown at G, Fig. 22.
STONE GAr>LE SEE FIG21 ~
(b) (iii) Squared Rubble, Regular Coursed (II, Fig. 22).-This type of
DETAILS Of
I(,N~ELE~ ",," walling is built in courses of varying height, but the stones in anyone course are
b COP1NO 'A~ all of the same depth. The stones vary from 50 to 225 mm thick and are from
sn Fl(dl 150 mm to 225 mm wide on bed. The faces may be pitched to give a rusticated
OlTAlLS
appeanlnce, or they may be dressed to a smoother finish, the straight-cut dressing
described on p. 38 being particularly efi"ective.
This work ;s very popular in certain parts of the country where there is available
a plentiful and convenient supply of hard SlOne of good colour and satisfactory
weathering quality. Many buildings in Lancashire and Yorkshire are built of this
class of external walling.

Rcg:ubr cuursed rubble walling which consists of large squarcd blocks that
arc usually either hammer-faced or pitch-faced is sometimes called Block-in-
Course. It is usually associated with heavy engineering work, such as in the
construction of sea walls, retaining walls, etc., and i" not often used in general
building work .
(c) Misccllaneous.- There are many variations of walling which may he
I
Q classed under Rubble \Vork. These variations are due to the particular charac-

" teristic qualities of the local materials available and the traditional forms of
construction peculiar to those localities. The tbree examples mentioned under
cla~s (c) Oil p. 40 arc all well known, and hence their incluRion. It should be
ohscn'ed that, owing to the comparative cheapness of bricks, these ha\"C, to a
certain extent, repldeed the local material and thus none of the' following three
examples are :ldopted for new work to the same cxtent as formerly.
(c) (i) Polygonal Walling (A and B, Fig. 23).- The stone useel for this class
, of \\'311, although tough, can be easily split and dressed to any shape. It is
, ,
--L-~-----l EL£""'TlON r--- ---~-~ hammer-pitched on face to an irregular polygonal shape and is bedded in position

r
L-----~---1
to sho\\ the face joints running irregularly in all directions.
, r---------J
~ d:rj;]I F'j In one cla.« of this work the stones arc onh' roughly sh"ped, clll& ing (hem to fit
SECTlON togethl"r onk approximate h'. This is fi:ollJ,h-picked and is shown :;t A. A ~econd
clnss shows more accurate \\ork as the fac<' cdges of {he stones arc more ean'fulh
formed to permil "f the small bloek~ !O fit more inti!l1a{~h' into each other to fnrtll
I 5560 "h"t i~ ,,,,lled ("/"s" - picked work (sec n). \"alls faced wiTh th;~ maleri,'} art· ¥cnerally
h~cked with hrickwork. This work is pl'rhar~ better known as Kell/ish Ra:; on
"'-"oN "CcoUnt of ~ Iim<'5tonc found in Kent which ha . been u,,·d f~irlv ~x'en,iY~lY for ,hi,

FIC{;RE 21
 43

I
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I I
I I u B l E I I
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I I
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FIf.' 11.1 .z1.

r
 MASONRY WALLS
purpote. II i, common in the .outhem oountiCi. A soft pndltone hal also been
adopted to give I .inl.llar appearance.
(e) (ii) Flint Walling (c and D, Fig. 23).-The stones used in this class are
Rints or cobbles. They vary in width and thidness from 75 to 150 mm and in
length from 150 to 300 mm, being irregularly shaped nodules of silica. A1though
extremely hard, they are brittle and can be readily snapped across. They are
sometimes employed for the construction of walls in thOR counties where the
flints are readily obtainable from the gravel beds which are often associated
"ith chalk or limestone. Buildings ncar the coast have been constructed of
walls in which the rounded flints from the beach have been used.
The external walls, which are generally from 350 to 450 mm thid, may
consist of either (I) a facing of flints which have been snapped transversely acrosa
.the centre, with a backing of the undre88ed flints as in section GG, or (2) similar
but with the broken surfaces of the facing flints squared at the edges as shown at
Dar (3) undressed flints throughout. The face arrangement may either be un-
coursed, built-to-courses or regular coursed. Uncoursed flint walling especially
is deficient in strength on account of the small-5ized material. This is partly
made good by the introduction of through stones (two to every square metre),
or continuous courses-known as ladfrl courlel--of long thin stones or bricks
or tiles at vertical intervals of J to 2 m and stone or brick pieri at about "5 m

f!.. U 8 L E w0 ~ K
POLYGONAL1, F LIN 1 WALLING LAI<.E DISTRICT MASONRY
WALLING
\.J t-- bOO -;)

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5&CT)ON I+~ ItJ'UtroPPED FLINT~ WITI'! ± SECTIOrf'.l K..K.. UST FM:£O 1UtoN00N0. >L
f>It.ICIt... Q(JQIN
NOTI1 OH Uo.Il.I. DlSTW.ICT WtrLUNG- 1 ~roMU -'1 "NATI.IUOOIOT" (TilTID\ 5C TO 104 .... PIR !oo_ TMICt<.NIS, Of" 'W#rooLL
:l N'IOttT/WIl" SIT -el(.. SO FIt.ON. 'JOoCI t; SPRVtoO ;1 ~ 'NIDI. (Uf. THtCk. I-INE.i I,.,. SI.CT1ON) 3 ............. TING IS ~K.f.D DIt~:

FIGl lMt 23
 RUBBLE WORK
intervals; alternatively, brick headers may be inserted in dia~ondl lines across
the face to give a diaper appearance.
An elc\'ation and sectirm of a portion of a wall faced with splil Aints, hackeJ
with undressed Hints, and provided with brick lacing courses and piers arc shown
at c. The snapped flints are laid in courses. This is knoYl n as pol/l'd (;Icing.
The r~cing flints ateplaco;d in position "ilh the black or dQrk Itrey sflht ~urf:II';lS
out'l'ard~ Thts fllnng may either ~ bu.1I up wilh the body of thc work, or toc
Will mar Dc eonslrucled by bedding the face Hints on hOlh •• des In ~ hc.),:h! "f "bout
225 mm, ",hen a thick layer of soft mortar IS spn,.~d In bet"'",," int" "hllh ,m,
nodules ~re placed to force the mortar up bcl",,,,,n them Ihts IS knm,'" "s/"nl'in~;
~hern3\1\'cJy. grQuting mar be adopted, liquid m"rt~r h~onlol p"ute..! on" tn~ n"..!uk~
packed m tne heart of the WI.]] to fill up the Int~r~tlccs. Tne spIlt nr pullnl tlml~
shoul..! bt· at least lOOmm long from front to back, un..! Ihc mkrnal fdCln.ll Rlnh ...r"I;nJ
p~ headers in order that they may be well uilcd Into thc body of tht: wall. Thill
flakes remO\'cd from the flint. may bt: used to g~llet the jnint ~ fur thc' rt:3Sf)nS ... lld
on p. ",0 and shown at L.
Knapped flint facing, in conjunction with a brick quoin, is sho\\n at n. Th"
larger cobhles are snapped across, and the split surfaces are dressed (knapped)
to give faces which are approximately 100 mm square. This is the Il\:st tYlle of
flint \Ialling and is sometimes known 35jftJuged or !quared flint.
The facinJ! flints are laid very close toll"cther .!IO th~1 lilll ... if am'. m"rt,lt joinl">
ure "islblc Knapped flint work is sometImes 3rran~d 10 form pands OCI" "cn ~tom'
or bm:k dressings. when Ih" flmts 3re sometimes unbondcd, i.~., Ihc' ,"emt:a1 j"ints
arc conunuous.
When the flints arc undressed thro\lghout (as for collage work) the e'l.ternal
and internal face flints arc laid as headers and the hearting of headers and
stretchers arc tightly packed between. 1'he appearance is impro\'ed if the mortar
joints on the outer face are well raked hack with a pointed stick. If the joinB
arc brouRht up flush with the face of the work, the appearance which results of
only small portions of the flints surrounded by broad joints i§ not good.
The colour of the crust of the flint varies from a white 10 greyish blue, but,
when snapped, the btoken surface is almost black (flecked \\ith brown or white)
and glassy in appearance. Thus polled and knapped facin~ is of a shiny blad.
colour, and that of undressed flint work is much lighter.
Cotta!!:" In the Norfolk dilarict werc Bometim"s constructed with 318 mm thid
external" ails \\ Ith brick foundations, .. nd abo\-c ground 1e",,1 they conSIsted of AlOt
work "ith IO~ 10m brick intnnalllOings h&\"1011" C<lntinUOU5 headinlol" cOuTS"" c.... ,,·
fifth coun.... The brick lin",g provided a R:ood surfllCC for r>1~~terin!l und reduc('d
the amount of plaster reqUIred .
(c) (iii) Lake District Masonry (E and F, Fig. 23).- This is peculiar to
buildings in certain parts of Cumberland and Westmorland. The stone, which
is a slate, is obtained locally. The colour of the two \'arieties used chiefly for
walling is olive (popularly known as "blue ") and green,! both are durable
and used for the best work. The stone arrives on the job in irregularly
shaped flat-bedded blockJ varying from small pieces to a maximum size of
, Thi, Itone i, often the waste from the ,late quarries.
45
appro'l.imlltcl:~ 600 mm \\ide liy 900 mOl Ion$!. These blocks are broken and
drel;scd hy the ".lllers to the size ami shape re(luired as the work pro(;ec(is. The
amount of dressing dOlll' depends upon Ihe de§in:d face appearance of the I\all.
There are tl\O type§ of thi!; masonry, i.t .. ruul?h-factd ranJom u:allill,r.:, hUllt 10
CfJunn, dnd bnl-f{/ud Tall/10m R,(/lIi,,_t:.
Uuugh-factll U(/I/JO/ll rr ·(llIin.r:, Buill /IJ ('ourst's (E, Fig. 23). The faces of the
stones arc roughly dressed and the st/)ncs arc irrcg:ular in sh"pe. The hlocks
arc closely fitted together, sp~lI§ heing lIsed to pdCI;. up the larger of them, and
at verti(;al illter\'~ls of from 300 til 450 10m th~y ;Ire lel'elled lip to the fcalus/wl.
(sec hclow) til form a wntinullus joint \\ hieh is more or less horizonl:.!.l. The
through stones form continullus courscs ;It fmlll 600 tn I}OO mm imenals.
Ilul-laud UandoHl WIII/ill.t: (I, Fi~. 23). Thi!; Tl'scmhles squ~re snecked
ruhhle (Fig. 22), the stones hcing s(lu;lre(1 un face with the hammer. The
faces dre n"tllr~lIy smooth and thc stooes arc rcfcrred 10 ;I§ being self-faced.
Some of the Sllech arc vcry thin (f.g., tlMt at \1 IS only 20 mm thick). t-nlikc the
lasl mentioned, the thrllll~h~ arc st'll-:J.(ercd, 1I1d un ;111 :I\crage t,,-n thrmlghs
per S(luare melre of Lice an: allulled.
The \\alling is (;on!;lru(;1eJ in a ITlJnncr "hieh il\ unique and nilJl,:h skill is
demanded o! thc I"dlers. As !lhown in the set'linns, the \1<111 in etfeet t"!IOSlsts
or three portions. i.~., inner and outer faces wilh an intermediate" he<lrfim,:."
PartIcular :lttclltiun is dra\\1l 1(> the through st"ne~ \\hich an' tilted tIO\lll""rds
towards the C:I.tenMI face. Thi~ is knt!\\n as" \\atershot," and Ihe amount of
watershot is 50 to 64 mm per Joo mm thickness of .... all. Thu§ if the \\.Ltershot
is 50 mOl, Ih(' back tdgc of the hed in a 600 111m thick w.tll will be ahollt 100 IlHTl
a~"'e the corresponding front edge. The rcm;linin).! face stoncs ;Ire gi\cn ,I
similar watershot. The top ned of stone window and door hC'ld~ and the
hottom he..! of window ",ills arc watershot. As mentioned on p. d~, thl,; damp-
proof course COllsists of two courses of slates in cement mortar. The quoins ,Lre
of limestone or ~late. The characteristic colour and ri(h te'l.lun' of thc stone
gilt;: a dt:lightful dppt;:ar.mce to this dass of work.
Solitl "ails \~ry in thickne."'~ from 525 to i50 mm.
Altcrnati\'dy, a 320 mOl thick cur'ily wall h:l.\in~ a .60 mm siJte out~r leaf.
70 mm c~\'ily and 90 mm concrete brick inner leaf can he made.
'l'he "ul,t.! tylX' of \ul1 I~ constructt'll In Ihc f"n,""n~ manner; The ..-,,11 IS oft"n
_taMed ,,,th Iht: slun"s "all'rsh"t, U thc natural f...,., of tt..: stont: II nnt sQ\lue bUI
cantt-u to th,'Ix...!.1 Thc "all",.,. "orl.: '" pdir', Iht: lOur" """"nt'nc"d man worl.:inl! on
the outside and the otht:r IOsidt: to assist in the packlOl{ up of thc' flce !'tonCII with
.mall "ieces flf ston" or 5p;lll~ limn fac"s ar(' pnll"lIy bt...!d....! 10 lllurL.. r \\hlch IS
SN back from ","ch f;l~e 5ume SO Dr 7S mm. '10<1 the \\ idth uf c-ach 1a~'er of murt<IT :.ftt:r
It has been ."rud and ~'lueczcd out by the \\t:iRhl of Ih" stone IS about 125 mm. I
:\!orldr 15 nOt UIUaU)' apph«i to the 5idr joints ~'sufficient i. squ"c~"d up .... hen thr
I Th,s is due to the clea""II"" pblOes bf:IOIl ",dined to the beddlOll plane. (see A, Fill" 69).
-
 ••
/'
/'
A S H L A R.
!lEt FIO.l; FOR. R.OO~
n AlT[RN,A,Tlvt TO

-.

,
PLAN "'T AA

FIGURE 24
 ASHLAR
stone is bedded. The maximum overlap in the centre is given to the $tonl'5 In bo'h
flees of the wall. The hl'arting between the two-faced portions cunslsts of small
stones pndud dry. The object of thIS ,5 to ensure that any" at .. r ~netratln~ the
outeT face ".11 pass dow n the dry tillm!,: K> the throughs belo", "h,ch on account of tht-
watl'rshol, w,1I not p.enl'lrate and cause dampness on the InternAl fileI'. If an}, of the
mOrllr joints were conllnuous from fmnt to back, dampness would be causcd by
capillary aHr1Iction.
This form of construction has been provcd to be most cffecti":: on rc~i~unJl d~mp­
ne55 In I distrtct wilh a notoriuusly high rainfall, and II 15 for thIS rca~on Ihal il i~
still employed in fht area.'
ASHLAR
2. Ash/or.-This class of masonry consists of blocks of accur~tcly dressed
stone with extremely fine bed and end joints. The thickness of these joints i~
often only 3 mm and ~ardy exceeds 5 mm .2 Such accurate work is only possible
when the blocks are cut perfectly true to the required shape, and therefore the
hf'n~ ~nd jnints at II'~sT ar(' sawn. The backs art: lIs11~lIy s~wn. I'''frr' whf'n Ihl'
ashlar is to be backed with rubble, when they may be given a rougher dressing.
The surface finish is usually that left by the carborundum saw or it may be
rubbed; several of t:le more elaborate dressings described on pp. 38-39 may
also be applied.
The face arrangement of ashlar may resemble either of the three varieties
shown in Fig. 22, the regular coursed bcing common with the courses of varying
height, depending upon the size and charactcr of the building. Grtat {arl!
must bl! I!xerciud uhtll determining the sizes and praf><Jrtion of the Moths of stone
to ensure that they f~·iil conform fclth the .s:meral stale of the building. Badly pro-
portioned stones, which may be either too small or too large for the purpose,
will completely mar the appearance of the work.
An adequate bond of blocks of uniform size is obtained if the length of each
stone is from twice to thrice the height and if the courses break joint as s~own
in Fig, 24. There i! a risk of the stone being fractured if unequal sctllement
occurs and if the length exceeds tbree times the heig-ht, although this length may
he increased to five times the height if the stone is exceptionally strong.
Ashlar is sometimes given a face appearance resembling that of Flemisb
bond in brickwork. Occasionally it is arranged in courses which diminish in
thickness from the base upwards, or altcrnately the courses are at ranged with
comparatively thick courses alternating with thinner courses.
Compound Walb,-Ashlar is the best g,adc of ma50nt y and it 15 al50 thc most
expensive. In order to reduce the cost, it is the practice to construct walls
faced with blocks of ashlar having a minimum thickness on bed combined with
a backing of a cheaper material. Such are called compound walls. In" stone"
, tn addition, this style harmonizes b"st with an exc"ptionally beautiful landscape.
I Thtre are exceptions to fine jointed work, for tumplt, at the Ang\tcan Cathedral,
Liverpool, wh"TC the 1a~ge sandstone (Woolton) blocks Ut cOnStruCled in cement mortar
and pointed wilh a mixlure of I part white cement to J parts L:ighlon Bunard und, and
Ihe Ihickneu of Ihe joints is about 13 mm.
47
districts, the usual backing is rubble (St:e- 0, Fi~. 25), othe-rwise the backing is
generally of brickwork (sec Fig. 24).
It is essenti~1 Ihat the f~cmJ.! ~h.,11 hl' eff"":li\<:l> bonded with th" backin.!!, lind if
Ihe laner i~ nf hri,·k"mk ... nne~eSSdrV cuttln~ <If Ihe bricks must ["'","oid"d. EffeCT;,·e
hondin~ results and w~st"I(C of IJrl~ks dud labour III cutllng lIvoided when: (a) the
ashlar <."Ourses ar" "ltcrn~ld~ t02 '10.1 21 S mm thork on bcd, (b) th(" thick.n"ss of the
backinl{ is ~ multIple of h"lf-bri<.;ks dnd ((j th<.' heIght of (":leh cour~c of ashlar cf'nforms
"ith the combined heil.(hl of the brl<.'k ,·our'j('~ and th(" rh,ckn"ssof the bed joint~
On account of the thm morlHr J<)[nt~ of Ihe ~shl9r and the lar~r number of bed
joints of th" bdckinJ.!, It I.~ Iw~e~~ary that the latt,'r juint~ shall be as thin as pussible
so as 10 I<ual"d al("inst u""<lua1 s.·nkment Cement mon"r is fre<luently Lscd for
the backing; if Ihe f;'Cltl~ ,s ur Porlland SWIl<" ... "re must be taken 10 prevCllt th~
<"awnt from workillg through ami d'5<.'010\l''''1.( thc f~c<' of the ashla" alld 'I is fo,
this reason Ihn! thc hack of each ;I$hlar hlOC"k .. co,"ered 'n,h lome mortar (consisling
of, parlj{re}' lime and 2 p"rt~ ~~nd) Black Ill"'tar should not be u$ed ror Ihe backing
as this has heen kll',,'n to st~1Il l'ortl .. nd-st"llc facinl{.
So as to cn~ure the <Ish"', "ert ' c,'] jO"Hs bri"J.! <.;omplctely f,Ik-J with nl(>rtar, a
"c,··shaped notch is usually fMIIll:d III carh l"crllcaljomt surface so as 10 form a squ;,rc
hole between e3ch pa, r nf 3dja~cnt hlucks III c{)n~trUCllnl{ 3<hlar, morlar is spread
on the front "dl\" of the wrtic,,] ."rr.. c,", ("I..>out $" nun wid,·) of th" I~S! fixed ~ton";
the adj~cent stone i~ thell pLll·cd in pOSlllon, the back of the ,ertical joint '5 pomtcd
"ith the mnn.,. ,,,,d liquid mort;!r (J.!rllut) " pnun·O onwn the hole /0 form ~ j.lj{j{I~ so
as 10 fill completely the space I"ICI" ""11 c<lch pair (lfMOlle~ Isee I'lan IIA, Fig. 24, and "",
Fig. 20)
The complete beds of ue ashlM hlocks shall be square with the face. If a
bed is "worked hollo\, " (i.t., thc surface is brought below the outer edge of
the stone to form an equi\alclII to a frog of a brick) there is a danger of the
pressure being concentrated Oil the outer edge, causing the stonc to crack and
splinter off or spall (sec p. 53 ,lIld x, Fig. 27).
Fig. 24- shows a portion of a huildin~ "hich i!> faced with ashhir backed with
brickwork. i\lost of the ashlar CoUTSc$ arc of IInif()rm height and (excepting
wherc the work is interrupted hy windo\\s) are ahcrnatcly 2t5 and IC2 mm
thick on bed. This permils of a brick b:.!cking cOtl!>isting of alternate sections
which are 215 and 328 mm thick respectively. The plan at IIA shows the speci:.!l
bonding in alternate cours~s o\\inj;! to the prese-nce of the door and \Iindow
openings. The splaying of the back of the out band (sec below) at 0 is often done
to avoid continuous vertical joints.
The bonding of thc qU\lins (sometimes I:alled rcunlionr or seOlllions) should
be noted, where the 215 mn thil:k courses arc c(lntinued to the re turn face. An
unsatisfactory appearance, indicating \,eakno::ss, would result if the 102 mm
thick courses were to show on the return face.
The diagonal lines and the ringed figures shown in the ele\·ation indicate the
extent and amount of bed -espectively of each stonc. This conforms w,th the
usual practice, the diagonals being especially necessary when cornice-s, etc. ,
comprise two or more stones in height.
The plan at Band tbe sketch D, Fig. 25, show the wall faced with ashlar with
a backing of rubble.
Door and Window Openings.- As shown in the plan All, Fig. 24, the jambs
are bonded by using alternate heade-rs (called inbands) and stretchers (termed
 .,

llCTION £LlV"TION
JOGGLED FLAT Allel-t

- ~

1~~1F·'Gf,H I J /'V ~----'-rl

,I:.u.... I fJl' i" .
N.TlItJolA,.'T1Vt TO N,
,tY
I M.TE~T'V[
'TO MlOV£ 1 L'::::I:::j~£M1_C1R.CULAR. ARCH
B
I
~\';I 0
I I
I
U.tVA.TION
!HUTCH OF
Altct.. B "- /
M TEII.N ...TIVI TO Irro6OVE

~K.£TCH Of
WINDOW SILL
f/.... - - -b:'=!
PLA. .... SEMI-ClrlCCJLA:1l. AR.CH
SECItET JOGGLED Fl.....T ARC~

1""1'11'4 1001 2001

S'AL.E ••
DLI NT 1-+5
"
FiGURE 25
 ARCHES
OJltbtmds), the fonner being rebated to receive the door or window frames. Some·
times the outer edges of these stones are splayed or chamfered which may be
stopped (see broken Jines at R) or may be continued round the head to form
intersections called mason's mitres (see Fig. 22).
The head of an opening is finished. with either a lintel or an arch, and the
bottom is completed with a sill.
Lintels or Heads.-These have been described on p. 21.
Arches.-Brick arches have been described on pp. 21-2+, and the terms
geometrical construction, etc., there detailed are also applicable to stone arches.
The temporary supports used in the con's truction of stone arches are shown in
Fig. iJ.
Flat Arches (see H, Q and P, Fig. 24, and A, B, C and D, Fig. 25).-Alternatives
of that at H are shown at Q (partly indicated by broken lines and showing the
arch equal to two courses in depth) and P, which shows a stepped txtrados.
The alternatives at A and B, Fig. 25, are called joggkd or rebated arches.
That at A shows the keystone with small (about 2S mm) projections at the joints
which fit into corresponding sinkings worked on the adjacent voussoirs; the
object of these rebates or joggles is to prevent sliding taking place and dropping
of the voussoirs. An isometric sketch of one of the voussoirs, with a portion of a
reinforced concrete lintel behind it, is given at C. An alternative to arch A is
shown at Bj this shows secret joggles or rebates as they are not seen on the
face; the construction IS more clearly shown in the sketch at D.
Semicircular Arches (see N, Fig. 24, and J and K, Fig. 25).-That at N shows
a stepped extrados. The best appearance is obtained if an elliptical constructional
line is drawn and the top of the vertical portion of each joint made to conform
with the ellipse. An alternative arch is shown at J where each voussoir has
an elongated horizontal portion (called an ear or crosseue) which courses in
with the wall.
That at K has a semicircu lar intrados and extrados. This type usually
necessitates the cutting of some of the adjacent walling stones to an awkward
shape (see w).
Segmental Arches, having either curved or stepped extradoses, are also built
of stone. The geometrical construction of these is similar to that required for
brick arches (see Fig. IS).
Window Sills.- Reference should be made to die brick sills described on
pp. 2-1-- 26 as the terms are applicable to stone sills (see Figs. 22, 24 and 25). The
sill shown in Fig. 22 is weathered, twice rebated and chamfered; that shown
in section l. and part elevation M, Fig. 25, would be specified as a " 350 mm by
175 mm sunk weathered l and throated sill, grooved for water bar," and that at 0
and P, Fig. 25, is sunk-weathered, moulded and grooved, the upper portion ofthe
mould forming a throat to prevent water trickling do\lo'Tl the face of the masonry
below. See p. 104 regarding the bedding of the water barf The level seatings
, Nor.. thAI nmk ...eatherina bellins with a vertical .inking.
or stools fonned at tbe end. of the sills to support the jambs may be finished
externally as shown in Fig. 25, or they may be weatbered as indicated at c,
Fig. 16; seatings, as shown at ji Fig. 22 are also formed for the mullions.
The sills are in one length, having a ISO mm wall-hold at each end. They
should be solidly bedded only under the jambs-and mullions (Fig. 22)--with
the intervening portion of each bed left perfectly clear of mortar until the
building has completely settled and the mortar in the walling has set. The joint
is then neatly pointed.
If this is not dOf'e, and the sill is bedded solidly throughout its len~h Il$ the rett
of the work proceeds, the lill may be fractured unless it is very thick and " of very hard
stone. This damage is due 10 the unequal stress produced by Ihe prelSure transmitted
from the jambl being concentlllted only at the ends and not evenly distributed
throughout the entire length of the .ill; this'unequal pressure tencb to cause the
portions of the wall irruned"uely below the end. of the ,ill to settle more than the
portion under Ihe centre of the sill. To prevent .uch damage, each ,ill i, somelimes
conltructed of thT« 510001 al showo in Fig. u, the two vutical joinn (indicated by
broken lines at k) being in the same vertical plane as that of the jambt. When this
is done the central stone of Ihe sill may be bedded solid.
The appearance of the sill shown in Fig. 22 (the face of which is flush with
the wall) is sometimes preferred to that of the sills shown in Fig. 25 which
project beyond the wall.
Thec,lauer type causes water to drip clear of the wall below, whereas when the
face of the sill is in line wilh that of Ihe wall, disfiguration of a building results
(especially if it is faced with Portland or similar light coloured .tone) by the
Slllnlnl: of the Wills immediately below the ,ill.. Thi. is due to the WIler (whieh
collec" din from the windows and dust from the w~thered portion. of the ,.iIl.)
paning down the walls. Further, unless the bed joint between each lill and the
wall is well pointed, water proceed. through the joint to cause dampness on the
internal face of the wall.
Mullions and Transomes.-The window shown in Fig. 22 is dividl!d into
six lights.! The vertical dividing stones are called mullions and the horizontal
dividing stone is known as a transome. The mullions are rebated to receive
the windoW frames and are chamfered to cOnform with the jambs, etc. They
are connected at the bed joints to the head, transome and sill by d()U)eis of either
slate or gunmetal, which prevent displacement (see J and p. 53). The transomes
are rebated for the window frames, they are weathered and the ends are stooled
as for window sills. It is customary to divide a transome into units with a joint
over each mullion, as a single stone may fracture if the settlement at the jambs
exceeds that at the mullions.
Steps.-Two steps are shown at the door opening in Fig. 24. The stone
should be a hard wearing sandstone and should be carefully selected. Much
of the description on p. 26 is applicable to these steps (see also p. 123 and Fig.
65)·
Plinths.-Brick plinths are described on p. 28. An enlarged detail of the
upper portion of the plinth at M, Fig. 24, is shown at Q. Fig. 25, and alternative
, A window of this type i, often provided with stetl frames lind leaded lights instead of
wood frames and luhes. Metal ·window. lire described in eh.pter IV.
F
50

I $
COR.NICE5 "Al E
t061
".
5A.OOlE

JOIP<.IT
JOGGLE

\._~CYM' IlEVEIU.-..
SHOWING

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• ~ JOINT

•
.
N
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FRIEZE. . /

M '"
,k.(10+ 01'
CORNICE A-,

ST~NC COUR-:5E
PARAPET (.,
CODING (5££ ~
"
(..t.t.TU.N",TWE TO 0)
COIlNJCE. t.- FR.JEZ£
c (M.iU..N ...TIVE TO o. FIGZ4 )

FICl'llF 26
 COPINGS
plinth mouldings are shown at R, s, T, u and v, Fig. 25. In each case the top
of the projection is slightry weathered to prevent water lodging and passing
COPINGS through any defect in the joint. The names of the mouldings are stated in the
" BCD E figure.

iStzwL'r:===~.,...~.5J)....
n:An+a.. EDGE SADOLt BACK.. SEGMENTAl.-
;::0:
PAP It.J I E'
String Courses.--A Siring course is a horizontal course of masonry (.or
br:ckwork) which usually projects and is provided as an architectural feature.
A simple example is shown at E, Fig. 24, and this is detailed at D, Fig. 26. A
larger string course is il1u~trated at B, Fig. 26; because of the greater projection,
j f<>61 UO'WfI i 4i ... '''01 iiO!_ it is possible to incorporate a throat with the lower (ovalo) moulding which
$C";."U ~ "'B,C.QL~G."U~" x.o.u; ..... L."I.J!<I.'(lI'U prevents water trickling down and staining tt:e work below.
F
RAKING COPINGS 1'hc upper portion of the facade (elevation) shown in Fig. 24 consists of a
coping, parapet, cornice and frieze. These are described below in the order
that they are constructed.
Frieze.-This is a stone course which is surmounted by a cornice. That
at D, Fig. 26, is a detail of the frieze shown in Fig. 24. If there is not a projecting
member immediately below the frieze (such as a string course or architra\'c)
emphasis may be given to the frieze by projecting it slightly as shown at e,
FiC;.26.
Cornices.-A cornice is a comparatively large projecting moulded course
which is fixed r,ear to the top of a wall. Its object is to provide an architectural
R-USTICATED JOINTS feature which will serve to discharge water clear of the building and thereby
---=~=-" ·1~'i'Il'i'C~ protect the face of the wall.
J\J • MOQ..r.u.. p Cornices vary considerably in detail. 1 Two designs are shown in the sections
A lOd c, Fig. 26, and A and D, Fig. 76, the two former being alternative details

o of the cornice shown in Fig. 24.

The proj.:eting portion of a cornice consi$ts of the (j'''mlium and the corona (see
l', Fig. 26). The cyrnatium is composed of :wo or more mouldings. that at c con·
~istin~ of a narrow flat band or fillet and a eyma recta moulding which is separated
•
SECTION ELEV....TI~ nCTION
J ~~~
tL.lV....TI()N
.
S,"CTICN
~

E ..E.VA.TION
by 1\ second fillct from 3 cyma rcnrsa or o.t!~e moulding. The corona has a com-
pnrativdy broad vertical face w,th a recessed .offit which stops water from travelling
along ,t 10 th" f;lCe of the wall. The lower portion of the cornice is spoken of as II
CI4ANNElLE.D V<E VEE ~ CI-tANt-JE.LLED bed mould. which at c consists of a fillet, ogee moulding and a bead.

The upper projecting portion of the cornice is weathered and the vertical
DOWELLED CRAMPED (, PLUGGED .JOINTS joints are saddle(l to prevent water from penetrating them. 2 A saddle joint is
C:OP!t-lGj [! llr -:- ! ~IS'H~b
- l
shown at A, C, Q and ;0.1, Fig. 26. It is formed by rounding off the stone from
~..
.
~tCTION
,GQ"I""tT.... l..
.~1Uo,MP

T
. the top bed to the weathering at each end; this prevents rain from lodging on
top of the joint. The saddle is rendered inconspicuous by bevelling it back·
wards from the front edge as shown.
~~-.r~~-==;METAL CRAMPED The stones arc joggle jointed at the end, to prevent any movement due to
uneqwll settlement which would cause irregularity in the horiwlL\a\ lilles ..,r
t!'.e cornice. Such joggle joints (down which grouted mortar is poured) are

DOWELLED SLATE. CRAMP£!) t Sec p. 9.1 conc.:rning the importance of ,,-ell_designed mouldings.
, \\"'alhcred s(,rfn<"es of <'omices and similar projcctin,l!; members built of comparatively
soft stone should he protected" ith shcct1ead or asph~lt (sec Fig. 76). Saddle joints are
MOR.TAR.. .JOINTS not r.:quircd when this is done.

ugv5W§.~~ i 4 .. Jh'02 "@

MM
MMON'5 .JOINT HOL.LOW &0 FIGUHE 2j
 MASONRY WAllS
ahown by broken lines at A and c and by full lines at M. Metal cramps may
a1ao be used (especially for securing quoin cornice stones) to resist any movement
which tends to separate the joints (see p. 53).
ParapeL-This is the upper portion of a wall which is used as an architectural
feature to cover a gutter (as in Fig. 24. when it is sometimes referred to as a
bloclting COIlrSt, as it blocks from view the gutter behind it) or to protect the
edge or wrgt of a roof (see Fig. 21). It is provided with if. coping, and its weig~t
assists in tailing down the cornice below it. The stability of the parapet IS
increased if each block of stone in the lower course is connected to the cornice
by means of onc of two slate dowels (see Fig. 26 and p. 53)"
Copings.-Brick copings are described on p. 26. Sections through stone
copings are shown at A to E, Fig. 27. Thefeather edge co~i ng (A) is ~n e~large­
ment of that at F, Fig. 24; that at B is a detail of the coping shown In Fig. 21.
The saddle back coping (c) provides a more effective covering than those at L,
Fig. 17, and B, Fig. 20, because of the throated overhanging portions, altho~gh
the latter section is more in keeping with the rough character of the wall whlch
it protects. The segmental coping D is occasionally used for dwarf walls where
the curved surface can be seen to advantage.
The tops of some walls are inclined or raked and are protectc~ ~y r~king
copings (see Fig. 21). Such copings need not be weathered as the ram IS qUIckly
discharged down the slope in the direction of t~~ir length .and th~refor.e the
parallel coping E, Fig. 27, is suitable for such poSitIOns. Rak~g. coplOgs, If not
supported, would tend to slide. This is.preve~ted by the provlslo~ of adeq~ate
supports at the bottom and at intermediate polOt.s (see A and H, ~Ig. 21). ~he
intermediate supports are called knee/ers or knee·stones lsee F, Fig. 27), which
is an enlargement of B, Fig. 21. A kneeler is a block of stone (which should be
well tailed into the wall) with the inclined or raking portion worked to the
section of the coping stones and finished square to form butt joints with the
adjacent coping stones. The butt joint may be for~ed as indi~ated by the thick
broken line at F, but this requires a larger stone hanng the portion shown s~aded
removed. The lower support is provided by a spring" orJootlume- see A, Fig. 21
and the enlarged detail at G, Fig. 27. This may be shaped as shown partly by
broken lines at G (the thin diagonal lines indicating the extent of the stone)
which, like the kneeler, is well tailed into the wall, or it may take the form
indicated by the thick full lines at G when two slate dowels (see p. 53) are used to
secure it to the stonework below and so provide an adequate resistance to the
thrust from the raking coping. The top stone at the intersection of the coping
is termed an apex stone or saddle stone, the raking portions being worked solid to
the section of the coping to form a vertical mitre (see Fig. 21).
When the rake or inclination is less than 40°, the joints between coping stones
are sometimes rebated (indicated by full lines at H, Fig. 27) to prevent water
penetrating through them into the wall hel~w. The correct ~ebate shows the
upperyortion of the upper stone <?verlappmg the l~wer portion of the lower
stone. The object of the rebate would be defeated If the rebate was reversed,
as shown by broken lines at H. An alternative form of nking coping is shown
in the side elevation }. Fig. 27.
MASONRY JO I N T S
The following are some of the various joints which are used in masonry:
butt, rehated. tongued and grooved, rusticated, saddled, joggled, dowelled and
plugged. Some of these have been referred to on the previous pages.
Butt or Square Joint.-This is extensively adopted and is formed by placing
the square surface of one stone against that of another. Of the many examples
of this joint which have been illustrated are the ashlar joints at B, Fig. 25, and
those at F and G, Fig. 27.
Rebated or Lap~d Joint (see A, B, C an.d D, Fig. 25, and n, Fig. 27).-ln the
former figure the check or rebate prevents movement between the arch voussoirs,
in the latter example the rebate is adopted to secure a weather.tight joint.
Another form, known as a rebated and broken joint, is shown at J, Fig. 27·
Tongued and Gr(}()tJed Joint (see K, Fig. 27).-It is now rarely us~d. It
consists of a tongue or projection worked along one edge of a stone which fits
into a corresponding groove in the adjacent stonc. It is sometimes adopted as
an alternative to the rebated joint in Rat arches and between the horizontal
slabs forming the landings of stone staircases. 1 It is also known as a joggled
joint, which must not be confused with the mortar joggled joint described
below.
Rusticated Joints (see Fig. 27).-Pliuths, lower storeys of buildings, and
quoins are sometimes emphasized by the use of blocks of stone which have their
margins or edges sunk below the general face. The term" rusticated" is
applied to such masonry. That 3t Land M shows a channelled or rectangular
joint and is often adopted (see also B, Fig. 26). Note that the sinking is on the
lower stone; if the bed joint was at the bottom of the channel, water would
lodge on the bottom and perhaps penetrate into the mortar joint. The vee.joint
at Nand 0 is form~d when stones having chamfered edges arc placed in position;
see also Q and v, Fig. 19. A more elaborate form of vee-joint is shown at p and
I
Q, Fig. 27, and is known as a vn and channelled joint.
Saddle Joint.-These are illustrated at A. C, M and Q, Fig. 26, and have been
described on p. 5 I.
Joggles, uuwe/s and Crampf.- ln order to prevent movement and displace.
ment of certain stones the ordinary mortar joints between them have to be
supplemented and strengthened by various means. This additional strength
is obtained by the employment of joggles, dowels and cramps.
Joggled Joinl.- The mortar joggled joint is adopted for the end joints of
ashlar, especially when the blocks have a small bed (see p. 47), and for cornice
1 Ston~ landings llf~ $~ldom used nowaday" reinforced concrete construction being
preferred.
 JOINTS 53
stones (see p. 51). The grooves down which the grout is poured are roughly beds when very fine ashlar joints are required. This may cause the edges to
formed by means of a hammer and punch (see 6, Fig. 19)' spall off when the stone is fixed owing to the pressure not being distributed
Dowelled Joint.-Stones which are liable to bt:come displaced are prevented over the whole area of the bed but concentrated at the edges. A portion 'of
from doing so by the introduction of dowels at the joints (see J, Fig. 22 and 0, a hollow bed is shown at x, Fig. 27, where the bed surface of the upper stone
Fig. 27)' Dowels are either of slate or gunmetal (an alloy of copper and tin) only is concave. The shaded triangular portion is likely to be splintered off,
which are from 25 to So mm square in section and two or three times the thickness especially if the joint is not completely filled with mortar. There is little
in length. They are set in cement mortar. A horizontal dowel in an end joint likelihood of the beds being worked hollow when the stone is sawn by
is usually run in with grout (through a vertical hole prepared for the purpose) machinery.
after it has been inserted and the adjacent stone fixed (see R, Fig. 27)'
Cramped Joint.-The joints between stones which are liable to be pulled
apart in the direction of their length are reinforced with either metal or slate
cramps.
Details of a metal cramped joint are shown at T, Fig. 27, which may be
considered to be an enlargement of that shown by dotted lines at 5, Fig. 24,
and used to connect the coping stones. The cramp is a piece of nan-corrosive
metal,! such as gunmetal, which is from 25 to So mm wide, 6 to 13 mm thick and
uS to 450 mm long with ends which are turned down from 20 to 40 mm. The
cramp must be fitted in tightly, after wl}ich it is grouted and covered with either
cement or asphalt. A slate cramped or keyed joint, consisting of a double dove-
tailed piece of slate set in cement, is shown at 5, Fig. 27. It is not so effective as
1+
the metal cramped joint.
Plugged Joint (see Y, Fig. 27).-This is an alternative to the cramped joint
but is now rarely adopted. It is formed by sinking a hole (dovetailed on plan)
below the top surface and a vertical vee-joggle in each end of the adjacent stones.
The stones are jointed in the usual way (the hole and joggle being kept free from
mortar), after whIch cement grout is poured down to form a cement plug.
Formerly, molten lead was poured in to form what was called a lead plug.

MORTAR JOINTING
The thickness of the mortar joints varies considerably, thus for ashlar the joints
may be as fine as 3 mm whereas those in random rubble work may exceed So mm
width on face. Certain of the joints used for brickwork illustrated at T, Fig. 17,
are also suitable for stonework, e.g., flush joints are used for ashlar and the keyed
or vee-joint may be adopted for thicker joints. The mason's joint is also used for
wide joints. This may be of the three forms shown at u, v. and w, Fig. 27. The
two for{Iler are sometimes used for rubble work, and that at w is frequently
adopted for pointing. . These projecting joints should be of cement mortar if
the character of the stone will permit it.
As mentioned on p. 47, the beds of ashlar blocks should be square with the
face. When hand·dressed, there is a tendency for the mason to work /wI/ow
, Corrodible metal, auch as wrought iron, mUlt JUVn be used for enmps, bolt. , etc ..
which are fued in Itonework. Extensive damaae has been caused to masonry which
has been connected by wrouaht iron fasteni~ on ICCOu..lt of them corroding. Durine
ill formation, the NIt eltCl'tl prequre upon the stOlle to IUch an extent as to fncrure It.
FIGURE 28
The mortar specified for jointing masonry depends a good deal upon the character
of the stone. Mortar joints for •• hlar should be a. inconspicuous IS possible, lind
it is often neces.ary to experiment with vllfiou. compositions of mortar until the
desired colour (which should confonn with that of the stone) i, obtained.
That used for walling built of sandstone is sometimes composed of t part Portland
cement and 4 parts sand, and occasionally a lottie lime !5 added.
The mortar recommended. for certain limestones, t.g., Portland Itone, comist.
of I part Portland cement, ai part. lime putty (well slaked. lime mixed. with water to
a consi5te~cy of a pUle) and 3i parts stone dust (powder obtained by the crushinlr
of waste PleclC1l of the hm~tone). Neat c~ent ahould nttlu be used. for grouting
Ponland stone bloch, as thll may Clu.e .talnlfilr of the f,ce of the work; only liquid
mortar of the above composition ahould be used fot this purpose.
Rubble walling (especially if of sandstone) . hould be built with cement mortar
composed. of 1 pan cement to .. partiland, as the .trfflgth of the work depends very
l.rrely upon that of the monu.
 54 MASONRY WALLS
Construction of Masonry Walls.-\Iuch of the description on p. 30
referring to the constru!.:tion of brickwork is applicable to stone walls. The
batter which is sometinl";s given to walls may be maintained by the use of the
plumb-rule which has one edge shaped to the required batter (sec A, Fig. 28).
Where a wall is to receive a batter on both faces (as at B, Fig. 20), the batter is
preserved by the use of frames built of wood.
One form of such" frame is sho\\ n 'It Fig. 28. The frame ;, shaped to that of
I),
the section of the wall, and the outside cd~c
of each inclined leg coincides with Cal'll
wall face. During the construction of the waJl a frame IS fixed krnporarily at each
end. The cone,,! alignment and the b,llter of each face are maintained by 1\\"0 lines,
the ends of which are wound round n<lils dr i"en into both legs of each frame at the
required hri ght.
LIFTING APPLIANCES
Blocks of dressed stone which are too large to be lifted by hand are raised
by means of a crane or other hoisting apparatus ,md lowered gently into the
correct position in the wall. Various appliances, such as Chain Dogs and
Lewises, are used for this purpose-see Fig. 28.
Chain Dogs.-Oogs in "nrious sizes are made of steel and shnped as shown at c .
The~tone to be lifted hasa hok (about 20 mm deep) punched in the centre of each end ,md
from 75 10 loomm down. A Meet cham is passed throuJ<h the ring of each dog nnd IS
hooked on to the chain from the crane (as showo al D) and the points of the dog are placed
in the holes of the stone \\'hen the cbain from the crane is wouod up taut, tbe dogs b ite
into the stone, which is hoisted and lowered 10 Ihe required position. Chain dogs grip the
)1
, )
t:.~
,
i
stone very securely aod are particulady suikJ for lifting heavy stones and long stones
with n"rrOw beds.
Cham Leu·is.~ This comprises three ~teel ri,:,gs and Iwo curved steel legs (see E).
The. legs vnry In. sIze. The hok w[ueh IS formcd III the ccntre of the top bed of the ~tone
IS sfl.r:h11y dO'Tlalled. I f it is exceSSively doveladed there IS a tendency for Ihe lewis 10 be
pulled out o\~ing 10 the legs bursting the StOne during the lifting operation. The size of
the hole "aries from So to 7S mm deep; the 50 mm deep hole shown is about 20 mm wide.
The le\\is IS placed c>!refully mto the hole, one leg al a I1me. If the hole is found to he
too brj<e, a narrow wedge. shap«l piece of sted, called n si/VN (see F), is dri"en down be·
tween Ihe legs. \Vhen the C"me chain or that from a pulley block (which is hooked
through Ihe large ring) is wound up, tilC two smaller rmgs pull the upper ends of Ihe legs
logether nnd thus cause Ihe lower ends to grip Ihe stone. For stones which arc more
than, III long, addi tional control is obtain<;d if a kngth of rope is secured to the sling
from Ihe Cfane, as shawn at G. The rope is generally seeured by two half_hilchesjust
bdow the" balJ," it is then passed round the stone at one end, when a man pulling on the
rope enn assist in directing the stone as ~quired as it is being lifted.
Lewises arc used for lifting stones up to hom 800 10 '000 kg in weight, and, as they can
be expeditiously fixed , they are used for general purposes prohably more frequently than
any olher form of lifting device,
Another form of lewis, known as a Three Legged t=;l, is shown at H. It consists of
a parallel picee of steel between two dovetmled steelle!!,s, n shackle, a round steel pin which
passes through the shackle and legs, and a cotter. The hole In the stone must be cut
accurmdy to the shape >!nd size of the legs, as shown. The n':o dovetniled legs are in.
serted in the hole, the centre leg is d:iven down, the pin is pass~d through holes in the
shackle and legs, and the cotter is dnven down 10 m~ke all SeCUre. The hook from the
sling is passed through the sh3ckle, when the stone is then ready for hoisting. If the hole
m Ihe stone has been cut too large, a piece of z'nc passed between a pair of legs before they
are assembled may be sufficient to .enable the lewis to grip the stone securely.
The crane operator must exer<;lse reasonable Care during th~ hois(mg operations and
the blocks of stone must be hoisted with uniform movement. Any sudden jerk of the
crane chain may cause the stone to slip, with disastrous results.
J
 CHAPTER THREE
TIMBER, FLOORS AND ROOFS
S.rlfabus-Srlef d~criptlon of Ihe Siructur.. , ~rowlh, s ..aiSOnlng, I'rcscn'3uon. SI7."$. com'''r!!ion, d ..feclS, claSSIficaTiOn, charact"TlSlic$ and us"s of softwoods and
hardwoods~ . Ground floor.!, siz,," and sP.aclnlo: of JOISts, hoard In!!:, J0lnIS, ~('nlllalion Sin!!le upp ... flOOr!! up 10 3'7 nl span, struning, trimming to fir"places and
VOIds C~lhngs. Pitch, span and ""olutl{'" of r<XIfs; sml:k roc,(s Indlldml: fl"t, 11',10-.10, douhl .. I.."n- IO. <·oupl .., dose couple and colh.r types; douhle roofs, purlins,
h,ps, valleys, trimming to :VOIds, tr"atment of "av"s; truss"d rafter roofs; slmpl" prlnclpl"s of frammg, fram"d roofs; bUIlt-up roof truss. Timbering to shallow
IT.. nches, Imtds, tUTnin~ p,eces ~nd centH'S up 10 1·8 m sp~n
Structure o( Timber.- A cut section thtouj,[h a portion of ~ tree whiln ptodu,cs timber
used for buddml! purposes IS shown at A, Fig. 29. This sho"" th"t the struCture (or
arrangem"nt of the "anom parIS) comprises (a) a central core of fibrous (thread· like)
woody tissue (wo\,en partidcs) called the pith or medulla which dlsapp('~TS III hme, (b)
inner concentric rings of woody ti<sue called hear/1t't>od or dutnll/in (durab,l,ty), (e) outer
and h~hter coloured concentric flngs of woody tissue called wpm){'Jd, (d) radial n~rrow
bands of tissue called me,dullary myJ Or tmnronu upt" (partitions) which conlain cells
~nd rad.ate from the centre and (e) Ihe bark.
The Irre~ular concentric rings of tissue, forming the heartwood and sap ..... ood. are
called mlllua! rirl/(J or grou;/h nrl./!s as in temperate climates one ring is generally formed
annually A diagrammatic view of a portion of an annual ring of a soft"'ood (see p. 58) IS
shown 10 cross·section at n, Fig. zQ; thIS is much enlarged, for the number of nnlls may
vary from three to forty per zs mOl. A rinl(, consisting of rows of cells of variable size
whIch run longitudinally (parallel to the lrunk), is di"id"d into an inner portion called the
slmrlg u'()()d and an outer and dark"r ponion,.kno"n as Ihe summu rtood. The cells
diminish in s,~e from a maximum forming Ih., sprinlo[ layu 10 a nllnimum at the outer
layer; in add,tIOn, the cell walls of the SUmmer "ood ar .. thicker than those of the spring
wood. Hence SUmmer "ood is morecompa<:l andd"rker colour.. d than spring wood. The
cells communicate" IIh nch other throuj,[h holes in their SIdes, and thc narrow cells In Ihe
medullary ra)'s also communicate with the annual ring cells.
Certain timbert have annual rinR! which are "ery distInct and the sprin!l: wood and
summer "nod Ire eas.ly dIstinguished; oth"r!! have rings which are ind,st,"ct and there;s
no contrast between the· tWO_ Th" m"dullary rays ar" well defined in certPin "oods but
usually they are only perc"ptlble through the microscnp" (~ p. 56)
Growth.-Moisture, salts, etc., are absorbed from the soil by Ihe rOOtS of the Iree,
and in Ihe early sprtng these ascend through the cells (see a) 10 Ihc branches to develop
the lcaves which conVert the absorbed material, called w.p. into hquid food suitahle for the
nee. M~anwhiJc the camb,um-a thin co'·erio!! of cdls between the hatk and the last·
formed annual ring (see A)-produces n .. w c .. ll~ which form tht ~pTlnRwood of the next
annual rin!!,. In the late summer and ~ar1y autumo the food d ... tends between Ihe spring
layer and the bark to form the denser SUmmer wood of the annual ring. Thus trees which
proquce tImber used for building purposes grow outwards Immedlatcly un-lcr the b:ITk
and are called n:ogtns, as dislinCI from mdogms whIch mamly mcrcase 10 $I?e by )(Towth
at their ends. The cells in the medullary rays act as reservoirs for tree fnod
In courge of time the layers next tn" pith become stronger and the c"tJ~ cease 10 convey
up; this i, the hear/a·ood. The outer part of the tree, or sapu'ood, contaIns much more
sap and is softer and lighter in colour than th" more mature heartwood. :;apwood is also
known as albur7l11m due to its relatively light colour.
Building timbers are divided into softwoods and hardwoods (sec p. 59).
Fellin,.-Trees used for building purposes should be felled as soon as possible after
reaching maturity. If felled prematurely, the wood is not so durable and contains an
55
excess of s~pwood; if cut after its prime, it produces limber which is brill Ie and the central
ponion especially may show "vidence of decay. The time taken before trees reach th,,;r
prim~ may VHy from fifty years ( ~.fI., ash) to a hundred years (t .g., oak). The best time
for fdlm!! trees is in the autumn just before the fall of the leaf (when the sap is still thin)
or during wioter "fter thc f~11 of the leaf (when the trees con tam little sap), as during
these periods the evapor·,·ion of moisture And the rcsullmg shrmkag" arc comparatively
small.
Seasoning.- TImber cannot be used for either carpenlers' or joiners' work imme.
diatcly il has been felled hecause of the large ~ap CO'Hent. Most of this moisture must be
remo\Cd. otherwise the timber witl shrink e"ces':\'cly, causing ddects in the work and II
tend .. ncy 10 decay. Eliminalion of the moistur~· Increases the strength, durability and
T<'silience of th .. !imb"" the "ood is lighter in weight, ~asier 10 work w'ith the saW and other
tools. it mamtains its sile and it is not so Ilabl~ to split, t"ist or warp. Th~ process of
removing thc moisture is called uasonirlg or maturing. This is accomplished by either
(a) natural or (b) artificial means. In recent ~'ears the lallcr methods have been consider-
ahly impro,'cd and e"lenstvely employed; natural processes are not now SO frequently
adopl"d owing to th" longer period required
(a) Natum! S ..aJoning.-ImmOOiale)y afler fellinlo[ the branches are removed, the trees
are CrOSS-eul into fOgI and Ihe bark is smpped. If th~ lOllS are of softwood, they are shaped
by machme sawing 10 a square in cron·section (called baullu) and stacked (as shown at c,
Fig. 29) under cover to allow Ihe air circulating round thcm to remOve much of the mois-
ture content. Ha rdwood trees are usually sawn by machmery alon'l th"ir length into
planks (pieces from 50 to 150 mm thick at leaS! 250 mm WIde) and stacked with cross-lags
(ple<;"sofwood about I) mm Ihick) belween, 15 shown at 0, FiJI:. 29. Thin pieces of wood
(as shown 3t E) arc nall .. d to the end of each plank to pre vent the timber splitting during
th" drying proc"ss. This is known as Dry Natural Stolonirlg, and the time occupied
depends upon the size and character of the limber. Thus, w/ttuood boards, 25 mm thick,
may take two months to season and So mm thick planks four months; lumJwood of th~
same thickness may take about three times as long to season.
Th" time occupied in seasonin!!, is much reduced if the timber is subjected to Waltr
iVatllral Stawning. By this method, the logs may be floatcd down a river 10 the sawmill
or they may be placed in the river, tNally submerged with the butt (thick) ends facing
upstream, Idt for a fortnight to allow the water during iu passage th~ough the pores to
eliminate much of the sap, when they arc removed, sawn and stacked as shown at c.
(h) Artificial Seasoning.-The time taken for this varies from approximately one to
NO "ech. The process is carried out In kilns of which there are several types. One
form consists of a long chamber, about <I'S m wide and 3 m high. The timbers, which
should be of the same thickness, are carefully piled and sticked (cross-lagged) on trucks
which run on rails extending the full1ength of the kiln. HOI air (heated by passage over
steam pipe~) is circulat"d amongst the timber by means of fans. The t"mperature of the
air and its rate of flow vary with the size and elas8 of wood. The humidity of the kiln
56
during the lellOning i, rigidly controlled; if it is too low, it is at once raised by th'"
admission of steam.
II is imporllnt 10 nOle that the uho(t Gfthe mOIsture content (" m.e. ") is not removed
from the timber when seasoned. A certain amount is allowed to remain. Thus, for
interna~ work (as for Hoot boards, doors and panelling), the timber is allowed to remain
in the kiln until the moisture content is reduced to [II per cent.; the maximum for good-
cia" carpenters' work IS 20 per cent. If timhu is used In II JX)lmion where the humidity
of the atmosphere is In excess of that In the umber, the latter will absorb ffiOISllue
its lurroundlllgs and sv.eUing will result. Con~·er5ely. If the tlmher is msuffic,,~nlly
seasoned (i.t., contams an excess of mOIsture), it wdl, if fixed in a very dry positIon, losea
certain amount of moisture and will shrink. Therefore If movement of the timber is to
be kept to a minirrmm, the moisture content should apprO~lmate close ly to that of its
environment. Th., extent of shrinkage movement in timber may vaT}' from about 6 to
'3 mm per ]00 mm of original width if the moisture content is reduced from ao to 10 pu
cent.
Preservation.-In order to increase the durability of seasoned timbe,. it is sometimes
necessary to apply a preservative. Next to painting the most common prc:sen'ati~c
process is cUfJsoti"g, which consists of placing the tImber m steel cylinders in "hlCh hot
creolOte (an oil dIs t illed from coal tar) IS admitted and forced into the pores of the wood.
A less effective method is to apply two or more coats of creosote to the surface of the
timber. Treatment by melanic salts (copper based) is also adopted.
Convenion.-A log of tImber is converted Into vanous p,eces 10 which the following
tenns aTe applied. Basi, fC"lIlhs rise from "8 10 6'3 m m mcrements of 300 mm.
Deals are sawn pieces of softwood which are from So to 100 mm thick by aas to under
aso mm wide.
Bat/tmJ are from 50 to 100 mm thick by las to:zoo mm wide; .Ialing balUnJ are from
13 to 31 mm thick by a5 to 63 mm WIde.
Boards are under So mm thick by 100 mm or more in ",dth.
Scantlings are from 50 to 100 mm thick by So to 100 mm wide. The tenn is often
applied to the dimensions of a piece of timher, thus" the joist is of 100 mm by SO mm
scantling."
TIMBER
Quartmngs are square seCllons of from So to 'So mm side.
StriPS are under So mm thIck and leu than 100 mm wide .
There arc VarIOUs wars of c~mvertlllg a log into planks, deals, t>Jards, ttc., I.t., (a
radlalaawln.g, (b). tangenlla l sawing and (e) ,lab sawing--sc:e Fig. 30.
. <s) .Radlal, Riff or Quarter Sawing.-Four fonns art shown at A. That at B is the best
If the tImber has well defined medullary rays. as in oak. The log is first sawn into four
pieces (or is "quartered") and each quarter I'" cut 1010 boards whIch hke Ihe medullary
from rays, are radIal. The rays. appear irregularly on the surface to produce the. sil~r ,rain
{or figurt or Jhm:n) ..... h,ch IS so hIghly valued for hIgh clus joinery work. It 11 an expen-
sIve form of converSIon, as much waste results. More economical methods are shown at
c and D, a~though the latter especially doe. not show up the figure to the same advantage.
COmparal1\"ely thlck"r boards or planl<$ are obtain~d by the method shown at F.
(b) TangmtlU/ Sa'tci"g is shown at F, and adopted when the timbers have ill-defined
medullary rays and dIStinct annual ring1, as in pilch pine, the boards have th eIr faces
tangenllal to the annual rmgs and show up to advantage.
(c) Slab Saulng (see c).-Thc inner pieces are nft sawn and the outer slabs appro~­
Imate to tangcnua1 cuts. This gIves less waste and il is therefore the cheapest.
.As already menlloned, tImber shrinks as its moisture evaporales, and the heartwood
shrmks less than the sapwood. H shows the distortion which occurs.
The maximum shrinkage occurs in the direction of the lines of the annual ring~; It is
much less m the radIal d".e<:tion (parallel to the medullary rays) and it is almost negligible
in the d,rect,on of liS length. The thickness of the plink I varies from a maximum at the
centre (" hcre there is little moisture in the heartwood) 10 a minimum at the CIrcumference
(owin~ to the larger amount of moisture in the sapwood and the shrinkage which takes
place m the direction of tne arrows). The piece of quartering, indicated by broken hnes
at K, is distorted as shown on account of the shrinkage in the direction of the rings being
more extensive tnan tnat radially. S,m,larly the plank at L shows the shrinkage and
warping which occurs. In each case the broken lines indiC3le the shape of tach piece of
tim her before seasoning.
Tnin boards. used as floor hoards, should be ri(~ sawn to give the best results (lee
0), hut on account of the expense a cheaper method of conversion is often adopted and is
'ArUI<AL SE.A.5ONING OF
OF HARDWOOD
FIGURE 29
 DEFECTS-TIMBER 57
CONVERSION OF TIMBEF>-.

IlJFT SAWING SLAB SAWING WARPING OF TIMBE:ll FLOC>P... SOARD SAWING.

FIGURE 30

.hown at M, wh~n the remainmg stctions, consisting of sapwood, are converted into scant- Dou Or Doatintu.-From of incipient decay indicated by patches of greyish Itains
lings al required, .. at s. Although rift sawn hoards Ihrink lUI and have better wuring speckled. with black which are relatively soft; due to imperfect seaso ning or badly
quliities, such board. are often sawn tangentially for economy. Tangentially sawn floor ventilated storage and found in American oak, be«h and birch.
boards should be fixed with the heut side downwards <as at p); if they are fixed "'Ih the
hea" side upward., there is a tendency for ponionl to be kIcked out as shown at Q.
Dd'ects.-The defe<:1t in umber may be cbuified accordm!;! to (tI) those devdoped
during ils growth, Ind (b) thOK occurring after it ha. been fell«J. Class (al melude. DEFECTS IN TIMBEF>-.
Deadwood, Druxine•• , Foxiness, Coarse Gum, Twined Gnun, Cup Shakes, Heart
Shlkes, Upuu and KI'lOIt. Class (b) are Doallnen, Dry Roc, Wec Roc, Shrinkin!!, B C
Sv.eJling, Warp, Wine, Chipped Grain and Chip Mlrk. Some of chern Ire shown in
Fi,·3 1: -
Deadwood,-Applied to redwood which is deficiene In strengch and we.ght and havlnll
In abnormal pinkish colour; i. che resulc of trees belnjt felled after fhey have reached
maturity,
DrlqCiness is an incipierH (early) decay which appears as whitish spots or streaks; IS
due to fungi (a form of plant life) jtaining access, ;lrobably fhrou~h a broken bran(h. anel
setting up decay.
Fo.>a'nen.-Reddilh or yellowish brown stains In o~k caused by over-maturity or badly
ventilated stonge durin6 shIpment; is an early sign of decay.
COOTie G~ajn timber hu vcr-y wide annual nnll~ caused by the tree (lrOWlnlt too rap,dly:
wood is deficient in strength Ind not durable.
Tu;jsud Grain o~ Fib~e (tee l).-F,bres are tWisted 10 such an Ulent thaI a relat"'el),
large number are CUI through when the lo/ol ;s convened InIO planh. elc.; such planks or
boards willlwlSC or wrap; c:ilused by Wind acllon In branches twisling the tree trunk.
Cup S'I(JJces or Ring SllalleJ (s« A).-Cracks Of dcfts de'eloped between 1...·0 adjacenT TWISTED GR.A1N
In:lual rings; mlerfere with con,·en.on of IIm~r, u'$ull.ng II> waste; caus ... d by sap
freezing during ucene m 'prln!!
Hearl ShaluJ (see B).-Shakes which begin al the hean or pith of the log; a smgle
cleft is not serious. A Slar Sha/u consish of several heart shakes somewhat in the form
of 8 star; render convers.on of timber difficult lnd uneconomical. They are an "arly
sign of decay and are caused by shrin kag" m an over m~rurc tree
Up$~ts or Rupturt (sec ~.)-FLbres deformed due to mJury by crushing durtng the WANE
growth of the tree.
KnolJ are sections of branches present on the urface of wood in the fonn of hnd dark
pLeCes. It'$ almoSf ImposSIble to obtain cerlam convert~d ttmbeu entirely" free from FIGlJR.E 31
knots" (as IS sometimes spec.fied). Those kno .... n u " t.ght knots" are sound (bem.l(
s.e<:urely jOined to Ihe surroundmg wood) and arc nOt objectionable unless Inll'" \Vood Dry Rot.-D«ay caused by funllUS which feed. upon the wood and reduces il 10 a dT)'
wilh " lar~ " or " loose" knots should nOf be used I~ they arc uns.ghtly and rud.ly and powdery condmon It may appear as masS" resembling cOllon-wool with grey or
removed; wood COn13m"..!! many knots IS difficult 10 work KnOls are a source of v.eak- brown coloured stnnds Whllh br~nch nut In net",ork formahon 10 adjacent timber.
nets if present m lImber to be used as struts or sl"TI.lar members. BaJly aR"c.., ... d lImber hn I"tle Ot no slrcnRth and read.ly crumbles by pre$$ute of the
58 TIMBER
fingers. Timber containing an e=eJl 0/ sap and in badly ventilattd pon'tioru is readily
affected (sec pp. 60 and 77). Diseased or 1U$p«tM timber mUll!: be removed at once.'
Wei Rot iSI chemical and not a fungoid decay of timber; affected portions are reduced
to. greyish brown powder and these only need to be removed md replaced; caused by
timber beilll subjected to alternating wet and dry conditions.
Shn"nkjng alld S~lIing.-When the amount of moisture in timber is reduced during
Ie.toning the wood shrinks, and if it absorhs additional moisture afttr seasoning an in-
crease in \'olume result.. The extent of this movement is referred to on p. S6 and is
inRuenccd by the manner of conversion, moiSlu~ content and proportion of heartwood.
Circum/trlmtial Shrinkage (see c).-Defe.:t denoted by clcfu which radiate from the
circumference of the log towards the centre; clefu decrease ill width from the outside
pnd are usually iimit'!d to the sapwood; result of shrinkage which occurs during seasoning.
Warp is distortion or twis:ing out of shape which may occur during shrinkage; in one
fonn (when is it calledbMll or OOtcing) the plank or board is slightly curved in the direction
of its length and in another form (called ,up or ,upping) the limber is curved in cross_
stctlon.
IVane is the original splayed or rounded surface of the tree which remains at the edge
or. edges of l piece of timber after convcrsion; sometimes known as u'anty t dgts. A baulk
WIth two waney edges is shown at F. Wane IS due to convertin" too lar~ a baulk from a
II"<:C; nOI con~idered 10 be determinal if used for shoring, "iliny', ......., Ami in positions
where the appearance and large amount of sapwood arc unimportant considerations.
Chipped or Torn Groin is Q slight defect caused by the planing machine or tool removing
a portion below the surface of the wood as it is being dressed.
CLASSIFICATION
Timbers used for building purposes are divided into two groups called (a)
softwoods :md (b) hardwoods. This division has been established by long usage
and is not in accordance with the relative hardness of the woods (as certain
softwoods are harder than some hardwoods) but is concerned with the specific
species of the trees. Thus softwoods are a group which is confined to COtliftrS
which are evergrcen (having [ea\'es throughout the year) t(ees having needle-like
leaves ami which bear cones (seeds contained in conical sheaths), whilst hard-
woods fonn a class of broad leaf trees which cast their leaves in the autumn.
Softwoods are in general characterised by (I) distinct annual rings, (2)
indistinct medullary rays, (3) comparatively light colour and (4) the heartwood
and sapwood are not readily distinguished. They are classified as Group I or II
accordmg to the species (see p. 59) .
Hardwoods have (t) less distinct annual rings, which are closer together
than in softwoods, (2) distinct medullary rays, (2) richer colour and (4) darker
coloured :teart wood which is rcadily distinguished from the sapwood.
The thickness of the annual rings varies, thus in redwood (see Table I.) the
number of rings vanes from five to thiny per 25 mm. Thi~ -:arintion is due to the
differ~nce m the length of the swomer. Where the summer IS short, as in North
Russia, there ia comparatively little gn;"'th each year, and therefore the number of
rings per 25 mm is large. Generally, the annu~1 rings ofhamwoo<!'s lire closer together
than in sofl .... oods on ~ccount of hard"ood trees being slo"er in growth.
Particulars of certain softwoods and hardwoods are given in Table I.
Carpentry embraces cOf\struction in wood which is stressed due to the
I The detection and cure of dry rot arc described in Chap. I, Vol. Ill.
load it supports. Such construction may be permanent in character, as floors •.
roofs and partitions, or it may be of a temporary nature, e.g., timbering for
trenches or similar excavations, centering for arches and formwork to support
reinforced concrete floors, etc., during construction. The following is a
description of some of these structUtCSl ; -
FLOORS
Wood covered floorsl may be divided into two classes, u., (r) suspended
floors consisting of bearing timbers, called joists, in addition to the boards which
are used to cover them, and (2) solid Roors which consist of either wood boards
or blocks upon a concrete foundation.
(I) Boarded and Joisted Floors.- Such are usually classified into;
(a) Single Floors. - This class consists of only one set of joists, called common
joistr or hridging joists. (b) Double Floors . - In this class, additional and larger
joists, called hinders, arc imroJucl:!J to :support tltl:! briJging jui:SlS. (c) Triple
or Framed Floors.- Such a floor comprises three sets of joists, i.e., bridging
joists which transmit the load to binders, which are in turn framed into and
supported at intervals by larger joists called girders.
Double and triple floors are required for buildmgs of large uea. Whereas
formerly the binders and girders were of wood, this material is now rarely used for
this purpose. If wood joists are to be used in conjunction wilh binders, the latter
are now usually of mild steel, "hen they are called stul beams or gjrdfrs--or rolled
steel jo;sH, abbreviated to " R.S.l.'5 " (see Ii, Fig. 80). Floors of large span are now
usually constructed of fire resistln~ materials, such as (i) reinforced concrete beams
and slabs, or (Ii) main steel beams to which are fixed secondary steel beams that
support floon consisung of either sm~1I steel beams encased 10 concrete, concrete
floors .... ith ,,~panded metal Or simtlor reinforcement, or patent fire resisting terra_
cotta Or concrett bloch. Such floors :Ire detailed in Vols. II, III and IV.
Single Floors.- The floors of domestic buildings, e.g., houses, are gen..:rally
of thi~ type, and the following description is applicable to the construction of a
typical ground floor and an upper floor of such a building.
Floor Insulation.-The Building Regulations require that suspended
floors be insulated to a given value if; (I) the floor is not resistant to the passage
of air and (2) If the space beneath the floor is not fully ..:ttdu~J apart frum
ventilation by air bricks (see p. 63). It cannot be said that the t. & g . floorboard
(see p. 63) is completely air-resistant so it is advisable to insulale the floor to
the required value by nailing 12'5 mm thick expanded polystyrene slabs on top
of the floor joists before the boarding is fixed.
GROUND !"lOOR
Fig:. 32 shows the plan, secti',ns and various details uf a ground floor which
is of the single floor class.
5izet ofJoists.- The sizes of jo:~ts depend upon (a) span, (b) distance between
each joist, (c) load on the floor and (d) the timber used.
1 Cork, rubher . mosaic, fireda.' ,rry, thermoplastic, and marble tiles arc also uscd
to cover floors, sec Chap. I, Vol. Ill.
 CLASSIFICATION 59
TABLE 1

WEIGHT
GROUP N~. SoURCB (kg per CHARACTERISTICS U,..
m')

RwWOOD ~orthern Pine, Russia, Norway, Sweden, 5)0 Reddish brown heartwood, yellowish brown IJ;\pwood; well defined Doors, windows, floors, .roofs,
Scotch ir, Red Deal, Finland annual rings. medullary rays invisible; worka easily; very durnble and genenl internal and eJ(-
Yellow Deal) when painted; atrong. ternal carpentry and joinery
of good quality.
00
WHrfBwooo (White Deal, 00. 430 While 10 whitish yellow; well defined annual rings; slightly difficult Internal work, as for fioors, roof"
While Pine, European to work owing to hard knots; not durable for external work and shelving of cheaper grade
"00 Spruce)
C"N"'OI"NSPR1JCE~Quebee Eastern Canada 45 0 White; well defined annual rip-g5; straight gra;n('d, easy to work;
than above: shuttering.
Roofing. flooring, scaffolding.
Spruce, White pruce) liable to wrap; not durable .
~ DOUCLAS FIR (British British Columbia (Western 530 Pink to light reddish brown; well defined Dnnual rings (spring WOQd Doors, panelling, flooring, in-
E-< Columbian Pine, Ore- Canada), Oregon State lind summer wood approximately of equal width); fairly easy to terior finings, sleepers, piling.
"'0 gon Pine) (U.S.A.) .....ork; fairly durable for external ..... ork; should be rift sawn for
00
PITCH PiNE Texas
(U.S.A.)
"0' IA~;'o, I 650
flooring
Light red; well defined annual rings with I~rge proportion of swnmer
wood (duk) which gives good figure; contain, much resin, hard to
Doors, windows, roofs, floors,
panelling, slcepers, piling.
Used for good class work.
work; very durable and strong
WESTERN RED CEDAR Canada 380 Reddish brown: distinct annual rings; straight grained, easy to work; Roofing shingl"" (boards),
very durable under all conditions; brittle panelling joinery.
I
0 .. England, America, 6Qo to 850 Light yellowish bro..... n to deep brown; fairly well defined annual Doors, ..... indows, floors, roofs,
Austria, Russia, Japan rings, well defined medullary rays: rift IIIwing (lives ~autiful stairs, panelling, furniture,
figure; hard and durable (excepting Amencan): very suong gates, fer.ces and general
carpentry and joinery of high
clan quality.

00
TMK Burma and Siam (Indiu),
West Coast (Africa)
650 Light golden brown; annual rings dcfincd b belts of porous tissue,
tt
fine medullary ruys; very good figure; di cult to work; durable,
Ht class g'cncTul joinery as
0' doors, windows, stairs,
Q fire resilling and hard wearing panelling, furniture.
0
0
~
MAHOGANY Honduras
Indies), S.
(Africa)
(Central
America), Cuba (West
Nigeria
.80 Rich reddish brown; indistinct annual rings, distinct medul!ary
rays; good figure; not durable for external work. Cub3<J. (Span_
ish) best, but mall expensive and now difficult to obtain ..
High clan internal joinery,
especially for decorative work,
ro< panelling, bank
shop fittings, newels ,od
'n'
"'"< Roo: MAPU North America 740 L1J(ht reddish brown; indistinct annual rings., very distinct medul-
lary rays, "Curly" or "Bird's-eye" maple has distinctive and
handnils, furniture.
High elass Rooring, panelling,
furniture.
X pleasing figure of dark" eyes " with curly dark lines; durable (if
used internally) and very hard wearing
E'M England 560 10 690 Dull reddi sh bro~'n, distinct annual rin~5 and medullary rays; Weather boarding, piling:
durable if kept dry or wet but if not subject to both; tough and
e\a8tie
BIRCH 1 British hi"" 6,0 White to light brown; indistinct annual rings and medullary rays; Plywood, doors and furniture.
strOng, tough, not durable

I
Tlm~r .
reqUIred for fint class carpentry and Jomery should be sound, bnght (l.t., free from dIscoloratIOn), square edged, thoroullhly seasoned to SUIt the
particular use, free from shakes, large, loq." or dead knotll, warp, incipi"nt decay and other defects which would rcnder it unserviceable for ita purpose. It
should be frcc fr,!m stained. "."pwood Dnd the .mount of bright sapwood should . n';'t exceed the following (for redwood): .s per cc:nt: for: first clan join~ry, 7
per cent. for medll.lm class Jomery..nd 10 per cent. for carpentry, thIS amount IS Influenced by the norrnzl temperature of the bUlldmg m w'h,,:h the limber
is to be filled.
Softwoods.~ claMlfied in three groups. Group 51 comprises Douglas Fir, Plleh Pme and Euro~n Larch. Group S1 includes Canadulfl 5pru~, Redwood. Whltcwood
snd Walem Hnn\ock. Group 53 consisu of Europell/1 and Sitka Spruce. and Western Red Cedar.
 60 TIMBER
(a) Intermediate supports to ground floors are usually provided in the form by the bricklayer for the full length or width of the floor (see broken lines at F,
of 10Z mm thick walls, called sleeper walls (see below), which are Duilt at a Fig. 32). Joints in long lengths are formed as shown at G. This is called a half
maximum distance apart of 1800 mm, and therefore only small joists are required lapped joint or scarj. The vertical cut extends to half the thickness of each plate
for ground floors. As upper floors of this class have not such intermediate and after the cut surfaces have been fitted together, nails are driven in to make the
supports, the jois.:s span from wall to wall (usually across the shortest span) and joint secure. Intersections between wall plates are formed as shown at H.
therefore they are reiativeJ,y large. Ground Roor wall plates arc usually plactd immediatdy over the horizontal
I, (b) The spacing of joists varies from 300 to 400 mm centres (the distance
between the centre of one joist and that next to it). If 25 mm thick boards are
damp proof coune.
It is the usual practice to rest the ends of the joists upon the wall plate and
used, this distance is generally 400 mm. fix them by driving nails through their sides into it (see u). If the joists "\Iary
(c) The minimum safe superimposed load (or live load) allowed on floors slightly in depth, their upper edges are levelled by removing a portion of the
varies with the type of building, thus it is 1"5 kN/m2 for a house and from wall plate as required to form a housed joint (see K and L).l Other forms of
2'4 to 9 kN/m z for a warehouse. joints which may be applied to the ends of deep joists are notching and cogging.
(d) Suitable timbers for floors are referred to in Table 1. Redwood is the A single notched joint is shown at M, the lower edge of the joist being cut to fit
best softwood for this purpose. over the wall plate (such as may be supported by' a sleeper wall). A double
notched joint is shown at N and is formed by cutting both joist and wall plate.
TABLE II, FLOOR JOISTS
A single cogged joint, used at the ends of joists, is shown at 0, the joist being
cut on its lower edge to correspond to the uncut portion or cog on the plate.
Where the joist cut coincides with the cog after two sinkings have been formed
Maximum Size of Joist (mm) Maximum Size of joist (mm) in the plate, it forms a double cogged joint (see p) such as may be adopted when
dear span (spaced at fOO dear span (spaced at fOO joists are supported by sleeper wall plates. Neither notching nor cogging
(m) mm centres) (m) mm centres)
(sometimes called caulking) are much used.
0'99 38 by 75 3'75 50 by 175 Reference is made on p. 57 to a particularly virulent disease of timber known
1'26 50 by 75 3'75 38 by 200
)8 by 100 63 by 175
as dry rot. It is necessary to safeguard against this disease by using only well
1'63 4'07
2'03 So by 100 4'27 50 by 200 seasoned timber and to provide adequate ventilation. Free circulation of air to
2'33 38 by 125 4'21 38 by 225 all ground Roor timbers is therefore essential, and it is for this reason that wall
2'83 38by ISO 4'64 63 by 200
3'2) sobY'5 0 4'79 So by 225 plates should be supported either (a) by sleeper walls built parallel to and about
3'29 38 by 175 S'ZI 63 by zZ5 50 mm from the main walls (see this construction shown by broken lines at c,
Fig. 10) or (b) upon offsets (shown at A, C and 0, Fig. 11) or (c) upon corbels
(see L, M and N, Fig. I I). If, on the score of economy, the wall plates and ends
of the joists are built into the wall, it is necessary to form an air space round the
Table II, derived from the Building Regulations, gives the maximum clear
sides and tops of the joists (see K, Fig. 32), and it is also advisable to apply two
span for different fivor joists of Group II softwood (see p. 59) spaced at 400 mm
coats of creosote (sec p. 56) or other preservative to the wall plates and to the
centres when the dead load on the floor is not more than 0'25 kNjm 2 (it rarely
ends of the joists. Attention is drawn to the provision made to ensure an
exceeds this amount in a domestic floor).
adequate circulation of air under the wood Roor shown in Fig. 32 where air
Wall Plates.-These are wood members, generally 100 mm by 75 mm or bricks (one type being shown at v) are fixed in the external wall, bricks are
II5 mm by 75 mm which: (a) serve as a suitable bearing (100 to 115 mm) for omitted in the IOZ mm division walls to form ventilating openings (abbreviated
the joists, (b) uniformly distribute loads from the joists to the wall below, (c)
to "V.O.") and voids arc formed in the sleeper wall (when it is said to be
provide suitable means of bringing the upper edges of the joists to a horizontal
" honeycombed ").
plane to receive the floor boards and to ensure a level surface and (d) afford a
fixing for the ends of the joists. 1 They are solidly bedded level on lime mortar

, ,,"'all plates are frequently omitted in cheap work (as shown at I., Fig. 36) and the
ends of the joist are packed up with pieces of slate, etc. This is an undesirable practice , A less satisfactory m e thod of levelling up joists is frequently resorted to i.t., the
as repeated vibration tends to disturb such bearings, resulting in unequal settlement of ends of the lower joists are packed up by inserting thin pie<:es of wood befween them and
the joists and an uneven floor surface. the wall plate.

b
 FLOORS
An enlarged detail of an air brick built into a wall is shown aI u. Air bricks are
obtainable In various si~«, colours and textur« to confonn with the brickwork;
they must ~ well perforated; an alternative fonn of ventIlator i$ I Cist Iron venti-
lating grate.
Sleeper .....111 foundations have bttn referred 10 on p •• 8 A sleeper "'nil "
honeycom~d 'Imply by omitting bricks during Its construCtIOn The vOIds may
~ Irrlnged haphuard, or as shownby the twO alternative forms mdle~ted In section
DD. All sleeper ..... alls muSI be pconded ",th damp proof courses.
It is sometimes necessary to resort to either offsets (for ground Roors) or
corbels (for upper walls) to provide support for the wall plllt,,;s, :IS shown in
Fig. II. Alternatively metal bars, called CQrbel brackets (see T, Fig. 32), may be
used. These are of mild steel or wrought iron, from 75 to 100 mm wide by
10 mm thick by about 4]0 mm long with ends turned 5 0 mm in opposite direc-
tions. They should be painted and built 215 mm into the wall at from 760 mm
to 900 mm apart.
An alternative form of wall plate is shown at s, Fig. 3~. This is a 50 or 75 mm
by 10 mm mild steel or wrought iron plate of any suitable length. It is r:Hely
adopted.
Whilst joists may be placed in any direction, it is usual to fix them across the
shortest span. A space about 50 mm should be left between the wall and the
first joist which is parallel to it. When joists forming Roars of adjacent rooms
run in the same direction, the overlapping ends on the division walls arc nailed
to each other and to the wall-plates (sec y' at A, Fig. 32).
The plan of the room shown in Fig. 32 includes a fin::pl:l(e. The con-
struction of fireplaces is described in Vol. II, as it is outside the scope of the
syllabus of a First Year Course. In order however to make a description of
ground Roors complete it is necessary to make a brief reference to certain por-
tions of a fireplace. A wall is built round the fireplace to retain the concrete
hearth (and the material supportin~ it) and to support a portion of the Roor.
This is called afend~r wall l and its 'thickness may be 102 or 215 mm, depending
upon its height and the load which it has to support. A fireplace may be con-
structed within a re<:e!o"S as shown in the Figure in which case the Building
Regulations require that the hearth:--{I) Projects at least 500 mm in front of the
jambs (the sides of the fireplace opening). (2) Extends at least 150 mm beyond
the sides of the opening. (3) Is not less than 125 mm thick.
If the heating appliance is not in a recess requirement (3) above applies,
but in lieu of (1) and (2) the hearth must be of a size so as to contain a square
having sides not less than 840 mm long.
The site concrete should be well brushed, and all debris below the Roor
I Ground floor joists Ire often trimmed as described on p. 65 for upper floors. This
i, in lieu of the fender wall construction, and is to be preferred u moisture (eap<:cilily if
the aite ia a damp one) may ~ transmitted from the filling to the wall plate. and end.
of the joist. snd mly CIIuse dry rot.
61
removed before the floor boards are fixed. Dry rot may be caused by small
pieces of wood, shavings, etc., left below a floor becoming affected (probably on
account of dampness) and spreading to the members of the floor. After the
joists have been levelled, with their upper edges in the same plane, they are now
ready to receive the Roor boards.
Floor Boards. Some of the timbers used for floor boards are stated in
Table I (p. 59). Redwood is used for ordinary good clas.ct work, whitewood
and spruce for cheaper work, and pitch pine and the hardwoods (such as oak
and maple) are employed for first class floors.
The sizes of floor boards vary from 100 to 25 mm wide and from 25 to 38 mm
thil.:k; the narrower the boards the beuer, for then the shrinkage of each will
he reduced to a minimum, the joints ~,ill not appreeillbly open, and there will
he less tendency for the board~ to cup (sec p. 58). Hence 100 mm wide boards
(specified as being" in narrow widths") are used for first class work, 115 mm
""ide boards for average good wurk and 175 mrn wide boards for commoner work.
Hoards of 25 mm nomin~1 (see below) thicknes~ are used when the joists. do not
exceed 400 mm centres. The sil-e is that after the boards have left the saw and
is known as the nominal or stuff sizes. but after the boards have been shaped as
required and dressed (or ~~,ou!:ht) the sizes are reduced and arc known as net or
finished sizes. Thus a floor board has one side (which is of course laid upper-
most) and both edges planed, and a 175 mm by 25 mm (nominal size) board is
ref.hu,;ed to 170 mm by 20 m,n net, and a 32 mm (nominal) board has a finished
thickness of 27 mm; the net width includes the ton~\le (sec Q, R, v and w. Fig.
34). Boards arc obtained in random lengths from 4'8 to 6'3 m (see Basic lengths,
P.56); although 7 m long boards arc available.
Th" boards m~\' be cOlwertcu b~· S'L\'IIlJ.( from the 10).(.:1$ sllo .... n In FiJ.(. )0, or from
b,mens' thus Sl~ ;00 mm by:iS 10m (~pproxlmalel\') ho~rd$ may u., obtained from
one 'l.oo'mm hy 7S mm batten hy 1"0 sa" euts du"n It~ depth C' deep euts ") Jnuone
cut down liS thickn"ss (" fl~l cut ").
The labours such as reb~t1l1R. IQngumg, J,(rOO\'lng and planinJ.( floor boards (SCl'
Fig. 34) arc ca~flcd uut in one operallun by a m"dun" called a PI~nml: and :\1~tch1l11:
Machin". Thus boards "h,ch aT!: tongued and J,(roo"ed (sec R ~nd l·. FII(. 34) He
madl' as foJ1ows: The sa"n board as It passes hurizont"lIy throuJ.(h the m'Khinl' is
first 5mooth finished on th" 10ller surfa~t:. As it proceeds il I~ pLmed ~nd grooved
un one "dge,. tongued on tht: other as the boar? IS reduced to the corn',,:! ",dth, and
just befor~ It 1t:~"es the machmt: the board IS reduced to the rC<julfed th,~kncss.
Tht: \;otest type of this m~chine, "hen fed ~utomallcally, can produce dSa m of
tongued and "roo,·ed boarding per mlnUfe.
Joints.- Various tdg~ or longitudinal joints between floor boards are shown
in Fig. 34. These are described below.
Square or Plain Joint (see p).-The edges arc cut and planed at right ang-1cs
to the face or side, when they are said to be either shot, bUll jointed or straight
edged. This joint is never used for good work unless the boards are to be covered
by another layer of boards to form what is called a do",h!e boarded floor (p. 64).
Rebated Joint (sec Q).- A 10 mm wide tongue, one-third the thickness of the
board is formed along the lower edge of one board and fits into a slightly wide.
 6,
G

•
B SECTJON DO

C 5£CTION EE
SCALE fOil. A,f.,<: b Q
SC .... LE ~Oll. Y £. l.
jl" £10 11066 .loo ~,.nil'lld9!
S, .... l1 FO~ T,W(K
iii
I""i !~b I f
FIGURE 32
 FLOORS
rebate formed on that adjacent. This joint is rarely used for edge joints, but I an appliance known as a metal cramp, the plan of one of which is shown at A,
is sometimes adopted in good work for heading joints (see below). Fig. 33.
Tongued and Grooved or FeathtTed and Grooved Joint (abbreviated to ('mmp,nf;! i~ performed in th" following manner: After the top edges of the
"t. & g." or "f. & g.") (see Rand u).-This is used more frequently than jOists h~,:" bun levelled, staning from one Will, the first board is laid at nght angles
to the jOists and nailed. F,"e Or SIX boards are laid loo"ely upon the JOistS. Two
any other for good work. A narrow projecting tongue or feather is formed just cramps are placed lemporaTily oyer joists which are some 600 or 900 mm from the
below the middle along one edge and a gmove along the other. The tongue is
slightly smaller than the groove (thus for a 10 mm wide tongue the groove is METHODS OF
approximately 12 mm deep) to enable the boards to be fitted closely together LAYING FLOQBOAl'-DS, ETC
at the tOp and bottom surfaces when the tongues are engaged in the groove.
The tongues are sometimes slightly rounded off so as to facilitate the laying of
the boards and prevent them being damaged during the process.
Rebated, Tongrad and Grooved Joint (see v). This is a good but expensive
joint and is sometimes adopted for hardwood floors where the boards are to be
secured by nails which arc required to be concealed. As described on p. 64,
floor boards are usually fixed to the joists by top nailing, i.e .. the nails arc driven
through the entire thickness of the boards. This gives a somewhat unsightly
appearance which is avoided if suret nailing is adopted, i.e., cach board is secured
by hammering one or two nails through the tongue into eaeh joint.
Splayed, Rebated, Tongutd and Grooved Joint (see w).-This is another joint C1Vl.MPING
which is secretly nailed. It is an imprmement upon that at \' owing to the
thicker and stronger tongue.
Ploughed and Tongued Joi1l/ (see x). Grooves are formed or .. ploughed" ,i
in the square edges of the boards to receive hardwood tongues or" slip feathers." .JOIH _ _
It is rarely employed unless very thick boards are required and where the ordinary
tongued and grooved joints would result in an excessive waste of material in
forming the tongues.
Htading or End Joints.-Wherever possible, the boards should be sufficiently
long to reach from wall to wall of a room in order to avoid end or heading joints. o
Where such joints are necessary, as for large fioors, they usually t(lke the form of
the square joint shown at P. Each adjacent board is cut to cover half of the
thickness of the joist below, tht: ends arc closely butted together, anu four nails
are driven in, two on each side of the joint. Another form of end joint is called
the splayed or be'l:tlled htadlng joint (see v); the ends arc splayed to give a tight
fit, and twO nails are hammen:ll in at an angle as shown. Rebated heading joints
(sec Q) are sometimes specified for good work. The appearance of the work is
spoilt if the heading joints form nne continuous line over the same joist. They
should be laiti to break joint as shown on the plan at H', Fig. 32; sometimes
they are arranged as shown at J' when not more t"an three heading joints appear FIGURE 33
in one line, but the appearance is not so satisfactory.
"nds of the bouds. Each cramp is fixed 10 the jOlsls as shown at A, the ann D i$
(NOlt.-The boardt utcd to coY"r th" floor thown al A. Fig. )2, would not r"quiT" rotated in th" d,rectlon .. f Ihe arrO" ", "; thiS causes E to rOtale lO .... ards the joist in
headmll joints, as 5" m lonll bouds (see p. 6,) would be used; the headmg joinn Ih" direction of the aTTO" "2". "h"n the groo,ed surface on F. and the sharp rnet~1
at II' a nd ( ha"" be"n shown to il1ustrat" th"ir application.) pomt' at F (which proJ".:t from Ihe Side aod under Ihe tOP plale at C) (8US<' th" cramp
to j<:rlp the Sides of the jo.S!. A rough $tr,p of ,,000 is now ,nserted between the
Cramping and Nailing Boards.-The Joints lT'ust be as close as possible floor board and the plate (' to prott'<:t the edge of the board. the urn R is rotat"d in the
before the boards are nailed. The best means of effecting this is to employ dorect,on of the arrow" 3 ". and this causcs the plate c to mo"" forward as shown by
 TIMBER
the arrow H to exert (;onsidenble pr(Ssur., on Ihe boards untIl the joinu between
them are completely closed. The boards aro: then nalltd a~ described helow. the
cr~mps and the strip of wood are remen,d, and the oper"tion is repeated on the next
fi\o: or ~;x bo3Tds. As the work proceeds towards the oppo~lte wall, the lasl fe"
lenJo:th~ of hoards cannot be cramped 0" in" to lack of sp~ce These boaru~ may h.,
brought up I\l.(ht by using ~ pie<:c of Roor bo,ud which i. mclined wilh the upp<:r td"e
aj.[ainst the ""II ~nd Ih" lower cd..2" againsl th., prot"cling strIp: "few smart knocks
with a h.,avy hammer on th~ upper cnd of the plccr of bOHu WIll dose up the Jomts.
Wh"n a cramp IS not avaibblc the joiots bct"el'n the boards mily be dusnl by
" jumping them in "or" laid foldm.ll." Tbis method is shown ilt J, Fig. 33. A.~um­
illS that thc floor has been laId up to K, II board M is nmlcd at" dlSlml<."e I. "h".:h .,quals
th" ",dlh of the fivc boards "hen placed in positlnn tIghtly by h,md less (, In I) mm
depcn(\lng upon Ihe "idth of the bo.rds; the four bo.m.b, I. 2. ] ;lnd 4~ arc then
placed MS shown and forced Into pOSItIon by Jumpl1lg on Ihc bourd ... Whl~h "h"d
aero~~ them. The bo~rct.. lOre fin"lly naIled and the operati"n rcpe~tcd.
Another method is adopted In tht absence of a cramp, ,15 sho"n at 0, fo-,g. 33 .
.-\ metal dOl! is driven into a joist, ~nd the !mards (fOllr "r five at ~ time) are brought
close tOflethcr by tightening the hard ... ood "cd.ll"s br means of a hammer.
\\'Iwn the boards BTe ~"crctly naIled, and "ach board has ther~fore to be c ramped
and n~llcd ~cp~T3tdy, it 1$ usual to crump each bourd "lIh Ihe llid of a stron.!: ~ht~l'l
"hich Ii driven inll) the top of a joist cIos" 10 the prOlecting strip and used u ~ Il"cr
The blade of the chtsel is forced agaltlst the strip and Ihe pressure closes the jOlllt
The boards are secun~d by oval wire nails (sec A, Fig. 66) the length of which
should be 2\ timeS the thickness of lhe hoards. When lOp-nailed, 1\\0 nails arc
driven thro~gh each hoard 10 evcry joisl which il COVl:rs, including tl-lO nails lit
the ends, The n.lils are ahout 25 mm from the edges, and after Ihl; boards have
been fixed, the heads of the nails are driven below the surface by using a hammer
,tnd punch (sce 10, Fij:!. 67), Tongued and groovcd hoards (in addition to square
and rebated boards) are usually top· nailed as sho\\ n by broken lines at s, Fig. ) f.
Occasionally they arc secretly nailed as shown in the two positions at T, tht: higher
position being the better of the two as the tongw: is less likely ttl be damaged.
The secret nailing of boa~ds which are jointed as shown at v and \\' has bel;n
mentioned all V' 63. The headn of theie are ~1,,() runched. In order that water
and gas pipes, ·electric cables, etc" .... hich arc frequently run below the floor
boards, may be readily accessible, the boards o\"er them are not nailed hut
screwed.
In good work it is customary to fix a hardwood margin rOllnd all firepla.:;e
hearths, as shown in the plan at A and the detail at J, Fig. )2. This ensures a
more accurate finish and a neater appearance than is presenttd if the ends of
the boards are stopped against the concrete or tilei, The floor boards, arc
rebated to receive the 50 mm by 20 mm oak margin which has mitred angles;
if 22 mm thick boards are used, the margin is of the same thickness and the ends
or edges of the boards are butted against it.
Double Boarded Floon,-Double !looring is sometimeS required for buildings
of the factory type (where the floors are subjected to excessive wear) and
for domestic and other buildings which require good class floors, As is
implied, the floors are laid in two thicknesses. The first covering or sub-floor
(or counter-floor) usually consists of 20 mm roughly sawn square edged boards
laid di,t).:onally across the joists to :lvoid their joints coinciding with those of
the boards above. The upper boards may be of 20 to 25 mm (nominal) hardwood
(usually "Oak or maple) whid} lire fi'\Cd at right ~nglc~ to the joists.
(2) Wood Covered Concrete Floors (Solid Floors). ::iuch floors are of
concretc, thc~' may he covered with wood boards or hloeks (sec wand x,
Fig, 32). Other fini.shes suitable fOr solid floors 'Ire given in Chap. J, Vol. III.
Iloords OIl ('oncre!e (see w).-\Vood fillets arc pllTtl~lly embedded in the
concrete floor and Ihe hoards arc fixed to them, Special precautions must be
take n to pre\ent dry rot; the concrete must Ix: dry, the fillets treated with a
preser\",lti,-e, and the top of the concrete gi\'cn two coats of bitumen. Aller·
natively the concrete is laid in two laycrs with 3 d.p.c. between (sec s, Fig, 10).
Th~ l")ncr~te floor IS Imd to the Ie""] of th~ undcrsido: of the fillcts and the top
surf,,~"C O\u_t be' Ic\"d throu!!hout. The fillet~ "Tt· placed at 400 mill centres and kep~
temporarIly in p()~ltion by naIling c ros~ b~nO:I1> 10 Ih"O\ :\1nre concro:te is then
pb ~cJ in poslllon !n "!lhm 13 mm of th ~ top of lhe hll~t.. BOlth SIdes of th" fillets
m"y he spl.lyed. alth"uJ.:h It I.' lIlore economic'al If only one .,de is splayed (as shown
"I wJ, \,hen one 1"". "f tillo:u lIlay be oh{,un"d f'Om a 115 mm b~' 75 mm sCOlntling.
Blocks on ('oncrelt (see x).- The concrete floor is covered with wood blocks,
.. bituminous material or mastic being used as .w adhesive, The blocks may be
of well-seasoned softwoods (such as redwood, British Columbian Pine and
pitch pine) or hardwoods (such as oak, maple and teak). Their nominal sizes ,'ary
from 225 to 300 mm long by 75 mm wide by 25 to 38 mm thick. Two of many
types arc shown at y and z, Fig. 32, the formcr being the simplest and is com-
monly used. The blocks arc fixl;d by dipping the lower portion into the hot
bituminous mastic, and then bedded on the conCrete to which the mastic
adheres. Whcn the), are pressed down, the li{juid mastic rises in the grooves, as
shown by the blackened portions in the illustrations. The thickness of the mastic
is almost negligible. The blocks arc laid to various designs, those most common
arc of the herring-hone and basket (shown 'It x) patterns. A simple border
consisting of one or two rows of blocks is plact:d next to each walL
The COllerelt floor i~ finished "'Ih "fllla/m;! lOat (or .aud), u$ually ~s mm thick,
conSlstmg of I Cemtnl 3 sand. It must be fiolshed quite level and mUSt b<: aboo.
lutely dry before Ihe blocks He fix ...-J. olhen\lle the mastic will not adhere to it.
Th" buildmg must be thorou\(hly dry before such floors are laid, otherwise the
5e3SOn"d blocks wtll abso rb mOlsturt and may swell to such an elttent as to cause
Ih~ floors 10 T1S~ 10 the cemre. A <I.p.c. membrane must br mcluded in the cone",I"
Honr.
Cleaning Off and Protecting Floors.-On completion, wood floors
should be trcroeTSed or "flogged." This consists of planing the boards to a
Ic\'tl and smooth surface either by hand or machine. Hardwood Roors are
afterwards scraped (sec scraper, p, 128), rubbed smooth with glass.paper (see
p, 1 :0:8) and finally oiled or waxed and polished, Floors should be protected
agalllst damage Juring: suhsequent building operations by liberally covering
them with sawdust. This prevents plaster, paint and dirt from soiling and
scratching the boards or blocks and the sawdust absorbs moisture,
 FLOORS
UPPER FLOOR
The plan, section and various details Qf an upper Roor of a room which
is of the same size as the ground floor already described are sho .... n in Fig. 34.
The bridging joists are placed across the shortest span, and as there are no
intermediate supports (such as sleeper walls), their dear span is 3.67 m. In
accordance with Table II (see p. 60) the size of these joists will be 175 mm by
50 mm. An alternative arrangement of joists which would be adopted if the
shortest span was in the other direction is shown at P, Fig. 33.
Trimming.-Where fireplaces and openings (such as are required for stair-
cases) occur, the bridging joists cannot be supported at hoth ends by the walls,
and the introduction of additional wood members is necessary to receive the
ends of the joists which have to be cut. This operation is known as trimmillK.
The trimmed opening at the fireplace shown at A, Fig. 3-1-, has a thick joist, called
a trimming joisf, which is 508 mm from the fireplace and spans the full width
of the room. This joist supports at one end two cross joists calle{1 trimmer joists,
and the latter in turn support two pairs of short joists known as trimmed or tail
joists. At the ahernative plan P, Fig. 33. the two trimmingjoisls have one trimmer
framed to them \\ hich supports four trimmed joists. Thus a trimming joist isone
which has one or more trimmers connected to it, and a trimmer carries cut
bridging joists called trimmed joists. The arrangement of the timbers shown
in these two plans is J1\ accordance with the Building Regulations (summarised
in Fig. 34) controlling the construction of wood Roors adjacent to fireplaces.
Trimming and trimmer joists should be thicker than bridging Joists on
account of the greater weight which they have to support. It is usual to make
the thickness of a trimming joist 25 mm greater than that of the bridging joists
and a trimmer joist supporting not more than six bridging joists to be the thick-
ness of the trimming joists. As the bridging joists are 50 mm thick, it will
therefore be neces~ar}" to use 75 mm thick trimming and trimmer joists.
Joints.-Thc following joints used at trimmed openings are sho\\n in Fig. 34:
Tusk tenon joint, dovctailed housed joint, bevelled housed juint, and S(lllare
housed joint.
J"mts h~t"~~n jOISt~at a trimmed openitl)( ~hould be well deslgn~d and con·
~qiu(!..-d. On ". H) TcfNenee IS made to the b..-ha\·iour of a load"d wood beam Ilnd
to the $trcs~,'~ of l:ompression, tension Dnd sheDr whieh are produced If II. portion
of a j"'~t ab",'c (he n~u(ral ""'b .s removed,. th",joist will he less cffeetlvc in reS1S.tm)(
comp"~sslon Slre.sn, Jnd if the lower p(lrtlOn IS cut and partially removed the JOist
IS weakened to re.,st tension stresses. ThIS muSt not be lji(norcd when notches for
pipe5 are made in joists. as a careless workman when fixing .... ater, Ctc., pipet under
floor boards may reduce the strength of joists enormously clther by ~xcessl\"e!y
notchmg them or by indiscriminate notching. The aim therefore should be to
make the jOllltS as SCI:UTe as possible .... ith a minimum removal of wood and
reduction. In stren)(th of the main member~. I.t .. the trlmmen (to ..... 1 ,ch the
mmmed JOIsts are connected) and the mmmlO& joi5t~ (to" hlch the tTlmme" are
joined).
Tusk Tenon Joint (sec I., Fig:. J.t, .1111.1 Q', Fi~s. 33 and 3-1-)' This is the
stron!(C!st form of joint usnl in floor con:,truction and for this reason it should
be adopted for the connection between the trimmer and trimming joists. The
tenon which i~ cut on the end of the trimmer (and passC!s through the mortice
formed in the trimmin~ Joist to some 100 to 125 mm beyond it) is in the (1'II1rl'l
of the trimmer. The projecting piece or lusk provided below the tenon trans-
mits most of the weight and l:nters fmm ! to l into the trimming joist. The
bevelled or slanting portion above the I<"non, c:Illed the IUIfII or h(lunch, streng-
thens the tenon. 'fhe trimmC!r is brought tight up against Ihe trimming joist
by driving a wood wed!(t down through a hole formcd III the tenon; thl: side
of the hole (shown by a thick Itn(, in section J']') should he Cllt to the satnc :Ingle
as that of the tapered II edge and this hole must be Ion),; enough to allow the
trimmer to be forced in the direction ufthe arm\\ until the Joint is tight.
A modified form of tusk tenon, called .1 bet'rl/rt! "mll/du'" joint, is sOmetlll1t·S
adopted between a trimmer and each of the tl1llllned joists (~s ;tt 1', Fig. 33),
where it is not possible to han: projecting knons on account of the hearth.
This is similar to the tusk tenon joint, except thaI the tenon docs not prOJect,
but is cut flush II ith the outer side of the trimmer. \\"hen the tl:non formed Oil
the trimmed joist has bcen inscrted, the sides of the mortice in the trimmer
are slightly pan:d to reccive two small \\edges \Ihieh arc driven in to tighten
the tenon; 150 mm wire nails are then hammered in from the top and sides of the
trimmer and through the tenon. A further modification consists of a shorter
tenon (with tusk) which enters a corresponding mortice in the trimmer. Long
nails driven in from the top of this joist make the joint secure .
novtlailed Housed or Notchtd Joint (see \IJ.- This is another good joint
which is used to connect trimmed joists to a trim1I'er joist. The end of the
trimmed joist is formed to correspond to the housing (one edge of which is
dovetailed as shown) made in the trimmer to receive it and is dropped into the
housing. Long nails arc then dri\'en in slantwise from the outer face of the
trimmer and through the end of the trimmed joist. Applications ~rc shown at
R' in P, Fig. 33, and A, Fig. 34.
Bevelled Housed Joint (sec ;\').- This is a cheaper but an cffeetive alternative
to the dovetailed housed Joint ,md is used for the same purpose. It is known
as a half-dl'pth joint, as the depth of the housing equals half the depth of the
joist. The joint mllst be nailed securely. Note that the amount of timber
removed from the trimmer I'aries from nil at the top fibres (where the eom.)res-
siun stress is greatest) to a maximum at thc neutral axis.
Square Housed Joint (see 0). This is another half-depth joint which may
be adopted for supporting short trimmed joists as at s' in A, Fig. 3-1-.
I Sometimes the u .. dusiJt of the tenon is made to coincide ""th the centre of the joist.
Although this forms a somewhat strongu jomt, it is more difficult 10 make tight.
 66
HEAR..TI4S
SINGLE (FIRST) FLOOR

.Ir-__~r_ t.J

!loIl '1,I'(lMIG _'GUl,"'':;!'! .,QUIll( .. , .... , .. \ 10

~,,, ... "M I"'(.~[H Of I:}_.
I ......... 1 A
~.OH{f"" U"'HsGlo,•.dnO~D 'I<, JA .... "!.
1
j tx T{t"O ... , ~IA\T I~;) 6[-0"0 , ... Of ~ro~
Of ,.-[ O'P'''''G
( 1-"1'' ';;'' ',.,. ,"++--,

M
J

SECTION f.H+

,
<0 0.. ..1.1....... 1. 0
if

FICUU 14
 CEILING PLASTERING
Strutting. Floor~ (l:,u:pllnj! hallro<!!ll tl"dfS) ~h"uld ht: <lS ri!.:l.! I~ p')"~lhJ..
olhcrI.l15C unJw: sln:ss 1ll;1, he Iran~mllt,.J III tlH: ""lpr"ftin); \\.lll~ .tnJ rl.I~ltn·(1
ceilings m,'\ h,. rendered lide";!I',. on .L«(CI\IIl! of the \jbr;I\I'on prPllu.:nl. Dct:p
juists haH: ,\ Icnuclln 10 twist IIr tilt SI,Io;\\.I\s. It IS llnOl'~~.LT\ Illelcf"r~' 10
stiff~n the floor hy p;o\ldmj! HO~S hrflCl""~ Of ,/rr./I",I.{ in U'(ltH1UOIIS nm,; ~nJ
;11 irtcna!s n01 (\(ccuing I'R In apart. Tht'rl' an: 1\\0 tOllll~ of ,,[TUUIIl).!. 1.1,
hcrnn,g IKlI\t' and solid.
JI"'I1I!? /June ."",rUlltng (sec\, S, anJ J, Fig ..H). Tlu~ I' UI1'llIl"~tllln,lhly lilt:
best form, and comprise,; p.lir:> of indinl"d pit:tTS flf \trn",,! II Imh Jrl' I1ghtl~
fitted bel\\ecn tht: JOi~h. The sil.c of c,Kh pi<;u' \ ;lri<'~ frol11 :=;0 11111\ 1·\ 32 mrn to
50 mm by 50 mm, .Ind th,'~" ,Ir" ",u'urcd to the sid.,.,ol til,' l"i,h b~ !UK (IS mm nad
at COll,:h end. 1 Prmlu",1 th,' \\,III~ ,1ft SUtiitlflltlv ,tnUll!, fllldinJ.: "I·d!!"" ,If"
drilen In bd\\Cen th" \,,111 ami tht ,Idpct'nt .!lJl~t. ,lilt! III IiTl" I,ith thl' ,t[lntill\!.
a!> sholln; thest an; ,llIolleo 10 f,'m:'l.In .I~ thtY ltKr,·.I~I· th" "llili"n(\' of tIll"
strutlm~. Thb form of ~tfllttlng I~ ..,1 ill dfe<.(lle el'cn il tit,· Im~ts "hrink In tht
direction of Ilwir depth ami thilkness, for tht deplh ,hnn,.I!!t' tspnlalh t"nds
to reduce the InLlITl,IIIOI1 of the strUIS, "ith a corre~pond'n!! Inuca ... e 111 COI1I-
pression.
.";olid Slrulllll'/: (sec I' ,lIld ~, Fig-. 33). The simple... t f<lrm (<ind (111,' II hirb i~
frequenlly adOplt'd for ch"ap Ilork) mnely consisls of nailing- ... hort k'nglh~ ,,\
floor board In a ('mtinuous roll he1\l(en the JOistS. '/'IllS i! qUllr IIIf{jI"fII1'I', .In,1
it i~ practical!) a waste of maH:rial and labour forming- it on ~ccount of th"
shrinkagt which occurs in the thickness of the Joists ;Inti causes thl' ... lfllI>. tu
become loose as their length is thl'n k ... ,., Ih,m the clear di~LlI1(e hel\leen the Joi~ts.
To make the struttin~ effectin: It is u"le~".tr) to Ii\ a lung CLrlul.H ste,,1 or
\~rought iron rud (varying from 13 to 25 II1Ill in diamder)throuch the \Ihule "f
th~Joists and ncar to the strutting-,:ls shlll\n, The rIld i~ threaded thrlluch the
holes which have been augured thmu\:th th..: Ilcutr.tl nis o! the joist~. The nut
is tightened after the struts hal c heen fixed and ag.tin tightened hy me,IIlS I)f
a spanner bdore the floor hoards arc laid. This form (If strulIlng (tulh rod) II
nvu Jt/dum adopttd.
H e arths.-Huilding regul,lIlOns stipulate that the hearth in front IIf d fire-
place shall project at least 500 mm beyond the front of the jamhs, hal'e a mini-
mum thickness of 125 mm and shall extend at least 150 mm beyond each sidt of
the opening, They also re'luire that no combustible matenal (other than timber
fillets supporting the edgcs of a hearth \.I here it adjoins a floor) is to be placed
nearer 'than 250 mm vcrti(;ally helow the top of a hearth unless such material is
sepoarated from the underside of the hearth by an air spa(;c of not less than 50 mm,
One method of supporting a first floor hCdrth is shown at F, Fi~. 34·
The section at f includes alSo mm thick concrete hearth which is finished
with tiles to gi"e an overall thickness of 175 mm. The hearth is formed in situ
I It is a common prac1ice to milk .. shon ""'" _cuts at th .... nds of th .. Plr<:rs to r«cll'c
the nail. (see Jl to al'old (10 It i. claimed) th .. nallllphttonK th .. tlmb .. r ThiS .hollid nOt
be done al the holdmg po ...... r of Ih .. nlil, is thus r ..dllcl"d
(or ~rm<lIll"H pfJsiuon) and a t"mporJ" support must be IHoliu..:d for the front
he:Jrth. ThlS SUppoft LS ~hown til con~ist of s!:Jtes. At the outer "dges ()f the
h,·.trth the sIJt,·~ r"~1 on :J 50 mm h\' 3H mm timber fillet nailed to tile trimming
Joist, .J.t the inllt:r l'dge the\ rest on tht hrickwork hdOl\ the contrtte h..:arth.
On ",L(h SIde uf the flTepla~e recess the shtes rest on corhel ... shown by broken
1111,· at 1 the\ ,llsu resl on fillets naileJ to thc c.:radling pie(..:s (sec !klow). The
<.:onLrll,· is th..:n p!:Jeed in position. Two ~hort joists ;If..: prol·id,·t! to alford ;1
~lIrp"rt lor th" !loor hoanls ilt the ends of the hearth, and hcll\cen the tirep\;lCc
j,lInh ,LIllI thl' lIi1l11l1\ng .lois\. One of thest', c.:allcd a cradlin.r: pit:a, is housed al
one end into th,' triml1\in~ Jni~t, <lnd thl' otht"f end rests uplln a ~hort bri(;k corhel
('L~ ~h(1I\n ,It t', hI! ..1]). a~ it must noll'nler the willl ollin.c to the proximity of
th" rlUl' frolll thc gTOILlll1 tkor tir"pl.Ke. The S{'cond pi..:" (z), to \\h;ch the
"I1J", of lht· AoorhoJTd~ .m· 1';lil",l, is hllll~l·d into thl' trimmer ,md the cr.J.t!linJ!:
plele. III tht, "ltl'TTlaILIl' pl.!ll ;u I', Fi~. 33, a cradling pil'c" unl~ is rl!quircd.
Ihis m,11 Ill" ,! So mill h~ 50 nllll hlkt COLil"ldLilg Ilith the ed!!e of the hearth and
supporttd h~ iI , or LI m'L~ bl ,111 independent short piece of .U5 Illlll hy 50 mm
1111 ..1 Slippurted 1\\ tilt' trimm{"f <lnd (mhd as ... )\OlIn,
In (\i"lnds "lwH' ~Ione i~ rCddily al.til;\hlc, ,I i5 mll1thick stoneflug is some-
time~ usnl \1L~te.lJ "I' UUl(;n·:e 10 fnrm the front hearth. This flag is supported
hy J hrit"k rorhd "om~" ,J1<1!'~ une t"dgl' (or it may h" built into the bri(kwork),
and the flthl"T nlgl' f..:sb Llp'm a 1100.1 fill"t I\hil'h is lIell nailed to the trimminp:
joist Of tnlllmer <IS tht'l:"~" rna\ be. ('on..:rele is placed "ptln this stone to bring
the thirkness up to th.!t requ;red by the Illliidinp: RcguLltions, ,md this is ~ener­
ally cOlcrcd \Iith tiks. ('Ilncrete is used \0 form Ihe b,lCk hearth which is
brought lip to the leH·I of the front heJrth.
PLASTERED CEILINGS
Plastered ceilings arc the usual type of finish to joists in domestic work;
students should bave read " P I:Jsterin~ to Walls" on pp, 3 I 33 hefnre prn(;ceding
1\lth this sectIOn.
For a joistcd ceiling, the wood lath and plaster finish 1\;1S the traditional
method. Ril'en laths 38 mm wide, from 3 to '3 mm thick were nailed to the
Joists 10 mm apart, the coar~e stuff was Ilclllaid on to the laths so that the plaster
penetrated the gaps and spread out behind them. This gal'e a good mechanical
key and resulted in firSI-tlass work free from cracks which are sometimes
common with present-day board finishes. Woot! lath and plasterin~ and lime
ba~d mixes halt no\\ been replaced, Icry largely, by met.tllic lathing or plaster-
board covered with p:ypsum plaster mixes :-
E'xpandfd ,\1ftaJ I.alhllle (XP\I), IIhich should be protected from corrosion
by gahanizing (if condensation is e:\pected) or by stove dried asphaltum paint,
is nailt:d to the joists and given three (;oats of plaster. XP:\1 is made in sheets
68 TIMBER
610 to 680 mm wide and 1·8 to 1"75 m long, the thickneu variet with the joist ROOFS
spacing, ~.l. 0'56 rom and I'Z mm for joists at 350 mm and 450 mm centrCl Termt. -!\1ost of the following terms used In connection with roof con·
fe5pectively; 0"7 mm metal ~ing u~d for the usual domestic joist centres of struction are illustrated in Fig. 35 and subsequent drawingt.
400 mm. The short way size of the mesh is 6 mm and 10 mm, the former for hair- CovuJ.lfg.- The external material laid or fixed on a roof to protect the
less plaster, bolh being used ..... hen hair is added. The sheets are fixed with JI building. The ,materials used are: Slates, interlocking and plain tiles (see
mm galvanized clout nails or staples at 100 mm centres. The joints must be Chapter Fi\'e), pantiles (burnt slabs of day, shaped to a flat S in cross-section,
lapped al least 25 mm and wired together every 100 mm with 1'1 mm galvanized 350 mm by 250 mm by 16 mm), asphalt (as described on p. 17, laid on concrete
soft iron wire. in two or three layers to a finished thickness of zo mm or 30 mm), asphalt felt
For concrete Roonl, the XP:\l is fixed to Aat bars suspended below the floor. (see p. 17 and Q, Fig. )6), lead (see Chapter Six), zinc (thin sheets laid somewhat
22 mm by 6 mm flat bars supported at 1'2 m intervals and placed at 450 rom like lead to form a cheaper and inferior covering), copper (an excellent but costly
centres 3rc commonly used; a 6 mm dia. suspension rod will support '" 5 mt material laid in sheets), corrugated sheets of asbestos-cement or galvanised
of ceilin~. ..... rought iron, stone slabt (similar to slates but from 10 mm to 20 mm thick),
Render coat and floating coat mixes applied to the lathing can be I cement; shingles (slabs of cedar or oak which are from )00 to 600 mm long, from 60
zlime . 9 sand; as well as aiding plasticity during application, the lime also mini· to 150 mm wide and 6 to 13 mm thick), patent glazing (sheets of glass supported
mises corrosion; 0'5 kg of hair is added to 0'093 m' of first coat. Such mixes by lead covered wood, steel or reinforced concrete bars) and thatch (bundles of
must be allowed to dry out thoroughly before fun her coats are added. The same stnw or reeds laid to a thickness of about 300 mm).
coals using gypsum plaster (class B or C) can be. I plaster: z to 3 lime: 8 to 9 Spars or Common Roftn-s.-Similar to joists but inclined. The distance
sand . A sUItable firnshmg coat on both these mIxes IS I plaster (class B or C) : apan depends upon the coverin/<: material Jnd is usually 400 mm centres for
z to -4 lime putty. Special class B metal lathing plaster is also used for under- slates. The h~ad of a spar is the upper end, and the foot is the lower end.
coats In the proportion' plaster I sand, thiS can be fimshed as above, or with Spo".- Usually taken to be the clear horizontal distance bet\\-een the internal
neat class B, C or D plaster. faces of the walls supporting the roof. Thc tffutive spa" is the horizontal
Plult"board consislS of a core of gypsum plaster bonded between two sheets
of hea\"y paper; there are four types from 10 to 13 mm thick: baseboard, lath,
plank and insulating baseboard. They are all similar except that the latter has
a covering of aluminium roil on one side (that placed next to the air space and /USE
which is not plastered), and afe obtainable in several sizes; "2 m by 1·8 m wall-
board being commonly used. The boards are nailed to the joists at 150 mm
centres with 32 mm by Z'2 mm galvanized plasterboard nails. They should be
fastened so that the joints are staggered. The joints arc strengthened by a strip
of tOO to 125 mm wide jute scrim cloth which is plastered over them as they are
being filled. When this has set, the surface is levelled with a coat of plaster
between the scnmmed jomts and a final coat IS applied over the whole area; thiS
is two-coat work (13 mm thick) and used for good quality work. A cheaper
finish is one-coat work (5 mm thick) the plaster skimming follows immediately
after the joints ha"e been scrimmed, and the mix is neat class B plaster. The
same setting coat is used for two-coat work on a floating coat of I class B plaster:
Ii sand. Lime must not be used in these mixes on plasterboard.
Insulating fibreboard is used in a similar ~-ay, scrimmed and plastered A
(prefenbly in one coat) with special low setting expansion quality class B plaster.
Plasterboard can also be used alone without having a plaster finish. In thIS
case the board has chamfered edges in which a strip of linen or paper reinforce-
ment is bedded in a special fine plaster which is also used to flush-point the joints.
The thermal insulation of ceilings is described on p. 14- \\-ith reference to
roof construction. FIGURE 35
 ROO FS
distanc~ between the centre of the supports. The .pan of ~p.lrl is Ihl: inclmed latter figure to which these board. are nailed are ctJled soffit Harttl. The
dlstanct from support to support. thus in Fig. 37 the span i. the distance (rom lower portion of a roof is sometimes tilted 80 u to improve iu appearance;
ndgelo purim. purim to purim, and purim 10 wall plate. this is accompll!hed by nailing Ihort pieces of wood, called ljWocluts, to the Ipara
Rut.-The ...crlleal height measurw from the lowest to the h'fi:he.1 J)(linb. (see Figs_ ]7 and 38).
Rld.rtt Plter or Ridgt.-This is fixed at the highest point to receive the head.
P'tdr.-The slope or inclination to the horizontal expressed either a~ nse of thc spar.;.
. _ spJn
(see s, Fig. 35) or In degrees. It "anes with the co\'cring malerial in accordam.:c Illp is the line produced when two roof surfaCC5 intersect to form an external
with Table III which gin" the """;",11", pitch :_ Jngie which exceeds 180'. A lupped t1IJ is a portion of roof betwun two hip'
(sec A, Fig. 35). The timber at the intersection is called a hip ro/ttr, and the foot
TAIILF. III of this rafter ill usually fixed to a horizontal cross-member called a d,ag01l beam
\\hich IS lecured at one end to an o"lit tit (see Fig. ]7). A hip nfter supports
RIle (mm) the upper ends of short spars and it may be requireo to carry the endll of purlinll
CO'er1n1 m.lIcr,al hllloomm run) ~1""mum (Ice helow)

.... -
(~~ n, Fig. JS) Pilch Anllie
- .. - - "a/Jry is formed by the intersection of two roof surfaces having an eXlerml1
A.phah and C<>Prt'T 12 5 1- an~le which is less than 180° (see Fig. 35) and the wood member at the intcrscc·
Lt-ad and l!:I!K (t-uludlnll drlp~ I 2~ loj' I lion IS called a valJry raftn. The fut of short spars are nailed to a valley rafler.
e'er)' 1000 mOl run)
.l"phdlt felt, ("null:att-u a~b..'5'os Jock Rafttrs.- These are short spars which run from a hip to the eaves or
"nu In," .rrt."tt .,'. S: from a rid~e to a valley (see Fig. ]5).
Siaies. Lnl/e "
,0 2q
:.I~'H. ord,"~r'
"IJle~, .mall
\0
t>t.. 6
1I ,6j
HI 35)·
I'ngr il:\ the edge of a roof which runs from eaves to ridge at a gable (see Fig.

P.onllk, .... Purims arc hOrizontal limbers providing intermediate supports to spars, and
~hm~lu, ~~d~r
" ,0 : "
,6j
Ire supported by walls, hip and \'alley "hers, and roof trusset (sec Fig. ]5).
~h>nli:ln, u .•k
P~ltnt I/luIUI{
'00
,0 .
! ".
'0 Roof Truflts are structures formed (If members ft'ameu together, they support
tit"",· ~lah"
PI.!II' "I"" .",J Ih~l{h
Inl~rllk klllll uk~
"6
'00
,0 , ..
\
I
J:li

"
30
purhns in the absence of cross-wallll. See example in Fig. 39.
8oordin.': or Sorking consists of 25 mm (nominalthicltness) boards which are
nailed to the backs (upper edges) of spars, and to \\hich 1Iiates and olher roofing
matenals are secured.
These anj:(les arc often departed from, thll!<, ,Ilthough 1t:•• tI is commonl) Bourns arc small pieces of wood to which slates, tiles, etc., are secured.
uscd to CO\:. flat roof~ \\ hieh have a minimum rise uf 1'2.5 I.:m flIT <I 100 em run, rhey are ~enerally fixed by the slater or tiler and are referred to in Chapter Five.
it is occasionally used to CO\'er ~teerly pin'hed ruuf". The 3n/;!:k of is "hould
Classil1catiun or Roor•.-
not be adopted as roofs "ith this pitch hne not a SlIlisfac\(lr) appearJllce
compare the roof .. ho"1I at \, Fi~. 36 (which has iI slope of 45 ), with that III (a) Smglr Roofs consist only of spars .... hich afe secured at the ridge and
Fig. Ji (whi\;h has.a 55 pitch). The ideal pilch is considered to he 54 H' and \\all pl~tcs. The \-arious forms of this type are. (i) Rat, (ii) lean·to,
roof" pitched al any anglt: hetwten 50' and 60' look well. (iii) douhle lean-to, (iv) couple, (v) close couple and (\'i) collar roofs.
Wall Plott'S. -Th·.se recei,-e Ihe feet of Ihe spars. The) \'ary in size up 10 (II) f)ouhlt or I'ur",. Roofs.- Tn this type addilional members, called purlins,
115 mm by 75 mm and are hedded and jointed as descrihed on p. 60. Me introduced to support the spars.
f.·II'1'~S means" cdf;le," and the Cd\('!< of a roof i!< its lm\t'r cdg:c. The ea\e5 {Ij Trum.! Raft",. R'H)ls.~ These compri~c light trUl<<;es fonned hy framin~
may tc:rmmale flush "ith the oull;r f<lCe of the \\.:111, ,dlCn il III kno\\n u ajfurl. tOJ::l'Iht:r spars 2nd ceiling joist~ With intermediatt: members. Th,,}
rll'1 t'S (see w, FiJI:. ]6), or it may project as lIhO\\ n at X Jnu Y, hg. ]6. Whell the haw replaced almost entire!)' purl in roofs for domeSl1c .... ork.
f"ct of the spars are elCposed as Indlcatt'd at" they form.1II opn, rll'1:rs, "hen the (J) 711plf' fI' F,ft""J R'II.1s consist of thret: sets of members, ir, span that
ft.:et are co\ered as sho .... n at Y, a dl)ud rOf:ts re!uhs. .\ falna bua,J (or famu) .11't: p'lrtl.lll~ sIIPI",nl.:,lll\ purll"s, 1\ hKh In turn ~re \;Jrned by trusses.
IS the thin piece nf wood h'(cd to the feet of the spar~ (!>I:l' W .. ntl Y, Fi,\(. :,\6) 'I'he
Ilndt'r portion of ,in 0\ erhangmg U\CS 15 called thc IU/fit. ....·offit IxJards are ,1'10\\ n SINGLE ROOFS
.11 \ ,r,.
lic . . 111.1 II. Fit,;, .1"'. and Ih,' nl""'-pIl'l:l'. of "uno illustrJtl.:o t1I 1111 Thl' \.lrIUU'" forms uf thiS dJ~~ ,m: Illustrated in Fig. 36. The sizes of the

I
 TIMBER
spsrs specified on the drawings must not be taken to be economical in all cases, In thl example, thrf'e layers of thC' f<"lt arC' ustd., w,th a c...t of bitumlttOll' tolutlOn
for, in addition to the span, these sizes depend upon the weight of the covering between and on top. ThC' felt (which may bt: tlmllat to thlt dncrib.,d on p. 17) i.
in 900 nun wide roili. The firlt IIYu 1.llld d'rKt upon the boardmg, lapped 7S mm
material, the distance centre and centre, and the wood employed. Table IV II the JOrnl:S ~Ith IIOlutlon betv>C'C'n and nllkd along the Joints It 75 mm Intervalt.
gives the approximate average weight of various covering materials:- Hot IIOluuon ,I now .pplled OVer th" first layer and I .lCCond layer o( f<"lt ,t laid wllh
7' mm joinu (n<)t n.,],.d). Thi.,a blt..... I,.,.,! u~<=r ",uh lIO]ul1on Ind a thIrd la}'C'T of fC'11
TASLE 1\' is laid aa dncnbl.:i Ind ~wC'n. coat of the hot b,tllmC'n. GrIt (or ,I,te granuln) II now
lOUC'd into the aolullon to pr"t~t the felt from the action of the .un ThC' IIltC'r-
acetlon belween the flit and the wall.s mldC' ",uC'rtight by ~'()nflnUlllg the Ilyers of
Material Welj!ht Weighl (elt o\('r Ihl tnangular fillet III the Ingle, ThC' upturned MIfe5 of the fdt Ire
M~ferial
kg m" kgm' co\'''red with a le~d covu fllsh'ng as descnbffi. un p_ '43. Roofs of temporary
buildlllKS are usually coverC'd with one laYC'T of Cdl.
Zinc and copper Lnd (mdudmg rolls)
Asphalt fell "J.' TlutC"h
33·5
33·5 the joists supporting It are laid across the shortesl span. The fall is obtained by
Corrugated ,ron 12·0 A'phalt, 20 mm thick -0. 0
BOlIrdmg, 2S mm thIck Sb,~s fixing firring~ to the tops of the joists. Thl-"Se firrings increase in depth from a
Shinglel, cedar ,.,
'H
I'ant,]('~
~J·o
minimum of 13 mm at the lower joi~t to a maximum at the upper end (see A, P and
Corrugated asbestos_cement
Patenl glazmg (sl.... 1
16·8
28·7
Pljin Ides
Int~rlock",J.! t,les
,»
47·\1

(aluminium) '9·1 Stone sl~bs
" "
Tables in the Building Regulations ~ive the size of a spar according to
Its span, pitch and the load carried; the most usual size is 100 mm b} So mm
(i) Flat Roo/.-This is shown in Fi~. 36 by th .. small-scale plan and section
at ~. and A, and enlarged details .1,t Q, Rand s. The upper surface must be inclined
sufficiently to throw off the water, and, as felt is thl: cO\'ering material, the
minimum inclination is 10 mm in 100 mm run.' If the undcr surface is not
required to he level, the inclination is obtained by inclining the joists to the
required fall \aWards the eaves. If a level ceiling is required, the fall may be
obtalnM by 6th~t taIWrlO~ the joists with rhe top cd~e of each sloped to the
required fall, more usually the joists are F.xed level ~nd a small tapered piece
of wood nailed ,o}1 lOp of each The tapered pieces are called fin-ing pieus or
firrings. As sho.... n at R, they are the same width as the joists, and the depth
varies from a maximum of 50 mm at s (which is a detail of c) to IJ mm at Q
(a detail of 0). Tongued and ~roo\'ed boards arc nailed on top of the firrings,
and this boarding should be dressed smooth in order to remove any sharp
edges which may cause damOl~e to thc covering material. A fascia board is
nailed to the ends of the joiSL~ Th~ herring bone strutting is nccessary if the
ceiling is to be plastered, othen< i"e it may he omitted.
Bituminous fc:lt and lead are the most common covering materials employed
for this class of roof. Lead flats are detailed in Chapter Six. That shown in
Fig. 36 is covered with felt, of which there are many varieties.
uad ('(Jured Flut.- The lead details .of the flat shown in Fig. 74 are de.
scribed in Chapter Six, and rderenl.:e IS there made to the ~roundwork, I.e.,
the timbcr construction. The l1at is clil id~d into two by ;I drip and each h.. lf
is subdivided bv t .... o rolls. The h()anllO~ i\ gi~cll a falllo .... ards the gutter and
I As three lay.. rs o( fC'lt havC' been usC'd. th., ,flI",mum indmauon may h<: n:du(;('d to
dat (or lead, i.I., I·as nun in 100 mm run
36 .0
T, Fig. 74); deep firrings arc avoided ,at the upper half of the Aat by using deeper
86·2 joists as shown. The wood constructIon of the drips and roll!; are det;uled in Fig
7.h and will be more readily understood if comideration of this AOit i~ deferred
until the subject of lead work is studied The gutter is constructed of So mm
by 38 mm gutt" heartH at 400 mm centres. fixed at different levels to give the
necessary fall to the boarding. These bearer,; ~rt· supported by the wall at one
end and by a 38 mm thick longitudinal fillet or bearer nailed to the side of the
lower Joist (see 1', Fig 74). The construction of the cesspool is similar to that
described on p. 148.
(ii) uan-to Roof (sec II, Fi~. 36). This is the simplest form of pitched roof
and consists of spars inchned at 30 ' against a wall. An enlarged detail of J
is shown at C, where the wall plate is supported by two brick corbel courses.
Alternati\'ely mctal corbel brackets a3 shown ,It T, rig. ]:1:, may be adopled. A
cheaper method consists of nailing the upper ends of the spars to a continuous
75 mm by So mm teo./I piece or pItch plate which is plugged with its 75 mm face
next to the wall. Plugging consists of dri\'in({ wood wedges (see 1', Fig. 49)
called plugs at illlervais into the Joints of the brickwork. The ends of the plugs
arc cut flush with the face of the wall and the .... all piece is nailed to them. The
construction at the eaves is similar to that at x, except that there is no hori-
zontal tic. The spars arc V.shaped nOlclted at both ends and fitted to the
wall plate; this is one form of a birdsmouth joint. AnOlher form is sho .... n al
)(, Fig. 37. The depth of the notch should nOI exceed one-thtrd that of the spar.
~otching the spars counteracu the tendency for them to slide downwards. The
eayes detail is referred to on p. 74. The roof may be Imardeu as sho\\n at x
or battened as shown at Y.
(iii) Double Lean-to, Pent or V-Roof (sec ~I and 0, Fi~. 36). Pent means
penncd or closed in, and this form consists of t .... o lean-to roofs ..... hich arc en-
closed by and sloped from the t .....o outer parapet walls to a party or dlnsion wall
o\'cr whil.:h a .eutter is formed. Sometimes tht lower ends of the ~P'lnI arc
, 1 hit Ilope I. sUitabl" if Ilatrng is the co\·enng maten.1

J
 7'
KAU' "OIl. OIT"""
i
KAt. fOJ. , ..U,MJ-,MO('V
Ii " Ii ., SINGLE RDOFS iii_ ... i . . . .I......

M
DOUBU; LEAN-TO
P-OO~
A
J(I'U I41:UJ"':-eoo. 'Tl'UTTIH(; ;,
N
B 1(1" JOUU ,. - CLOSE COUPLE WOF
'" ~LAT~ -C .'~"
-.- _u~ -.. -V},' ._---_-'~. - - 4·15 ... - - - -
SECTION

~LE.AN·TO RDC)F IA NOn .. r'HU:ll.llOJ<l<. "'Ol'NGS

F PLAN IoJOIl. ...... ll. .. ~ .. n' ...u "'-OV'OIiD

'co
"

Fa;lIu: Jf)
,
 TIMBER
secured to a beam which runs parallel to the main walls, and, if neceM;Jry, is
supported at intervals by brick, wood or steel pillars. A detail of the gutter is
shown at T and a description of the slating and plumbing work is given in
Chapters Five and Sil(o
This roof is not adopted often as it is expensive on account of the extra
walling required and because the gUller is a potential source of weakness.
(iv) Couple or Span Roof (see E and F, Fig. 36) .. It is so called as each pair or
couple of rafters is pitched against each OIher and supported at the upper ends
at the ridge, as detailed at P. A detail of the eaves at I) is shown at wand
described on p. 74. It should nOi be used for buildings having a greater sp.m
than 3'7 m unless the walls are exceptionilily thick. The roof is of bad deslJ.:Tl
as it has a tendency 10 spread at thc fect (as shown by the thick arrll'ns) and
thrust out the walls. It IS not rrcommended,
(\) Close Couple Roof(sce I., Fig, 36),- This is a vastly beller form than Ihc
last \lescnbcd, for each couple of rafters i~ dosed by a horizont<ll tie hencc the
n,lIne, This lie is connected to the fed of the Sp.LTS <lnd prnellb them sprcading
{Jutv.ards. Tbe best form of connection hcl\\een the ties and the feel of the spars
is tbe dovetaIl halved joint (det~iled at z and described below) but in cheaper
\\flfk the tLes are just spiked to the spars, A plastered ceiling is often formed
un the underside of the tics, they arc then called ctibng joists, Such joists,
\\ hen they exceed )-7 m in length, should have 50 mm by 32 mm vertical hangers
nailed to every third or fourth spar and to a horizonlal 75 mm by 50 mm nlllflf'r
\\ hich is nailed to the Joist!! (see Fig, )8 and p. 74); this prevents the sagging of
Ihe ceiling joists and cracking of the plas·er. The span (If this roof should he
restricted to 4'9 m unless the size of the ties is increJ~d or they Jfe supported
by hangers, when the span may be increased to 6 m. The sizes of ties (redwood)
are given in Table V when the spars are at 400 mm centres In a tiled roof
If hangers or struts are used for spans of 3'7 m and upwards, thc depth of
the ties may he hah'cd,
The detail of the open ea\'Cs K is shown at x and an alternati\'e dosed ea\'~
is illustrated at Y. These are described on p, 74.
This roof conforms with sound prmciples of construction, For a ttlI'd roof
\\Ith spars at 400 mm centres the maximum span 01 50 mm b) 100 mm
spars IS 2'34 m, for 50 mm by 125 mm spars the maXllllllm span is 291 m
-see 'Building Re!,:ulations,
rl~~" (mm)
TAI·!.1e
'"
Ma""mum Span
'm)
s.u
(mm) " ...mom
'm) +-
"~ s.z~~
{mml
a-7 z
)')9
4'04
so D~
.so b~
So b,' .,...,
.~
"50"
S'H
50 b, !75
~o b, ~oo
50 b, uS
(vi) CDlIar Roof (sec v, Fig. 36),- ThiS is similar to the d~ couple roof
except that the horizontal ties are now placed higher up the roof, and are called
collars. The laller may be placed al any height between the wall plates and half.
way up the roof. the broken lint"S lndic.ting the position \\hen at the maximum
height. Obviously the lower the collar the more effecti\e it becomes in prevent.
ing the rafters from spreading and causing damage to the walls. It follows
therefore that the dose couple roof is strongpr than the collar roof. but the latter
is more economical ill wall height ror, as shown at v. the plastered ceiling may
be formed on the underside of the collars and the lower portion of the spars.
The dfIWtail halved)Qtnt at L' is detailed at z, A 13 mm' sinking is formed
on the side of the spar and the upper edge is dOHIJiled, The end of the collar
is checked out 13 mm. Ind the remainder of tne thil.:kness of the collar is do\-e·
tJiled ~Iong the upper ed~e as shown so tbat when the cull,.r is fitted to the spar
Lt Will be hOIl!\ed to tne extent of 11 mm (see section 1\'11' ), 'rlll' "ullaris then well
~piked or bolted to the spars
Th.s j01ll1 ,5 effeCl1H' In "'SlSh1111 both len~.on and (ompr..s,,,m ~trh""S, Thus
~n\ lel1<lenn' for !h., .."ars 10 .pread {"h"n Ihe wUar "ould h., III "',,,,on)'5 countcr_
aci(d b~ th., lOp shnu!<ier (ed..:<'1 of th.> wi!. •• bearlnll on !h" upp.,r edlle of Ihe
do"et~.led nOldl formed on th~ ~PM, and th" ~rM~ ar~ pre\enlcd from M~glng (10
pr(1du<'e ~ compru""n ~In'.' In the ,'"llar) b,' Ih., 'n<.!,",·d .IDutment "f ,h., collar
"h"'h IS fined I!j(hd~ ~I!,un~1 Ih.' \lnd",,,d., "I the 'p.'r n'M "".h end
The siLes of collJrs !>hnuld omform witn tnc SI/CS 01 tie .. gi\"n Jix)\-e (the
" maximum span" beinJ,!; the kncth lit cnll,ll), It IS lI"t l"'lJllwnicJI to adopt
thc collar type of sin~le mof for sp,Ln" "\U""hne 49 m,
DOUBLE OR PURLIN ROOFS
These are shown in Figs, 37 and ],11, Purlins ,lre introduccd in thi .. da~s of
roof to provide intermediate supports to th.- comlllOIl rAters. Pllrlm~ are nec-
cssan for roofs with spans of 5', III and \lp\\ard~. othen\i~c fhe ~p,lf~ \\()uld
need to h~ increa!>ed to an uneconomical size. rile mJ\imllrn IIIdi:led ~pan of
100 mm by 50 mm spars is 2'4 m and this should be reduced to 1')( m wht'n Ih.'
roofs hJ\'e a low pilch and are covered wilh he.!.\)' m.lleria\. Tht 1111r"dllClion
(If sulf,ciem purIm); permits the use of comp~rali\'eh ~m,l11 ~p,Lr~,
.-/11 tht imglt roofs ll,on" III Ffr:. 36 may hI' ulh"J 10 duuMt rl~1' 1>.1 I}'I (ldJtII/lI/
of one I)r mure sfts IIf rurl",!.
Fi~. 37 shnws the plan I flf .L portion of a uouhk roof of tlw ~fll1.1T 1\ pt
togt,thcr \\ Ilh a ;.ecliull "I E. A hippnl ,'nd h;IS 1'lCt'rl Llltmduco.;d ~11 J~ I" I'b
trato.· Int· applicJtion of hip rafters, Th ,' spar,; ar~ inclined at:;:; (~l'<' ". fl,)l ~lId
, \i!Unal.,el) Iht' d~pth of Ih., ntlu,h ." ,h" .. de of rh' 'l'"r.5 .nnea,,,d .n ~c ",'
>
In., .'''.; lOr th .. ,'oll~r'~ ch ..i:k"d ou, b,' ~ sllll!l~r amounl ...
01 th .. <ollar.lf" Hush "!lh IhOK of Ihe 5p~r
In.1I "h.,., ~".,mbl~d b.'11
,•. i
,,,k~
 ROO FS 73
two purlins are provided at each sid~ to support th~ spars which have a clear The following table gives the sius in mm of purlins for different spans
span of 1·7 m. The spars are nailed to th~ wallplat~, purlins and ridg~, and to for tiled roofs:-
reduce any tendency for the rafters to slide downwards they are cogged (see
TABU VI, PuRUNS (mm)
p. 60) 25 mm over th~ r-urlins,' in addition to birdsmouthing their lower ends
to the wall plates (see x). At the hipped end the spars are cut short (when they Spae>ng of purllllf (m)
are called jack raften) and the heads ar~ spiked to the hip rafters. Siw of
Purlins are supported by cross division walls of bedrooms, etc. (which are
carried up to the underside of the purlins), and at the ends by the hip rafters
purhn
(~) '"' '"' I
Mo. purlin span (m) for :zai"-)o· roof.Jope.
J"'

to which they are shaped and well spiked or bolted. The ends may be fixed (figs, in bradr.eb for )oo_~*. II~)
to valley rafters in a similar manner. The purlins may be placed normal (right 6) x ISO 1'8) (1'92.) 1'59 (I'66) I'~ (1·49)
angles) to the spars as shown at E, or th~y may be fixed vertically as shown at 6) ;x 2.Z5 2.'74 (z'87) z'J8 (2.· ... 9) Z'I) (2.'2.)
Nand 0, Fig. 37, and in Fig. 38. A secure bearing on the WIllis is provided 75 'X 175 2. '33 h'~) z·oz (2.'11) ,,81 (1'8<})
7Sx ~ z·66 h'7') 2.·)1 (Z·41) a'07 (2.·,6)
when Ih~ purlins are vertical, and in good work stone pads are introduced at 75 'X ZZS a'99{J-II) 2.'59 h·71) 2-JZ (2· ... )
the supports to effecti\'ely distribute the weight on to the wall (N:~ broken lines
at N). Joints in 111nl" lengths of purli",,, lire best IIrranged to coincide with and Purhnl eXceM;na 5 m in I~ath ..... not ~nnm;CilI Tn the .bunco. of crotl._wslls
lap at th~ wall supports (se~ Nand 0). or plrtltion., lrussea ue provided to limit the unlupported length of purlin. to 5 m.

Jointing known as scarfing or splicing is resorted to when a purlin is requir~d
to be inCreased in length. The best form for purlins is the splay~d or rakin.g
lcarf~d JOInt sho~n at R where the lenltlh of joint is from two 10 two and a half
times the depth of the purlin. Right angled cuts are made at the ends of the
splayed portion as shown. Three or four 12 nun diameter bolts, tightened by
nuts, make the joint rigid. A mild steel or wrought iron strap should be fixed
at the underside of the joint (see sketch). This joint is also used for lengthening
a ridge where the length need only be one and a half times the depth; a metal
strap is not required and long nails are used instead of bolts.
Filhmg is an alternative form to scarfing. A fished joint is formed by butting
the two squared ends of the timber together and connecting them by means of
t~o metal (or wood) plates (one top and bottom) and bolting them as for a
$Carfe\l Joint. The length of the plates equals four times the depth of the jointed
member, and if wood plates are used their thickness should equal one-quarter
the depth. This is a suitable joint for strutJ which are subjected to com-
prC1;~lonal stresses.
The collars are usually fixed to the spars immediately below the lower set
of purtins, as shown in section AB. These collars are dovetail halved jointed to
the spars as shown at z, Fi~. 36. As the span of the coUars i. approximately
'P5 m, their size is 175 mm by 50 mm (see Table V on p. 72). A plastered ceil-
ing could be formed by nailing plasterboard to the underside of the collars and
the lower portions of the spars (see broken lines).
Hip rafters usually support comparatively heavy loads from the purlins.
They must be of sufficient strength to prevent sagging and must be fixed securely.
The head or each rafter is nailed to the ridge, and in order that the load from
the rafters shall be adequately distributed on to the waUs, it il neccaaary to
1 CatKin, i. omitted in chelOp work.
employ a special form of construction to receive the feet of the rafters and to
make the angle of the roof secure. If the feet of the hip rafters were, like the
spars, simply birdsmouthed and spiked to the wall plates, the concentrated
inclined thrust may be sufficient to push out the quoins of the building. This
construction is shown at It Ind F, Fig. 37, and in the details at c, Hand J.1
An a,.,k tu or brQU, pllced dilgonally Icross the corner, is notched to the wall
plate., and to countenct the throat. tht'H notchea .hould be dovetailed U Ihown by
the broken Imea in the plln H. The W1IlI platea IU hslf-Ilpped for the aame reuon,
Ind at Ihown their ends projt'Ct some 7S mrn. Thll sngle tie carriea one end of I
beam, called. drQ/lon (or dr~'Vl) ~am w~ich is the chief .uppon for the hip rafter.
This beam I' tusk tenoned to the Ingle tie Ind Imgle cogged over the wsll plstea.
The fOOl of the hip rafter i. connected to the dragon be2.lTl by mean. of an r.blique kftOI'I
JOint. and bolt at lhown. After the hip rafter hat been fixed, the whole of the
frammg II made nl'd by lIahtly drlvmg down the ~~ of the IWIk tenon. For
lowly pitched mob, and where the cavea II not Iprocketed , the foot of the hip. rafter
IS aometunea projt'Cteil beyond the outer flce of the Will to the hne of the prOjecting
feet of the 'plrl. In thl. cue the rafler " notched over sod I. tenoned nearer to the
outer end of the dragon beam.
The lower ends of jack rafters are fitted and spiked to the vertical faces of
valley raften (see P and Q, Fig. 75).
The eaves details :lire d~rihed helnw.
This type of roof in which purlins and collars are employed is often adopted
elpet:ially for houscs) on account of its sound and economical construction,
It is particularly suited for spans which do not exceed 7 m.
Fig. 38 shows another type of double roof. It is similar to the close couple
type (p. 72) with the addition of purlins. The 100 mm by 50 mm spars are
pitched at 30° (depending upon the covering material and required design),
birdsmouthed to the wall plates, notched over one pair of purlins and spiked to
the ridge. The ceiling joists or ties are lICCured to the wall plates and the feet
of the span as already described, and ;n they are .upported by two sets of
I ConliderltlOl'l of thil conllructlOn mly be deferred to the 8eCOfld year of the Coune.
74
hanR~rs and runners, the size of th~ JOists need only be 100 mm by 50 mm or
125 mm h) 50 mm. depending upon the "ei~ht of the roof co\ttin~. The
han~ers and runnen have been des<:ribed on p. 72. Sometimes the runners ;Ire
notched o\'('r the ceilin~ joists to afford addltlonal rigiduy to th(' latter.
h ,I .mporUlnt , .... , th" 10000U ends of the h~n~n "re n,,' ~cured to the nmnfr"
unul aft" the ,1111(:$ or other covering matenal ha\C~ been fixed. othe..... 'ae Iht \ll.Cll/hl
of Ihll maten.1 may cause the spars to 53g ~hghIJ)', ... hlch In lurn would depres.
the C('lhnlljollll thruullh the hangers It IS the pncuct thc:r.,ro~e for Ihe eatp~n[ .. r
10 nail 1M runnen 10 the celhng J015\1 and the upper cnds of the hanllers [0 Ih" ~p~r.
or puTlms, and 10 dder nallmg the lo"u end. of the hanJlcr. unll1 the ~IMler 0.
Iller hu comp1e!«I his work
Trimming is required at chimney stacks, dormers, skylights, etc. and thl:
cnn~tructlOn is much about the same as that for floors (see p. 65). The name~
of Ihc 'Jriuu5 spars concerned arc similar to those JPplil:d to iklOr trimmirlC'.
I,~., Ifwllnmg s/,urs (or rafters), trimml'T span and Ir"mmd {parr (sec . \ and (,
Fig. »1), The Jmnl betwel'n the Irimmer and trimml1lg ~p,lr~ Illay h~· nlht'r J
tu~k II.'nnn (!>Ct' 1, hI-: ..HI or J ~imil.1T j01ll1 \\ithotLt the tll~k. l:<llkd ;1 pili/It'd
It''''''' ,,,,,11 (>.ee\ ,1Ild ,', hK. 3R). Th'lt hel\ll'l'lI lilt" tlllIHHl·d .HI.I trimmer ~p,lrs
~hould he cllher J dUH·tailed h()u~cd 10m! (st'e '1, he. H) (lr ,I hnl:lkd hdulH_hed
Joint de'-'l:flhcd on p. 05. 1 The trim;ning of a f()()1 munu ,I (himnt" ~t.Kk whll:h
penelrates a rouf mid"J\ lxl\\ct'n Ihe ta\es Jild ndl.:e IS dl:IJlkl! .II ~, he. 75.
Eaves Oelails.2 III~ IlIlpllrt.1n1 Ihal Inc CJ\e~ 01,1 rUI'! ~huuld he lJrdulh
.Icsigned. It .1' '"1111" I 1111,..t.tkl: I" lI~l' .111 t'\lx~"I\cI\ deep IJ'lI.l, .111\1 Ih,·
.,:Ium~y eITed ,h II I' 1I.!IlH·!< IS "h(I\In ~t ". III.:. -'7, \n t:\(e"~i,, pr',·
Icl'llOn "I the 1.1\t~ III r"""I1.n til til<' !'In (Of tht, hllllllllll.: I" .11t"tlwr I:TrUr.
h .\ I.:l'nt,t.l1 ,ul,' .,\ til "III~ l' H" ~1I'UlIJ ',t: I,t IHllumurll It.-rth. fha·
rlJhur,lIl1m ,..h,.ul.ll>, '''''llIcd, till' ~Impkt lhe .1t'\,111 till" h':!ll"f,
Flush, 0rt'n I'rnll'l'III1~ .HI.I d()~t'.1 I'fHlt'('lIng ('a\!" 'lit' lOotl:d on I' 'HJ
flu," Fl/;n, 1'.1,) l'\ample ... <If thIS "I" ,.1(' "1,,ml1 '" V .In.1 \\. hI-:, Jf,.
1"1,., 1.,:«1,1 ,,, ,>t:I~ sUlli'll'(1I1) <1n'l' I" .Hler till" ('utl" "I tI" J"I"h ur "'r.l1~. II>
\\ !lith 11 10"1 l'lIhl'l tI,nl.·d "r ~CTl'\\ nL 1n tilt' I.lt't·r lkt.ttl tilt" t .t~~ 1.1 l)foJnh slightly
Jhmc til.· I>,,;lrdllll.: HI ord.·r til 111I tlte ~Iate~ (~c: ( IIJr"'r lilt·) Tht thldlll"'~
of till" f.ls(i" Ill'l·d IInl C\ll'l'd 2_, mm (nomin.llj, Jill!. II rlclerrctl. Oil., or mllfl'
lillt-ti IIlJ\ hI' t"nn, ,I ,IS sho,,!,.
()/,1"1/ "'''IIII'''~' I,,,,. (~t· \. I'l!. Jh). I ht f.'t"t (II Ihl: ~I'.tl' prOWl! 150 l1'n,
,lllIl.lre ,..h.II'",1 ,I~ 1'011,,,", 'Or .I~ IIl(li('.\ll"Il It " an.11 !-te, -, It I" lOot IH:l..:!,S-lry
1" pro,,,11: ·1 LI"'I,' I" .111 "11t'1I ,';1\(',. ,\ Slll1rk "1','11 !"UI"lllllg ",lIl-~ h shl1\\ll
"I I I'll.:, 7Z
('1"".1 ",,,,,,'III!! 1·:lnn. rhlfl' ,Ir.: 1\\0 I'}rnh lOt dn"'l·tll·.t't:~. 1./' .• thosl'
"nh ~1", .... kl'B ,lI\d thost· \\i,h.,\I!.
\" (·\;UII!'!..' (,I lit,· I.tUn IS $hll"11 Jt \ 11e:,:h I he end" (If tb,' r;,/t,'tS itrt:
.1.1\\11 10 Ih(' ,,),.lPl· 10 "h,,\~.·. 111\' soffil htl; rd i ... I.ukd to.t" lIl'.tra. 111\11h, 1.1 .....'101
In ,h.·.,p "UTI< Ih"lnTnmc-d .p~nM'· !Wm"l~ t-o..!!-loonl,·d .nJ 0310;,1,,, It." nml11·"1I.
"luJ,,01~ ~huuld d"t~r conl1d"'~"Ol (>1 Ih" <It.l,nl Jrt.lI, un,1 (-h.p'" ~ ,'a
" ... ht'J
TIMBER
is finally filled Ydlh Ihl: edge of the soffit hoard enJl"aging in the gwo\'e prtpared
10 r,'Cent It It Ydll he ohscr\l:d that the brickwork IS set bad. 102 mm so
that If the soffit hoard shrinks til \I Idth no unsiJo!:htly gap appears along its length
ht-t'Meen il and tht· \\.111, The f.lsu. pmJecls abo\c: the backs of the spar!i.as
shown in order to tilt thc bottom cou~ of slates. Another eumple is shown
.Il ", rig 71 where a fillet is ust'd to tIlt the siatC1'l, so tile depth of the fascia i"
reduced 10 100 mm; the soffit boardlllg is fix:ed to 50 mm by 32 mm bcarer!i
naIled to the spars
A sprocketed ca"es may be formed by (D) fi,1(in~ the sprockets on the backs
flf the spars or (b) naihn~ them to the sidcs of the rafters. .
An example of the former is sho'Mn in Fig . .11;. The construction is made
dt:ar 10 thc enlarged deUII .It D and the iSometrlt: drawin/;! II, the latter showing
!ln~ tnd of a spar cut. the ne\t spar 18 shown \I lIh the sprocket fixed, and the
nnt \lith the sprockl:t Jnd hearer lixed. I'hc ~offit boards are funKued, /(u)Q'/__ ed
find V·1"mlfd. Jlld .II hipped ends, etc" tilt· ends of thc hoJrds should be carefully
lllltred (sec ", Ft~.17)' The bedmould should he ~mbfd to thc walll" scribc"
mCJII10 to mark for :tf,:curate fittint:, and 10 thiS case scribing is necessiln- to
tnsurc tholl tht' balk of tt>e mould shall lit thc more or less irrq.~ular slIrf.-u.:e of
the brtck\\Ork). ,\ hril:k-nn-cnd c()urs(:, projecting 20 mm ib shown. provides
a simple and effc(tt\e finIsh and ;llslI f,)rms a fiJt Hch f('r Ihc windO\\.
The sprockets shown at " and L. hg, 37 gl\'e I graleful sweep to tlie lower
portion of the roof. Ilere tbl:) are fi\.t:d to tht· ~IJ~ of Ihe spars and thc wall
plat!;. They arc indined at an an~1c "hieh ~'qual~ th" ddfl:r,mce bet\\een a
ri~ht an~lc: and the pilth of the roof (f'.R'., (jO ,,, H). ~rrockcts "hould
not bt: .ci'Cn an inadequate slope 1Om:h a~ is ~hn\\n al \1. for. hel'ldes dt,tr<lctin.c
from the appc:ar.lnce. It makes it djffkuh f('r tht: ~I.tler or tiler to negottate the
Jngle at the intt'rset:tlon OCIIH'en the !>prockeb and spars unless a Iriant:uJar fill .. t
(sho,", n by hwken lines) IS h\.cd, :\ TCHlf II lIh a tlat ~lnpt: IS also diffil:ult 1<1
make watertt~ht at the eales. Thc con!>lrUl:Ilon 'If Ihe ean's is similar to thdt
already described, btlt Jttentlfln is draw n to thl' JIIt'rn.ttu e mel hods of supporting
Ihe s<ltlit h..'arers. Th,It.II" sho\\s Ont' cnd "f c,llh hl'arl"r n.tlled 10 a fillet which
il' rlu.l.:~ed til Ihe "a1\, tlit fltht:r {"ntl h{"ln~ 1I,llk,1 10 the ~lde of the spar. The
ht:Jnr,.. ,It J ,Ire kl into till' \\.111 .II 0111' 1'1111 (/'''.~, /, nr hnlcs h{"inJ( ldl b~ tht,
hT1lkl~\'er 'or 1111'> P'IIPO'>t:) Jlld these l-ntls .tIl: l1~htl~ \ltdgcd, The sprulkets
arc sh(I\\l1 in Ihe pbu I I'hl1w 1I.lIlnl .It 1',llh sl,l, "f till' hip rJflerS ;lft' nt·tb·
'.In to rrmllk.1 1I1C.ttIS "I li\lnJ! Ihl- IIpp~'r l'nd~ "J Ih .. I\ln ~hurl srrlllket~ al
t:.tdl l:OfOl'I .11lI1 tiL\" Ill";trcr~ to Ilhith thl' !.ISU,I 11I\lII~d at tlit: anJ(le) dnd the
Olilad emb of thl' suInt h'l;Inh Me 11.1ilcd Onl' "I 1111:~1: ht:,lTl'rs is sho"n al T
I->ut h.ls bet:n omlttnl .J\ S III onlet \0 shUll till' IWln ht:l\\eel1 Ihe ~ufiil boards
:\ (1<1.111 "I .1 ~!l1H1.1f l·,lIt·" i~ ,hO\\!1 ,It I;. hI!. ;1
1!1'lIIljilllnt: (If 1I1/I'/f/III1II:, This I" thl' brilk\\ork whit:h i~ l"(JIltilltllti up
bel\H'l'n ,md til the h;t(k "f the SpArS .Ifla tht· la:ler ha\ e h('t'n n\.cd. ThIS Ii
~hO\\I' in ,III tht· t'i1\U deulls (somcllml's hy Ilt"kell 11Il"~). al1<1. for ob\ioll"
H';"."n!. il ., t'spt:tIJlh Iln'es~n ",hen tht" roofs h.l\c "pt:1l t',1\es.
 "

G.
W~T TO AVOIO

PUUIN
.JOINTS
DOUBLE PLAN SHOWING
P-...OOF TRJMMING TO _
C>-IIM~EY STACK
'-'D,,.

ISOMETIUC VIEW
O~ ROO~ 5HOWN

IN SECTION B _______ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~

A

15" SO

Ib PLAjTC:~

I TG i .
.:;orrlT
~'i .A,)<., ....

r.R.ICK...~~}N-E~D ,-.o..J~E­ 1l.5 · ' 4 0

I-

DETA Il.
- - - - >0O

m: r i\'v F S
,.
il...EIN r OR.<::£D
CONCUT!:.
LINTE L

'00 - 15
D tc Pll.O.![(. - '"
t"<::,,or "''': L
,,
lS . S P"'N - - - " "
.---.-- .",.",1", ' C, H' ,.. ... f

5ECTIO N B
rim III 1)\
 F RAM E D RO 0 F 5 77
It i. nQl nt'<.;t'lu.ry to hale b".mfillmj,f 011 lOp of the "'all plain. Mild Ihl~ pncun'
which" sometlmn earned out cannot he wo $tfongly condemned <';a$H of dr) rol T R U I I o ~AfTE~ R. 0 0 ~
In roof. hal-., b«n IIltnbuted 10 hnornfilt.nR "h,eh has Men connnut"d r". the full
thlckn,," of the ".11110 the I»cks of the ~pars and ~rockeu Any defe<:IIVC slatl:1l or
OI:her roof CQI·cnn.Q' al thl' POlnl allow "'liter 10 enler. and OW '"I{ 10 the ,,00<1 members
bemll" confintii by bnck",ork (or mason!)') they bee_orne .,"uTaud lind rCmaln 5(1,
,",ulunR In defecllYC lImbe.. Adequate 1'"nUlauon,. Just u es~nll.1 fot r()()f umbers
a. It ,s for Roo r members (see p. 60) I f dry rQt 15 to be prevented 11111111111
\< .. u 15 ... (
,i. I_
••
Of
HAil <0 .... =.•
TRUSS ED RAFTER R OOFS 1)r.=::::~::;=:=="'''~AIL GUI~ I....'LYWOOQ '(UH'
~"'ltrJ 10 ",( ... ,nl
This type of roof (Fig. 38,,) consists of planed stress gradt:d ti mbers fastened
together in the form of trusses and placed at relatively dose distances apart
It comprises rafters (spars) joined to ceiling joists and intermediate members
The trusses are prefabricated and because roofs of this type are more quickly
erected and use much le!>~ timber than purlin roofs they have almost entirely
replaced them for housing work.
The trusses are placed at centres not exceeding 600 mm 1500 mm by 25 mm
(min). tiling battens must be used] and the separate members of the truss,
which must he of the same thickness, are joined by plywood gussets glut'd and
nailed to each face at the joints. The adhesive used for this purpose is commonly
resorcinol'fonnaldehyde (see Chap. 2; Vol. Il l); 40 mOl 12 gauge galvanized
nails at 100 mm centres in two rows per member are used (Sl'e c). Alternatives
to plywood gussets are 18 or 20 gauge galvanized metal plates which may he
either perforated for fastening with clout nails or may have integral teeth in .... LL '( "'''
' ....... T I l [ V .... T10N I I N /I.
.... hich case a special press is needed to make the joint
The trU,;l<Cb mu~t b., joined to~elhe r by 75 mrn by 25 mm brac('~ nailed tt)
the underside of the top !russ member. An ele\-atlon of the siJe of thc roof
"(luld shnw thc bran's placed diagonally in a W formation, the top of each TR IPLE O R F RAMED ROOFS
outer leg of Ihe W naikd under the lOp of the outermt)!>t trus-<;e~, Ea(h leg of
Ihe \\' to pa"s not more th~n 6lrusst'li, The maximum unsupported length of purlins i~ :; m (,;ce p. 7]) if ~ ... lril\J·
The two most popular truss shapes are the \\' or Fink type (see II and D) or gant sizes are to he avoided; if there are no cross UI\j'11In \\,111" ,1\.lilJhl~ 10 pru-
the Fan type (B) for larger spans. Kotching or birds-mouthing of the truss ,ide suppor!s to limit the purlins 10 Ilus span 111L'1\ ~ilher rool Iru"~l·~ (.11..,0
should not be allowed. The moisture content of thr timber should he 22 per called principals) arc needed, or the Irussnl r,lfla .lTUn,gt:I1It:n1 usnl Ilen~"C a
ernt. or less so care should be taken to fix roof coverings quickl~, Irusses framed mor has three sets of members, '_r., spar" \\hit:h dl,lrrnUlt Ihl' \\elghl
should be stackrd Aat on a le\'el ba~{' before erection. of the roof tovl:ring, snow, and wind prt$sun: to th~ purhns whidl tr.ln,rllll Ihis
The follo",in~ Tahle gin:s the .. i2l'jl of Ihe timbers in mm and ~pans in m load 10 Ihe trusses, and Ihese Iransfer it to the walk The outll1w 01 the trus,;
for the t.... o type!> of tru~s SPd((,U at -loo 11111\ (('nlreS must follo\\ the roof shape, \\hieh is usually triangular A Irlanc:i..- i~ Iht: .. tronge~t
form of framed structure for it cannot be dt:formcd if It:. mlmna" Jfe adequate
and properly connected.
lIasKo sizr of lruss
nwmbel'l (mm) Thr .tudrnt in thr clan m Buildmg Scirn~e "'Ill hlv(' prob~bl' nrm'u OUt Ihc
(·AetuaI51~r J mm Ir.. to
• Uo,," for planing) ., ,. Pnch (drgn:rt)
"
,. 3S
follo .... ing simple rIprnment In connectIon "'lin Ihe sohmon ,,' Iramrd <,rUdU,,, •
.... hen loaded A verllealload 11 applred at thr apc~ {It l",u rnclrn.-...l mcmh"r~ "h'lh

" , ..,
.IT" hmKrd al the tOP (representing a couplr of spars). Th(""\ ,,",II., Une'· ~p"·dd rllht"
.~
,.,
TO •• ""6, .6 feci Irc not rrslramrd and the un!latisf'ctor)' COUple rOOI {,ee E. 1'111 J/)I ""uld ~l"I
+4 X 7S Spans
{L,.,",., .., "
6 " 6·,
,."
10·1

,"..
n
In th,. mannrr If thr ..... Us ....ere not luffic,rnlly stronl!. '\ h •. rw.m.1 m"mha ,~
now ronnrcted 10 thr feet 10 p.-od.uce a Itruelurr resembling ~ clost" '·oupk t<>"f I~
..... )( .00
so X 7S
SO )( 100
(m)
,., .., ,.,
6, 6,

" "
i., Fig. 36. In a roof truss add,tlonal mrmbers arr Introduced to brM" Ihe ~lTu(!ure
throu ghly
 ,
TIMBER
Built-up Roof Truss (-.(:0: F,~. JI}). Th •• II Itlt· \\i,I,' \ . <\ 111111 - nltt-l (,>nllto"-'<Ir IS riJulJ .• 1 Cold, IIh-·I •• , Ill- 11I1l~' C .mpn!llli!,! thc oml lIml
tru~~ The c'umplc sho\\ n I" for .• "ran "I h;lIl .Iud I'lldl "I 10 It '" "I' 1,;..,.1 d wh,'11 th\' (cnlr .• i huh III Uehl!; l" I,", nIh h (l1ll!; cmhedded in Ih· \\.IUU 10
al I"M m l'cnlrcs dud '''' Jl;M~nl"l.l fOI the Ilchlc"\l\l'c of tr •• htwn;ll mol!;,,\," Ill.;" 1II.lke ;I knlTe I.hlcnlll~.
(1.1'., mtn\o(;kmJ! tiles ~t'(" ,k"u'rIUIII 1m PI'. '-\0 qt IId\ItTn th~ UlI"-..c.":; The pnnnp.d rafln .. r "'I' l \<Inl r"n ."li "I '"II 75 mm b\ ,0 mm (IInl ...·
SpJTS ,IIlU (('Ihne JIIIS\" an' usc.! 4t 4So IIlIll ,."lIrl"_. 50 mm .• pJrt. (hI" b lIul'!,orlnl 1111.1" .• · h~ .. ~lnll 011"0 1;>0 nun h~ 50 mm
rhe jom!s are maul' b\ I l mill .II~_ he,lts ,mo IImht:r ~ 1nnl"r~. I"lIl'I.\II,"r limb ... rs I SO mm ap.lrl "hll·h JTC(lHI! d "" e,lI;h Silk "f the 1'11' elil'nl. 'I"\\(,
are (If M'\eral Ilpes, (Jilt' nt-mg shm'" at J ' ...1 flo 111m dl.l. !]{Ilnl c.lh.1nllnl ~h c;'nn.....:tor" .lre U'ld.lt Ih :·,;"1. ,on•.11'.t\ h "'It.:, Llll· "f Iht' lh·'Ttl bl·I"l·' til s
plate ... ,Ih h\che IrldTlgul.1r to:t:th h':nI olf ,1\ n~lH .l1Il.:k~ if) ".Kh "11k I"1ll' Jlld the tlJnklllJ.: tllnb ... r~ of Ihl· _trolt nit, tnl~" IJk .. ~ thl· 1,,;.<1 frOJm Ill!" 15~ mill
B L T p R 0 0 F T R U
,U , U , S S ,Do _a

r ,
f 0 A P A N 0 b
• , P A
,
C 0 A T I ••
, C
" t
C 0 v
• 0 W I T
" N
,,<
l 0 C I

T
N G T
G
'"
f~ia iJ}
'"0"''' I.,

;r;r~
It S'OI l"" ll.C.>" ..... "'0 HAS .. 'NG Ii LIt CONN'CTOll\
"''''1/ T,Il )l'"'''' eCITi ,t _1M!
I 1/U·JO
"1(1S
"''''0
."'THN
1
'HI
B
'l"',, N TILl
V E
• G E
,
t
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A tJ
""'Col Ar.noCHITCoU
U T M £ N T ~-. 0 E T A I l , o E T Ai l AT 'G'

101)0+"" '''''lI.ING-ls-lO .. ,
IIIWU,. 10111011111.1

II.OO"N( HLT,

..... TUN'

E
TIL E

•• ,SO I"TlII.~O("I'" TllU/~'ii\iil~;:;e!,::

,fP J
t .... III lO,.·' .... \1G& 'IOOLA'
IU - 50 11.1"""( 11. A N AT
I I HoM ,'II.OCllHUI LONG
_15 IIlV VI~MICU-lI" "iJU~"'TION
flU IN, H OUt
H .... UIC OYI .. (UUNG 01 'lAUI .. ON IllMHDUI NlU .....
H
'UTllll.

--
)·uo.

.""u 16k .~.

tu"161.-1-. iNI wi +1

FIGUU 39
 TRENCH TIMBERING
by 50 mm purl in which is notched into the Itrut, tbe pUTh" gives support to the
intermediate 75 mm by So mm spars .... hieh arc at 450 mm ccnlf" fr)r Ihi!! com-
paratively light-weight roof.
The main tic of two 7S mOl by 50 mm tImbers So mrn ap;lrt 15 jo;n~d to th~
foot of the top chord by a sole piece plJced centrally imd UI>C on C:<lch sid."
Three bolt, arc required each "llh four umncct!'lrS pl.H,ed at the interfaces 01
the members, The half of the truss is completed "ilh '"0 other 75 mm b\ 50
mm members.
The apex detail shows the use of two more bolts, the leh-hand one na\'lnJ,l
five. and the right four connectors. The two halves of the truss are secured by
the outer 7S mm by 50 mm head piece•.
The Iplice detail at the centre of the main tie is shown al Hand F, {nuf bolts
Irc used, the two central ones being without connectnrs. the outer left-hand
bolt has five conntttors and the one on lhe ri~ht has (uur A central ;lod two
outer splice plate! arc required 10 tie Iht truss halves tOj{ethtr.
Ctntral 50 mm thick packing plates are spiked to the mjun members In the
various p<»itions shown.
Gutters.-Sometimes walls terminate as parapets and gutters are therefore
required as shown In Fi~. 73. Thefe are two forms, i.e., (a) poralftl or box
gut/tTl and (6) taptred glllUn
(a) Parallel GlltltT.- ·An appltutlOn of thl~ tyfX" I" shown at A, Band c,
Fig. 73. The feet of the spars are birdsmouthed to a hOrizontal beam, caUed a
pole piatt, which is notched out and spiked to the principal rafter. The guner
con.ists of zS mm boarding laid to hns and supported by 75 mm by 50 mmptttT
TIMBERJNG TO TRENCHES
rft .)•• ,..
IIOt.ING So.o.a.D!
FIII..M
GROUND
r :1'1I1! 40
79
lua,", at 400 mm centres which at one end are tonjil:ued and nailed to the pole
pllte Ind at the other end they arc notched over and nailed (0 a gllt/" plate
which is spiked to the tie beam The &e<:tihn at B dnd plan at c. Fi~. 73, should
be carefully studied :"'ote ho .... the ht:uers are n\ed at varyinlo: kvels to gi\'e
the requisite fan to the hoardln~. The cross 1\CCIIOn Ihruu,il:h tht .2'lller at A
Fig. 73, mdicat ..., tht levels of the ne<.:e~ary filii, drip. l'le The umner details
should he further considered with the ~ubject of Plumbing (ChapleT SIX)
(b) Tl1ptrd Gllt/t, (sce J, K and s, Fig. i-'). ThlS;"!tt1 called benust of
itll shape on plan. The bo;lrdin~ is supported tn 50 mm b\· 38 mm bearers
which arc nailed at var)'mg levels to the SIdes (If tht· spar.. and 50 mm by )8 mm
uprighu .... hlth are half.lappcd to the hearers Thl~ \:f)nstruction \.\ill he ht-tter
unden;.tood .... hen Ihe lead drl.llls in (,hapter Sl\ are ... IUlll\·<1
TEMPORARY TIMBERING
C'ertam form~ of I1mber l:onstruction arc reqUired only as H:mporary supports
of work Cilrried out durmg prehmmary bUlldln~ operatum.s u: in tht erection
of permanent structures, after which they are rcmo\cd. Timhenng to support
the sides of trenches which are to recei\'e w;lll fuund.tions, duins. etc, and
that known as eenter;n1!" which is requirtd to l1Upport arches llurmg thelf con-
struction are examples of this type of construction.
'3
•
t1> · I.' 9U
POLl"'':' aoM.,O,
80 TIMBER
TIM8ERING TO SHAllOW TRENCHES
The timhenng of tntse I:xcavations is done by the l<lhOllrcrs as the work
proceeds. The sizes and arr~ngement of the \'arious timbers are inAuenced by
the nature of thc soil and the depth of Ihe cutting. There arc many different
kinds of soil, but for convenience they may be divided into: (I) liard (in-
clu~ling rock and exceptIOnally bard chalk), (2) FIrm (including hard chalk
and dense gravel), (3) Moderately Firm (including soft chalk, loose gravel and
wrnp3C! clay), (4) LooSt (including dry sand, soft day, ordinary loamy soil
and make-up ground), and (:) Loose and Water/Q.t;gcd loamy soil and sand. l
Terms. The following memhers arc used in Fig. 40;-
PolinK BQords. - i\lcmhCfS placed vertically next to the sides of the excava-
tion or sheeting (see below); sizes vary from '75 mm by 32 mm to 225 mm by
38 mm and arc from 0·6 to "2 m long.
liaiinKs, lI'alt'S, Waling Pieces or Pianks.-:\1embers placed horiwntally
next to the earth Or poling boards; sizes vary from 100 mm by 75 mm to 225 mm
by 7., mm, and from 24 to ~'3 m long.
Sheetmg. -!\Iemhers pla:ed horizontally; of similar scantlings to poling
boards and from 2'4 to 4'3 m long.
Struts.-Short lengths of 75 to 100 mm square timber driven down hetween
poling boards or walings at a minimum di~tance of I 'X m centres.
The follo\\ing tYln,al dl-.cril'tiOIl lIlay he applied to a 1;hallow trench, f'(ca-
vated in various soils, to receive a foundation which is "2 m wide and I m
deep. Timbering to deeper foundations is shown in Fig. 19, Vol. III.
I. Hard Ground.-No ti mbering would be required (unless there were
pockets of loose soil) for the sides of the trench would be self-supporting.
2. Firm Ground (see A, Fig. 40).- Whilst there would be little likelihood of
the sides of a shallow !Tench caving in if left unsupported for a short time
(hard chalk will retain a vertical face, 3 m high, until weather conditions begin
to disintegrate it), it is sometimes necessary to provide a light support in the form
of a pair of poling boards strutted apart at a minimum distance of 1·8 m centres.
This distance is necessary to allow sufficient working space for the men engaged
in constructing the foundation. Usually it is sufficient to use one central strut
to each pair of boards (as shown at B) but occasionally it is advisable to use two
struts (see c).
The strull ue Ilighliy longer than the hori~ontal di stance between the boards and
they .re driven down unt,1 they .re tight .nd more or less hori~ontal. The sides of
the trench are given. slight batter from th" tOP in...... nb to facilit.te this oper.tion
Bnd to reduce the t"ndeney for the members to become loos" as the earth shrinks, as it
does on the remov.1 of moisture. e.re Ihould be taken not 10 over drive the struts
and disturb the earth behind the boardt.
I Thi. divi.ion i. purely arbitrary; .ame authori'i« h.ve subdivided both nnd .nd
d.y into. KOre or more different kind. for the purpose of _ i n g their bearing capacity.
3. Moderately Firm G,ound.-Where the soil is firm, except where it is
inclined to be loose in patches, Ihe limbering may consist of the simple arrange-
ment shown at n-otherwise the trench may require a temporary support as
illustrated dl E.
The wide walin",s at D provide a continuous support, three struts being used
per -l- m lenglh of waling.
The arrangement at E shows poling boards held in position by walings which
arc strutted. The poling boards are placed at a distance apart varying with
circumstances; in the figure they are shown at 450 mm centres, but this distance
may he reduced to 300 mm or increased to I m. The timhering is done in easy
stages for it is not advisable in this kind of soil to defer it until a length of trench
is excavated equal to that of the walings, as a section of the unsupported
excavation may collapse.
Thc folio" ;n~ IS the procedure ad,'ptni ..\ sh"n knClh IS l'x(:~vated sufficient
to enahl" the iahourcr to IIlsen and It'mporani) ,trUI .• p.llr of polmg boards (thus
re"cmhim~ A). Th,~ '" rcpeated untIl ~utfiCIt'nt p"hn~ ho",ds ha\!.' been placed which
oould be sp~nn~d hy !lll' " .. iinJ.(s A ~ldT " .• ill1).: IS th~" pla.ed ~iong each SIde and
strulled agamst the bo3rds as sh"" n, after whl~h the tempor .. rr struts can be removed.
Temporary 51rutl!nl! is show n by brokcll lm('s al f.
Ir is 1111t necessary 10 dTlve wed~~s dO\\11 hctw(·cn th,' walm;.: :md boards "'h,ch
ha"e become loo$(' Or ha'·.,. been SlrUtled a cr"3tCr d,stanc" ~part then usual. An
example of thIS 1$ ~hown at Ii
•
~. Loose £arlh.- The arrangement of the timbers is similar to that shown
at (; (excepting that sometimes the sheets are placed about 25 mm apart) and is
described below.
5. Loose and Waterlogged Ground (sec c). - Horizontal sheeting is necessary,
for unlike the soils referred to in the first three classes, it is not possible to
excavate in loose soil for several metres in depth before resorting to timbering.
The sides of the trenches dug in this soil begin to fall before 300 mm depth has
been reached, and hence the need for horizontal boards or sheets. The following
is the sequence of operations; The excavation is made to a depth slightly in
excess of the width of the sheeting to bt: used, when a board is placed against
each side and two or more temporary struts are driven between. The excavation
is continued for 225 mm depth or so and a second pair of boards is placed tight
up against the bottom edge of the first set and strutted. The condition at the
end of a section at this stage is shown at H. This operation is repeated until
four sets of boards have been temporarily strutted or the required depth has been
reached, when poling boards are placed at a minimum distance aparl of J.g m
centres and strutted as shown at G, and the temporary struts removed.
When the foundations have been completed and the walls built to a height
of two or three courses above Ihe ground level, the timbering is removed and
earth is returned on both sides of the wall and rammed solid.
 8.

; CENTEf1JNG

TU~NING PIECE ,Oil. ,Lt., .sECTION

/" rc.,-r. c ,Oil..

CAMBE~ .&.RCHES SECTION pp

){'''I f FO,", v-o

SIC..ETCH Of=. PA.It..T
I'" 'i ,&; CENTRE M
FIGURE 41
8.
CENTERING
A centre is a wood member or frame used as a temporary support for an arch
during its construction. The removal of this support, known as "striking," does
Dot take place before the mortar between the vallssoir! of the arch has set. A
centre must of course be sufficiently rigid to support the weight of the brickwork
or masonry to be constructed on it, and, in addition, provision must be made to
permit of" easing the centre," a term which is applied to the operation of slightly
lowering the'centre before the mortar has set. A centre is supported on vertical
posts or props, and the introduction of folding wedges between the heads of the
posts and the centre permits of its easement and also the adjustment of the centre
to the required height to receive the arch. The term centering includes the centre,
together with the wedges, props, etc. . that they will conform to the curve of the arch. The 75 mm by 25 mm bract'
The shape and details of a centre depend on the type, span and WIdth of the
arch to be supported. The following illustrated examples should therefore be
considered as typical:-
Turning PieCts.-The simplest fonn of centre is for Rat arches and those
having a small rise and width; it is called a turning piece, and, as shown at A,
Band 0, Fig. 41, it consists of a solid piece of timber having its upper surface
shaped to conform with the soffit of the arch to be supported. The Rat. arch at A
is that shown at A, Fig. 15, which has a 102 mm soffit and a 12 mm Tlse. The
turning piece is slightly back from the front face of the wall in order that it will
not interfere with the bricklayers' line and plum-rule. The turning piece rests
at each end upon a pair of folding wedges,' and these are supported by props
which rest upon a sleeper or sill placed on the brick window sill which it serves
to protect. These props are strutted apart as shown.
Reference is made on p. 24 to the method which i~ adopted to ensure that
the arch joints radiate to a common point.
A turning piece for an arch with a 65 mm camber is shown at 0, Fig. 41.
Centres.-Arches which have wider soffits than 115 mm are" turned" \Ipon
centres which are constructed of ribs and laggings; one of these is shown at E,
Fig. +1. The laggings or narrow battens are nailed across two 115 mm by 25 mm
ribs which have a 65 mm camber. T he centre is completed by nailing a 75 mm
by 25 mm cross-member, called a bearer or hearing pieu, to the underside of the
ribs at each end. The sizes of the members vary according to the timber avaihble,
, Studen" often make the lI\ituk~ i;' examinations of sho,,;ng the wedges with IhC'lr
lenath parallel 10 the length of Ihe lurmng pie« .. IllS ob,·iOU! that" hen III ,h,s pos,tlon
the wedge. cao.n()! be adjuued becaUle of the bnck Jambs.
TIMBER
thus the thickness of the ribs is sometimes 32 mm and the laggings vary (rom
7S mm by 16 mm to 50 mm by 25 mm. Both open and close lagging are shown
at E. The former is suitable for axed arches, and close lagging is adopted for
gauged arches. The distance apart of the laggings when open varies from 20 mm
to 25 mm, except when the centres are required for masonry arches, when the
spacing is increased (see M, Fig. 41).
A suitable centre (or a segmental arch is shown at f" and G, Fig. ,401. This
arch is similar to that at f, Fig. 15. Both close and open laggings are shown.
A suitably designed centre (or a semicircular arch (such as that at D and E,
Fig. 15) is shown at] and K, Fig. 4lo As it is not economical to use timber whi.ch
exceeds 300 mm in width, it is necessary to construct the rihs as shown .... ,th
upper and lower ties nailed to them. Narrow laggmgs should be used in order
to which the upper ends of the ribs are notched serves as Cl support for the tiled
key (which projects below the soffit) and also assists in stiffening the centre.
Each support consists of twO posts or props to which IS nailed or dogged a 75 mm
by 50 mm bearer at the top and a similar sleeper plate at the hot tom.
A centre suitable for a semicircular arch having J. span of ,·8 m, is shown at
M, Nand 0, Fig. ,po Each of the two rihs is made of t .... o thicknesses of 225 mm
by 25 mm pieces, spiked together, which overlap and have Joints normal to the
curve. Such are called built-up ribs. Each rib has double '75 mm by 25 mm or
32 mm ties and three 100 mm by 25 mm struts, mdicated by sand R. the lalter
being necessary to prevent the centre being deformed by the weight of the arch.
The cross bracing provided by the 100 mm by 2; mm mc1ined brace Q and the
horizontal brace T increases the rigidity. The la~~,ncs. \duch must be at least
25 mm thick, may be either open or dose, depending upon the type of arch. .
For masonry arches tilt: lag.o:ings m:ly be spaced to allow two per VOUSSOlr,
as shown at the right half of the elevation ~f, or alternatively small setting u;tdgl'J
as shown on the left of the elcvation may be prefl:rred. The arch in the
example is that of Ihe main entrance sho\,n in Fig. 24, and for each of the large
voussoirs four sets of wedges would be used. two on each hUllt-up rib. The
wedg..:s over the props are insetted between two Stout bearer~. and to facilitate
the casing of the centre Ihese ~:edges are somellml"s'-I.!reascd. The props
rna\' be hr,,,:cd by an inclined rTl<:mher as sho\, n by hroken lines in the sectIOn
I'P" A trammel rod (referred to on p. 24) is cut to the net length of the radius
of the arch. :\ hlm.:k is n.liled to the underside and at . he centre of the ties, and
the lower end of the rod is screwcd sufficiently tight1~, at the centre of the
M.:micircle to permit the rod to traverse the soffit of each "oussoir as it is being
wed.e;ed and bedded. This assures an accurately cun·cd soffit.
 CHAPTER FOUR
D 0 0 R S. WIN DOW S. S T A IRS
Syllabiu.-Doors, including IOOged and batten«l, [edged braced md battened, framed [edged and battened, framed ledged braced and battened, panelled; frames,
and eatings; methods of fixing frames, casings and doors; hardware. Windows, including solid frames with vertically hung sashes opening outwards, fixed
sashes, boxed frame with sliding $ashes, pivoted sashes, horizontal sliding sashes; hardware; metal windows. Architraves, skirting, picture rails and angle beads.
Stain. Nails, ~rew,. and faslenCrti. Description and uses of woodworking rools.
Joinery includes the setting out, preparation, framing and fixing of woodwork
which is chiefly used as internal fittings and finishings. There are several
broad differences between the crafts of the carpenter and joiner, although they
are usually grouped together under" Carpentry and Joinery." These dis-
tinctions are: Carpentry is essentially structural, the timbers are left rough
from the saw, the labour expended is small compared with the amount of
material used, and most of the work is done on the building site. Primarily,
joinery increases the habitability and appearance of a building and any stresses
to which it is subjected are incidental, the wood is dressed, the labour is a large
item compared with the volume of the timber employed, and most of this labour
is carried out in the workshop. Joinery comprises the construction and fixing
of doors and windows with their frames or linings, architraves, skirtings, stairs,
panelling, etc. and floor Uuards. Doardll ha" e been included in Chapter Three,
panelling is described in Vol. IV and the remainder below.
DOORS
External doors are secured or" hung" by metal hinges to solid wood frames,
and internal doors are usually hung to wood linings or casings. A door plus
frame or lining ~nd hinges is defined as a " doorset " in BS 4787: Pt. I.
Frames.-A dom frame consist-s of three members, i.e., two uprights or
posts which are secured at the top to a cross-piece called a head. The nominal
sizes of these members vary but 100 mm by 75 mm and 75 mm by 50 mm are
common. The head usually projects frail) 50 to 100 mm beyond the posts, and
these projections, caEed horns, assist in making the frame secure when it is built
into the wall. These horns may be splayed (see s and the thick brokcn lines in
the isometric detail at E, Fig. 42) and covered with splayed bricks to preserve
the face appearance of the bric"kwork. A t3 mm to 16 mm deep recess or rebate
is formed round the frame to receive the door. An alternative but less satis-
factory check for the door is formed by planting (nailing) a 13 mm thick bead or
stop on both posts and head, the beads being mitred at the angles (see K, Fig. 42).
Joints.-The head and posts of a frame are morticed and tenoned together,
variations of the joints being: (a) closed mortice and tenon, (b) haunched mOT-
ticS' and tenon, (c) draw pinned slot mortice and tenon, and (d) double tenon.
(a) Closed Mortice and Tenon Joint (see E).-The head is morticed to receive
the tenon on the post. The mortice and tenon must be correctly proportioned
if failure of the joint is to be avoided, and the following are accepted rules :-
I. Thickness of tenon should equal one-third that of member.
2. Width of tenon shou ld not exceed nve times this thickness or a maximum
of 125 mm, whichever is the less. (Thus the maximum width of a
13 mm thick tenon would be 5 by 13 mm equals 65 mm, and the
maximum width uf a 32 mm thick tenon would be 125 mm 2nd not
5 by 32 mm equal;; 160 mm.)
The" thickness" and" width" of a tenon are indicated at E, and the
" width" and" length" ot' ~ mnflic(' are shown at F.
Wide tcnons should be avoided as they (I) may shrink excessively, causing
them to lcavc the wedges (sec below), which thus become loose, (2) tend 'to
bend when the joint is wedged, resulting in thc splitting of the mort iced memhers,
and (3) require long mOTtices which tend to weaken the members.
These joints are glued and 'II.:l'dget/, glue' being applied to the ten()n and
shouldcrs (see below) and the tenon is inserted into the mortice. Wedges, as
shown, are dipped into the glue and driven in bctween the edges of the tenon
and the mortice to secure the joint. :\otice that the mortice is slightly e:l.largcd
and bcw:lkd to receive the wedges. Oak pins or dowels, 10 mm to ;to mm
diameter, are sometimes used in addition to wedges. This is called a pinn,d joint,
and examples of it afC shown in Fig. H. A hole is first bored through the head
and tenon, and the pin is drircTl in aftcr it has been dipped in gluc.
(b) Hauruh,d Mortia tmd T,/lon .7oillt (see F, Fig. 42).-This joint is 2doptcd
when the frame is not built in as the work proceeds. Horns arc not requin:d,
, Thueare sCI'eral typ~s of:tdhcsin (SCl' Chap. II, Vol. III). Th~y lOny he (al weather.
proof, (b) moisture resisl,ml (I" (c) sum,blc for internal u~~ only. Some are descnbed as
dose contact (cc) Rlu"s used 0l~1I11y in pl)"\lood construCtIon where heavy pressure and ;I
thin glue lin" are us...! Oth .. 11i ~rc gap filhn~ (G~') glues used m gencral jomery.

DOORS
and therefore the width of the tenon is reduced, except for about 13 mm from the
shoulders (or abutments at the bottom or root of the tenon), otherwise wedging
would not be possible. This abbreviated portion or stump is called the haunch
or haunchion, and its object is to increase the strength of the tenon at its root
and prevent twisting of the post. The stub mortice made to receive the haunch
is called the haunching. Note, the horns are not removed until the wedging has
been completed, otherwise the driving in of the wedges would split the narrow
portion of the head above the haunch.
(c) 1)raw Pinned Slot Mortice and Tenon Joint (see K, Fig. 42).~This joint
is sometimes used for large frames. The mortice is continued to the end of
the head. A hole is bored through th~ cheeks (sides) of the mortice, the tenon
of the post is inserted, a point J on a 45" line from the centre of the hole is
pricked on the tenon, the post is removed, with J as centre a hole is bored through
the tenon, the latter is again placed in correct position between the cheeks, and
finally the dowel is glued and driven into the holes to draw the shoulders of the
joint together and the side of the tenon against the inner end of the mortice.
This i. a good joint for external work for the following reason: Glue may rooften
if water gains access to it,t and in order to make the joints of external framing water-
light and durable paint composed of a mixture of red lead, white lead and bOIled
linseed 011 is somettmes used as a jomtmg matenal mstead of glue, As w~dges
set in paint are apt to become loose and fall OUI, they ,tre sometimes dispenscd with
and the draw pinned joint adopted.
(d) Double Tenon Joint (see K, Fig. 44), - This joint, which consists of
double tenons, is usefully employed between members of large size, it being
more effective than a single tenon in bringing the shoulders of the tenon tight
up against the adjacent member. The combined thickness of a pair of single
tenons should equal that of a single tenon.
A temporary piece of wood is nailed across the lower ends of the posts to
prevent distortion of the frame before it has been finally fixed in position.
Methods of Fixing Frames.- A door frame may he fixed in position either
(a) during the construction of the walling, or (b) after the walling has been
completed.
(a) Such frames are said to he huilt-in. When the brickwork (or masonry)
has been built to ground-floor bel, the door is placed in position according to
the plan, plumbed, and maintaim:d temporarily in this position by an inclined
strut (nailed to a joist and to the head), Tht: brickwork is now proceeded with,
the jambs being constructed close to the posts of the frame. Creosoted wood
slips or pallets (see II and Q, Fig. 42) are built il' dry at the bed joints of each
II jamb at about 300 mm intervals \Iith one near the foot and one near the head.
The weight of the brickwork makes these pallets secure, Nails are driven
thro\lgh the posts into the pallets after the heads (which may ha\'e splayed
horns) have been bonded in and there is no likelihood of disturbing thc newly
built waning. Wrought iron slraps (see p) arc occasionally used instead of
I This does not apply to " \\C8therproof j.llue "-see Chap, II , \'01. III
•
pallets; these straps are screwed to the posts in positions which will coincide
with the bed joints of the brickwork, when they are well bedded in mortar.
This is a common method of fixing frames. It is not adopted in first class
work as the frame is liable 10 be damaged during building operations and lime,
etc. is apt 10 stain it. The arrises of the frame may be prott.;cted by lightly
nailing wood strips to it. Frames are bedded in morlar as the jambs are being
constructed and afterwards pointed in mastic (a mixture of red lead and linseed
oil) to exclude rain and draughts.
External woodwork should be primed before being fixed, Priming is the
first coat of paint to be applied. (Painting is described in Chap. IV, Yo!. III.)
(b) The second method of fixing frames, and one which is adopted in better-
class work, consists of plugging (see p, 70) the bed joints of the brick or stone
jambs after the whole of the brickwork has thoroughly set. The 7S or 100 mm
deep holes to receive the plugs are formed with the plugging chisel (see 38, Fig. 67)
and hammer at 300 mm intervals (sec above), the hardwood plugs (see F, Fig. 49)
are driven in with their projecting edges cut off to a vertical plane (a plumb-line
being used for this purpose) so that the clear distance between the plugs in
opposite jambs equals the overall width of the frame. The frame is then placed
in position and securely nailed to the plugs and to the lintel. The fixing of the
frames is deferred until the building is nearing completion in order to minimise
the risk of damage to the woodwork. They are well bedded in mortar and pointed
in mastic as before described.
Additional rigidity is given to the frame if a 20 or 2S mm square or 13 mm
diameter round galvanised wrought iron dowel, 50 to 7S mm long, is partly
dri\'en into the bottom end of each post before fixing. The projecting ends are
inserted in morlices cut in the step and secured with red lead mastic or grouted
cement (see A and R, Fig. 42). Alternatively, hollow cast iron shoes may be
adopted (see I., Fig. 44 and p. 1)0).
Door Classificalion.- Ooors are classified as foHows :
(a) ltdged and battened, (b) ledged, braced and bauened, (c) framed, !edged
and battened, (d) framed, ledged, braced and battened, (e) flush and (f) panelled.
Size-s,-The si?'es of doors vary considerably, the following standard sizes
being in greatest demand: 2040 mm by S26 mm, 2040 mm by 626 mm, 2040 mm
by 726 mm, 2040 mm by 826 mm, Other common sizes are 1830 mm by 610 mm,
2640 mm by 810 mm, 2080 mm by 860 mm and 2130 mm by 91S mm.
A satisfactory
si~e of door for the modern dmwing or dining rO-o", " : 0.. 0 mTn by
7~6 mm, and that for b"droom~. box~room •. larders, waler-closets, t"I~., ,~ 2040 mm.
b}" 710 Illm.
External door$ should be larger than internal doon '" "nkr thai they
nm) confom, with the scale of the buoldtnj:(, and those of a hou~e m,,> be 2080 by
900 mm,
(a) Ledged and Battened Door (see A, Band c, Fig. 4Z}.-This consists
of vertical boards or boltrns which <Ire secured' to horizontal pieces caBed iedgl's,
The boards vary from 100 to 175 mill (nominal) \1 ide .md 20 mm III 32 mm thick.
Those in " narrow widths" give a more satisfac~ory appearance if the door is
 8S

LEDGED G BATTENED 0001<.. 0 Fi<AME

DRAW-PINNED
SLOT MOR.TICE
b TENON JOiNT

CLOSED Moo..TICE)
b TENON ..JOINT

L.. T. G t.V-JOINTIiO ON ~ StOll

M :T G. (. V-JOINTED ON IIOTH SIOttS
N. T G t. "'fADED ON 0.0.11 ~IOI
0:1" G to &E ... OfD ON &OTH llDU

METHOD:S or;
SECURING
F-Jl.AME

I 'I! '$ 1001

S'AL( J'O«.I>HAIL5 ••
FIGURE 42
 86 DOO RS
small, and the shrinkage which occurs is correspondingly reduced. Four forms
of joints between boards (known as match-boarding) which arc adopted arc shown
at L, M, Nand O. The " V-jointed" type is formed by chamfering both edges
of each board, and the" beaded" joint shows the bead worked on the tongued
edge. These joints are effective in making the appearance of the door less
objectionable when shrinkage takes place and the joints open. They are some-
times only tongued and grooved, occasionally they 3TC ploughed and tongued,
and in cheap work they arc burt or square jointed (sec R, .'( and 1', Fig. 34). Two
other fo rms of beaded joints arc shown at g and T, Fig. 44; the btter shows
hardwood tongues or feathers which arc sometimes employed when thick battens
are used. The thickness of the ledges is usually 32 mm (nominal), and the middle
and bottom ledges are wiQcr than the top ledge, i.~ . , [75 to 225 mm. When
employed for ex\ernal doors, the top edges should be bevelled as shown at B,
to prevent water lodging on them.
This is the simplest form of door and is frequently used for naHOW openings
and in positions where the appearance is not material, as for tcmporary shcds,
coal·houses, external water-closets, etc. It is relatively cheap ,lI1d is apt to sag,
on account of its weight, towards the bottom of the free: edge. This defect may
not become so pronounced if the end and cent ral battens arc screwed and not
nailed to the ledges. It also has a tendency to twist, especially if the timbcr is
not of good quality and thin ledges are used.
Pr~parnt;ol1 of Door. -"I'h" ledgcd und buttencd dnnr IS mad.., in Ih~ follo"ing nmnner :
The planinJ( (on both sides), !-lrooving, tonguin!<. Ihlckn~.~ltlg de .• m,,,,hine oper"llOns
of the tongued ~nd grooved battens ar" as descnbnl on p (" fur tl<>OT board$. Th~
batten$ ar C fined together on Ihe jOlllers' bench lind pencillinc5 ~r" dr;)."n auoss them 10
indIcate the position of each ledge. A cnmp (see Fig. 53) ...Ippli('d ncar to one of the
~
ledge positions and this ledge is hghtly and teml1'orarily n,,,kd to Ill<" hJllcns. The second
ledge is tben hRbtly nmled after the cr~rnp has bten ~pphcd n~ar to 11. The door IS turned
I o\'er on the bench, t ..... o rough pieccs uf wood are placed under the led!(es, ~nd oval
WIre nails arc dnven through the battens and kdges. Th(' nalls·~re "f sufficient length
10 project beyond Ihe ledges when dri,"en in, lInd as they p,,,r,,,," the roul!h pl~'CeS, Ihe
ledges arc not damaged by spllntenng as the naIls protrud". The door I~ fwally re'"rsed
und the nails clil1ched or clenched, i.t., the points 9re bent O'·cr and by me,lnS of" punch
(see 10, Fig. 6,) and hammer and driven below the fact: of each k ..I);:..,. The b"l!ens are
cut and dressed off level It the top and bottom. The edges of the hattens should be
painted before cramping 8$ this prevents water (rom gettlnj{ into the jomts and causmg
declY. If this is not done an unsightly appearance results ",hen shrinkage occurs. due to
the opening of the joints ~hich exposes hgbt unpamted margms. The backs of the ledges
~hould also be painted proor to fixinR.
Hanging aNd Fasul1i", of Door.-The door IS fitted bet"ccn the rebates of the frame,
a clearance of I'S mm (or" the thIckness of a penny") beIng allowed between the edge of
the door and the frame for the thIckness of the pamt whIch IS applied subsequen tl y, and
also for expansion, The width of the opening (he low the head and also near th" ("et of
the posts as the frame may not be absolutely square) is measured and transferred to the
door. After allowing for the deannee, the door is placed lc:ngrhwlse on edge on the
fioor pmpped between the notch on the joiners' 11001 Or tr",tle, and the uppennost edge
is pl~ne:l. down (or" shot ") to the mark made during measurements. The bottom IS also
planed 10 allow 6 mm delrance between the door when hung Ind the step Or Roor. The
door 11 placed in pO$ition between the frame, a wedge is inserted between the Roor and the
door Ind forced in untIl the door i. brought square with the fTime. If the door does not fit
correctly, Iny irregu1aritlel Ire noted and the door taken down .nd planed w'here necessary.
T~e door is now reody to receive the hin,l(es. The fonn of fastening usually provided
for Ihl ~ t>"pe of door,s the T-hi7l/(e Or uQU-garnd (see A. FIgs. 4~ and 43), This is 0
wrought Iron strnp pwoted to a metal plaIt. The kmu;klt of the hinge is a pin round
"~ich 'wo sectIons of the. plate and the end of the. strap are .bent (see x, F,g. 43). The
th,..,kness of the strap "anes from 3 to 6 mm, and .ts lellglh mcreases in multiples of 50
mm from .250 to 600 mm, measured from tht centre o( the pin. Two Sln'ps arc SeCUre9
eIther aUlllllst Ihe face of the hattens (see" :md G, FIg. 42) or screwed direct to the ledges
(see II, FI,I(. 42). The plales of the hinges arc screwed to the door posts. Those shown in
the elevations m FIgs, 42 ~nd 43 are calk-d Scotch T-hll1x~s and nre of 3 mm thick gal-
\,~lIIscd wrought Iron. Thicker honges are only used (or hea"), doors. Other hinges are
shown at w ~nd x, Fig. 43 and r, F,g. 44.
I/arr/fl:are or homnongtfY includes hinges and fittings such as bolts and
locks; it also includes door knobs and handles (sometimes referred to as door
furniture).
All that may be necessary for thc ledged and braced door is a thumb latch.
If additional means of security is required, either a padlock or one or two barrel
bolts may be used. The former is an external fining (as for an external tool~
honse door) whereas the bolts wonld be used to secu re the door from the inside.
Alternatively, a rim dead lork may be used in lieu of a padlock or barrcl bolt,
or a rilll lock may he used instead of a thumb latch and rim dead lock. The
following is a brief description of this hardware :-
Thumb Latch (see 0, Fig. 4J).-lt is sometimes called a Norfolk or Suffolk
latch and consists of : (t) a back plate with handle and pivoted meck, (2) a
keeper through which a (3) bt!am or fall bar passes to engage in a (-t) SlOp. The
usual length of beam is 175 or 200 mm and that of the back plate is about 225 mm.
Another type of thumb lateh with two handles, each having a sneck which
passes under the beam, is shown at A, Band c, Fig. 44, A complete fitting is
usually of malleable iron, although for better-class work it is of bronze.
In fi~ing a thumb laIC!'. " hole IS mmle in the door through which th" sneck
is Pllssed and the hack ph'le IS sere"cd to une fuee of the door. The keeper and
p!~te to whIch Ihe beam IS pIvoted are serew~-d to the opPOSIte face of the door, Ibe
keeper (which IUlIlIs the movement o( the beam) being fixed ncar to the edge of the
door. Thc pl~te to "hich the stop ,s att&.!h"d IS $cre"ed to the Inside face of the post.
An ulternntive ~nd less conspicuou. fofn of keeper is sho" n at :..;, and this .is fixed
to the edge of the dour. A slmibr stop fitl1ng may be fixed to the edge of J3mb of
the POSt.
Padlock with Hasp and Staple (see A, F'g. 42, and P, Fig. 43).- The hasp
and staple arc usualiy of iron and the padlock is of galvanized iron, brass or
bronze. The staple is screwed to the door post and the hasp is secured by two
small boits 10 the door. When the door is closed, the slotted hinged end of the
hasp is passed O\'er the staple, and the hinged ring of the padlock (after being
passed through the eye of the staple) is " pressed home" to lock it.
Banfl Bu/t (gee A aod Q, Fig. 43).-It is made of iron, brass or bronze.
The lcn~th varies from 75 to 380 mm, alSo mr bolt being sufficient for a
ledged and battened door. The plate is screwed to the inside of the door and
the bolt engages or " shoots" in a met .. : ""Ckef or staple fixed on the door frame.
Sometimes two bolts are fixed horizontally ...; shown at ", or they may be fixed
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vertically when one socket is let into the head of the frame and the other
(similar to S/) is let into the stone or concrete stcp.
Ri", Dead Lock (see R, Fig. 43).-This consists of a steel case (containing a
brass bolt, spring, etc.) which is screwed to the face of the door, and a staple
which is screwed to the frame to receive the bolt when the door is locked. The
key required to operate the bolt is comparatively long as it is needed to actuate
the lock from both aides of the door. The lock may be obtained with one or
two levers (see below). An escutcheon (see R') or holed metal plate is sometimes
fixed on the face of the door opposite to that 10 which the lock is attached to
prevent the "keyhole" from becoming enlarged and damaged by continued
action of the key. A plate Jock or stock lock may be used for an external door
of this type; this is similar to the above lock but the metal case is inserted in
a wood block.
(b) Ledged, Braced and Battened Door (sec A, Band c, Fig. 43).- This is
a ledged and battened door to which inclined struts or bracts have been added.
These braces increase the rigidity of the door and prevent it drooping at the
"nose," a defect which is common to the ledged and battened door. These
braces must incline u.pwards from the hanging edge, otherwise they would be
useless in counteracting the tendency for the door to droop out of square.
The position of the middle ledge should be such as to allo'w the braces to have
the same inclination, otherwise the appearance is not satisfactory; the appear-
ance resulting when the braces are lined straight through is sometimes preferred
(see E, Fig. i3). The width of the braces varies from 100 to 175 mm, and they
are usually out of 32. mm stuff; they are housed and not tenoned into the ledges
(see detail G, Fig. i3).
An alternative ledged, braced and battened door, stlitable for a cottage where
a simple type of door is required, IS shown at E. it consists of alternate wide
and narrow battens which are 25 and 32. mm thick respectively. See the detail
plan at F which shows the battens tongued and grooved and V-jointed, and the
T-hinges (similar to that at x) which pass through the thicker batten.
The ledged, braced and battened door is used for similar purposes as
described for the ledged and battened door, but on account of its greater strength
it may be selected for larger openings. It is made as described on p. 86, the
battens being nailed to the ledges and the braces afterwards fitted to the ledges
and clinch-nailed to the battens.
Hardware.-This door is generally hung with T-hinges; those shown at
A are 560 mm Scotch T-hinges, and another form is shown at x. The furniture
may consist of a thumb latch and a dead lock as already described. Alternatively,
a rim /o(k or .a rim latch may be used instead of a thumb latch and a dead lock.
Barrel bolts may be used in addition, as shown at A.
There are many variations of latches and locks, the brold difference between
each beinl:
A "'m latch ia fixed to the face of a door and conailtl of I cuina which tontaina
one 1Mw1l.d bolt or latch (which i. operated by a handle auac hed to a apindle)
and a ema1l1ockina bolt (aee u).
A rim Ihadloc1c h .. one bolt only which il actuated by a key (see R).
A rim locll hu two bolta, one controlled. by a handle and the other by a key (see T);
it is fixed to the face of the door.
A mortice latch has only one latch (or bevelled bolt) and the case is fitted within
the thickness of the door and is only vilible on the edge of the door.
A mortice locll ia .imilar to the rim lock in that it has two bolts, but the case ia
oflly seen on the edge of the door as it is fixed in a mortice formed. in the door
(!lee H).
The rim latch shown at u is a steel case about 12.5 mm long which contains a
brass bolt and a spring which acts upon the bolt to maintain it in the staple
when the door is closed. The mechanism is similar to that of the latch bolt
of the mortice lock described below. The small locking bolt is used when
required to prevent the door from being opened by the knob from the outside.
A rim lock is obtained in standard sizes varying from 12.5 to 2.00 mm long by
75 to 100 mm deep. A typ:cal example is shown at T, Fig. i3. It has two bolts,
i.e., a " dead" bolt operated by a key and a bevelled or latch bolt operated by
the handle and (when the door is being closed) by the action of the bevelled
end sliding over the edge of the staple.
Mullani"" of Rim and Mor/iet Locll.-The internal construction of a rim lock is
similar to that of a mortice lock. An interior of a mortice lock' is shown at j, and
the following description refers to (I) the lock bolt mechanism and (a) the latch
bolt mKhanism.
(I) The lock bolt i, of brass or phosphor brom:e or gunmetat and has a pin or
boll ,lump auached. to it to form a PIvot for the three thin brass lrous (heflce this
would be described as a ., three lever lock ") which are fitted over it; each lever has
two recesses, K and L, with a narrow connecting slo! through which a small {roer
dump (connected to lhe bolt) passu when the bolt i$ operated.; attached to each
lever is. a fine metal spring. When the door il unlocked, the lever stump occupies
the upper ponion of recus K. To lock the door, the key is inserted in the keyhole
formed in the pholphor-bronze bUJh which has three thin raised rings called u·ards.
the key (see , ke tch) bemg shaped to fit thue wards. When the key is turned, it causes
the bolt to move outwards and the p:voted levers to s ..... ing upwards un!il the Ilot
between the recess i. opposite to the lever Stump. After the key (indicated by
broken lines) has been rotated untIl it i, free of the lo..... er edge of the bolt, the
lever sprin~ shoot the bolt into the staple (in the case of the rim lock) or strilring
platt (..... hen the lock is of tile mortice type-see H), and the lever stump now OCCUpIes
the upper portion of the rKen L when the levers have rotated downwards. To
unlock the door, the operations are reversed, the key forces the levers upwards and
the boh imo the lock in the direction of arrow" I ", ..... hilst the lever stump passe,
from recess L to the upper portion of recess K after the levers have dropped.
(2) The latch bolt is operated either by the handle or by the action of the bevelled
end of the boit upon the tlaple or bent" lUll .. of the striking plate (see H) when the
door is being closed. The handles usually consist of two knobs, one of which is
permanently fixed to one end of a steel Ilo/ltd Jpindle and the other is loose. The
spindle is passed. through a rose plale (which i. acrewed to the face of the door) and
through the bush lind follower of the lock (lee x'). There are various devices for
securing the opposite or " loose" knob, an effective one being showfl at J' and x'
and con,ists of a small metal lIey which is pivoted by a countersunk screw let into
the end of the loose knob; the second rOle plate is passed over the projecting end
of the spindle, the loose knob i, fitted over it and pressed against tbe rose plate until
the laller is brought tiahtly up aglinlt the face of the door, when the key is then
dropped into one of the .Iou in the spindle; each rose plate is now 5Crewed to the
door 10 make the handle. secure. Oblerve It J that one of the feathr Jprings Ica
I Manufacture<! by MeNrs. J. Gibbon •• Wolverhampton.
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 DOORS
uP<'n one end of the latch bolt lind this causes the opposite end to protrude. The
fol!ower acts upon the crank rolltr; the latter i~ fitted to the crank which is pivoted
lit the crank ltllmp at one end and the other end bears upon a proj«tion on the end
of the latch bolt. To open the door when the lock bolt is disengaged, the handle is
turned to cau.se the follower to bear upon the crank roller which in tum causes the
crank to rotate and operate upon the latch bolt and move it horizontally in the direction
of arrow" :lI " until it is clear of the striking plate. When the knob is relcaled the
feather springs force the cnnk and bolt to asswne their original positions,
A further reference to mortice locks is made on p. 100.
(c) Framed, Ledged and Battened Door.-This is similar to type (d),
described below, with the exception that the braces are omitted. The door
tends to become distorted because of the absence of the braces, and it is In
little demand for this reason.
(d) Framed, Ledged, Braced and Battened Door (see A, B, C and D,
Fig.44')' This is superior to any of the foregoing types and consists of a framing
(which must not be confused with the door frame) strengthened by ledges,
braces and battens. The framework consists of a top rail which is mort iced
and tenoned into two vertical members called stiles or styles. The middle and
bot/om rails or ledges arc morticed and tenoned into the stiles and the braces
are either housed into the rails at about 38 mm from the stiles (sec B) or are taken
into the corners and tenoned into the stiles (see A). The former is the stronger
construction, although the method shown at A is often adopted because of its
beller appearance. These bracts musl incline upr~'ards from the hanging post
(sec p. 88). The battells may be joined as explained all p. 86, where reference
is made to the joints shown at sand T, Fig. H. The upper ends of the battens
,Ire let into the top rail (see section vv at ;\1), the side baHens are tongued into
the stiles (see sand T) and the lower ends of the batlens cumpleltly cQt:eT the
bottom r(lil l as shown at A, Band c.
Detal1s of the various joints arc shown in Fig. 4+ That at h shows the
joint between the post and head of the large (125 mm by 100 mm) frame. It is
double-tenoned to ensure a tight fit at the shoulders (sec p. 84). M shows
t1:e haunched tenon joint between the top rail and the stile, and the housing of
the brace as indicated at c.
The rpiddlc rail has 3 pair of single lenulIs 2 and is notched to recci\'e the
lower end of the top brace (sec N) and the top end of the lower brace. As the
rail is comparatively thin, it is not advisable to form these tenons as pre\'iously
described, but rather to make them flush with one face. when they arc called
barefaced teno1l$. - and one wing of each hinge is screwed to the edge of the hanging Itde. This is done by
, The practice, sometimes adopted. of makmg the bottom rail the same thickness "s
the framing Dnd letting the lower ends of the baw'''' into it is unsound. for "Dter ,,,11
lodgc on the rail and rot both it and the bottom of th( battens.
• These are aometimCi clll1ed .. double tenons," a:lhough this description is not quite
correct. A double tenon joint :as shU}'n at "'. Fig. 44) has both tenonl ill the thickness of
the member, whilst a meroMr h:l.\'ing a paIr of single tenons hu btlth tenons formed in
liS tridth.
The bottom rail has also a pair.of single barefaced tenons (see 0). The lower
tenon may be haunched like that shown at M.
The tenons are dowelled or pinned, in addition to being wedged. These
dowels are of hardwood and are from 10 to 13 mm diameter (see 1'.1, Nand 0).
One is inserted through each tenon and at a distance from the shoulders of at
least twice the diameter of the dowel to prevent the wood from splitting when
the pin is driven in.
The framed, ledged, braced and battened door is a very suitable type for
external use and it is particularly suited for factories, warehouses, farm buildings
and buildings in which the doors arc subjected to rough treatment. That shown
in Fig. 44- is typical of the type used for farms. The figure also includes a portion
of the roof details.
Preparation of Door.-The sequence of operallons in framing this door •• brieRy:
The rails are fitted loosely into the stiles. thc braces are placed in position, the battens
He accurately filled and slipped into the grooves of the &tiles and tOp rail, the tenons are
wedgcd and pinned (a.cramp beingysed as described on p. 102 to tightcn up the joints),
and the b911ens arc nalied to th ... ra.ls and braces.
The door frame should M securely fixed as explained on p. 84. The feet are shown
secured by do"e\s. Alternatively the door posts may be filled with tlUt iron .hotl (see 1..).
These prov.de a good method of fixing and also protect the lower ends of the POIfS from
damage such as m~y be cau5ed in factorics, fannsteads pnd similar buildings. The ends
of thc posts are shapcd, painted and fitted tightly into the shoes which are then screwed
to the posts. The frame i. now fixed "ith the do"els let into the mortices previously
formed in the step lind run In with lead or cement.
lIanging and Fmttning of Door.-Heavy wrought iron Scotch T-hinges are sometimes
uscd for hanging this type of door (sec p. 8b). Alternat"'e!y, 6 mm thick wrought iron
strap hinKts or bal/ds and glOdge!TII hooks are used, espeCIally for large doors (see P, Fig. 44).
One endof thc ttrap 's bent to form an eye. Two straps are required and arc secured by
10 mm Or 13 mm diameter bolts which are passed through the rails and battens. The door
is hung by passIIlg the eyes of the straps o~'er the pins or gudgeons which arc welded to
back pfat~s bolted to the frame. Sometimcs dooT"$ are not pro\'idcd with frames and arc
hung by eng~ging the eyes of ehe str;lps in gudgeon hooks smithed to wrought iron lugs
(see Q). The !ug~ arc secured to the stonework, morticc, being cue to receive them. After
insertion. the IUl{s He "ell caulkcd with lead and the reaSOn for the dovetail shapc and
ra!(g«l surface IS 10 give a greatcr key for thc lead and incrcase its holding power. The
heavy caft ir(ln ''''IKe (see w. Fig. 43) is another type of fnstening used for \'Cry large doors.
A pair of these hinges '5 bolted 10 the door 'Illd the pins on them engage in IO(kets fixed
to the frame.
B,,1/ hj,.g~J (see Y, Fig. 43) He often used for hanging this type of door. The flanges
. ?r !Wlgs of t~e hfingc! nrc made of c,ither c~ht Iro,n, n"lalJeabl~ iron or steel'la~d thher increase
I III r 3 mm umts rom L5 to [50 mm onl{. • e nuc e cons.sts 0 f a centra pm W rch passes
through ahernan"e eyes of each wing to form five segments. The" ings have COUntersunk
holes to rece,ve the heads of the screws used to secure the wings to the door and frame.
The door is hung by butt hinges in the following manner·: 1t;1 fitted into the frame
and trimmed so as to leave II uniform clearance of J'S mm (seep. 86). The door rs removed
forming slight housings in corre<:t position on the sti!., to receive a wing of each hinge
which is screwed to the door. The door is again placed into ehe opening. wedged tempor_
ar,ly (p. g6). and brought to the reqUIred position. The housing. for the free wings are
marked on the post, the door is re\TIoved and the housings are fonned. The door is
placed finally in position and the wings of the hinges lire screwed to the post (aee ..:, Fig.
50). In order that the door shall swing freely. the centre of the pin of the top hinge should
be 5 mm beyond the faU' of ehc door and that of the bottom hmge should be 6 mm dear.
A description of the JktT~ butt hinge shown at z, Fig. 43, and iea application is given
on p. 100.
 PANELLED DOOR
Hardwart.- That for this door may be as previously described. If provision The nominal thickness of the framing may be 38, 44' or 50 mm, depending
is required (for purposes of ventilation, etc.) to enable the door to be kept slightly upon (I) the size of the door, (2) the situation (external dQO~ are usually thicker
open and yet secure f(om unauthorized entry from the outside, then a door than those fixed interna1iy), (3) the type of lock to be used (a minimum thickness
thai,. as shown al v, Fig. 43 , may be fixed on the inside. This fitting may be
either of malleable iron, brass. or bronze. The plate to which the slotted shoot
is attached is screwed in a horizontal position to the inside face of the door, and
the staple to which the chain is fastened is screwed to the post. The free end of
the chain is in the form of a stud which may be inserted in the slot at the end
farthest from the staple only when the door is dosed. The door may be opened
to a maximum of 100 or 125 mm, when the stud is passed along the slot, and the
stud .,;annot bc removed from the outside.
(e) Flush Doorl (see Fig. 45}.-This is thr most pupu/ar type 0/ door, particu-
larly for internal use. Two of the many va rieties of flush duor are shown in
Fig. 45. That at A is caBed a laminated flush door ann cunsists fA a core of strips
of wuod glued together under great pressure and fa ced on each side by a sheet of
three thin layers or Vn/tn'S of wood, called plyu:ood (see below), which is also
glued under pressure to the core. Sheets of pl)'wood can be obtained up to
2'5 m in width, and therefore a flush door has the appearance of J slng!e panel.
As shown at E, thc core consists of 32 rnm wide softwood strips or 16 mm wide
A
hardwood strips. These strips art arranged \\ ith the Jl:rain alternating, as shown;
this reduces shrinkage and distortion. A hardwood edging is fi\ed to cover the ..3-PLV ",,-
core and the edges of the plywood; this prevents the latttr from I,cing damaged,
particularly at thc striking edg-e. A laminated flush door is heavy and requires
mu(;h material, and anuther type, (;aHed aframedftush door (sec B, Fig. 45), has
been evolved and is extensively used. It consis!s of a wood frame comprising
stiles, wp and ballom rails, and thin il'1c:rmediate rails, and this frame is covcred
on both sides by sheets of plywood. T!lC 75 mm dcep top and bottom rails are Ej ~o
lO •• .0 '0' ,to I
tenoned to the stiles, and the thin (25 rmn) intermediate rails arc stub-tcnoned to
the stilts. The joints of the framing are glued and (;rJ.mped, and the plywood
••
sheets are glued to Ihe framing under great pressure. Lock blocks arc prm'ided FIGURE <IS
as shown at B for the insertion of a mortice lock. An alternative form of hard-
wood edgir.g to that at E is shown in the detail f. The finished thicknC5S of of 40 mm is necessary for mortice locks), (4) the thickness of the panels and (5)
h()th types of door is 4S mm. the size of the panel mouldings.
(f) Panelled Door (see Figs. 46, 48, 49, 50 and 52).-A panelled door The panels may be rolid (as shown at j, R and v, Fig. +6) or they may consist
consists of a framing or rim which is grooved on the inside edges to receivc one of laminattd wood t such as plywood ar,d laminboard (see N and A', Fig. 46).
or more panels. The minimum thickness of solid panels is 13 mm (nominal), whereas that of
Types of Panelled Doors.- Several designs of panelled doors arc shown plywood consisting ofthrcc veneers (termed" 3-ply ") is from 5 mm to 13 mm.
at A to !I (ioclusive), Fig. 46. 'fhe members of the frame not already mentioned
L A detailed descTLption of the manufacture and uses of plYI<·tKJd and similar veneered
include the mun,in, which, a,t c, is the short vertical piece between the bottom
products is given in Vol. II] Briefly, ply"ood consists of three or more thin sheet, of
and middle rails. I\"ote in e\'cry case: ( I) the stiles are continuous from top wood which have been carefully dried, glued, pressed and trimmed otT. Columbian
to hotlom, (2) the top, bottom, middle .. ud inter:ncdiate rails arc joined to the pine, birch, o"k and mapl" arc some of the t,mbers used. Round logs 3re CUI into from
J' $ !O 1.'5 m length!, steamed. ~nd subsequently each is placed horizontally into iL machine
stiks and (3) thc muntins arc joilled to the rail~ (~ce later). called" rotary vI/ru" CUlla "hrch J.lrips it at the rnds . The machine rOtate. the lo~
aRaln$t the ed/o(c of " 10nJ.l knife" hich extends Ihe full width of the m.clune and cots
'An extended dnenpllun IS ill,·en.n Chap. I], Vol III th c limber into a continuous sheel,
 TYPES OF DOORS (, PANEL MOULDINGS szo
MII.- - TOP .....II..- TOf' 1VroIL. TOP ......1..- ~ 1VoiL.- TOfI !I.AIL- TOItANL-

A B C
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D E
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NOTE: MINIMUM CLlMIoNCi .fTWUN C;II.,OCWE (. fOGI OF PM!:L IS Z_
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PLANTED
OULDING
i
SCA1.£ FO~
81
DETAILS

FIGURE 46
401
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 PANELLED DOORS
Treatment of Panek-The finishes which may be applied to panels are many
and varied. The panels may be finished with simple or intricate mouldings,
or they may be left plain without mouldings. Elaborate mouldings may harbour
dust and are difficult to keep clean. They may be expeIlsivt:: tu produce, esped~
ally if mitred by hand (see later). As will be explained, most doors are now
machine-made, and in their manufactu re it is the aim to eliminate as far as
possible labours performed by hand .
The following are the various panel finishes
Square.-No mouldings are provided, the edges of the framing next to the
panels being left square (see J an'\ K, Fig. 46, and 0, Fig. 52); 1 shows the corner
slightly rounded by sand-papering and is called" pencil-rounded." The panels
are known as square sunk or flat (see E, F and H, Fig. 46). Chamfered edges, as
shown at Land 1\1, are an alternative. These finishes are much in evidence, and,
provided the panels are weli proportioned, such simple treatment-has much to
commend it.
Solid or-Stuck Moulding.- The mouldings arc" stuck" (meaning" worked ")
on the edges of the framing. Various examples are shown at I. to y (inclusive),
Fig. 46. Note that in most cases the width of each mould is equal to the depth
of the groove prepared to receive the panel (see the broken lines at R, sand y);
the operations of moulding and framing hy machinery are simplified when this
is observed.
The joints at the angles of solid mouldings arc scribed to give 45° mitres 'or
intersections. Scribing is the shaping of a moulding which is required to fit
against a similar but continuous moulding. This is illustrated at c and 0,
Fig. 47, which shows a bottom (or intermediate) rail scribed to a stile. The
latter has an ovalo (or quadrant) mould worked on it for its entire length and
the shoulders of the rail are hollowed out to fit accurately over the ovolo mould
on the stile. Tbis is shown dearly on the plan at c which indicates the shaped
end of the rail separated from the stile; this results in a 45"0 mitre as shown at
D and E. This mould and the solid llluuldings shown at L to u (inclusive),
Fig. 46, can be machine-scribed and are therefore comparatively inexpensive;
whereas those at v to y (inclusive) can only bl;' mitred -by hand and are accord-
ingly expensive.
Planted M/Julding.-These are separate moulding!! which are" planted"
round the panels adjacent to the framing. Examples of these arc shown at
A', B', c' and D', Fig. 46. The mouldings are nailed to the framing and the
nails must not pass through the panel$, otherwise the panels will crack owing TO
the 'internal stresses set up when the limber shrinks. It is important to allow
for the free -movement of the panels (when the wood shrinks or expands) and
then~ should be a space of from 1'5 to 3 mm between each edge of the panel and
the groove; the clearance in each of the examples shown in Fig. 46 is l ' 5 mm.
" Panel pins" (~ee F, Fig. 66) are used for fixing these moulds, as the small
heads are inconspicuous and cause the minimum damage to the mouldings.
93
Planted moulds are formed with mitred joints at the angles (see A and B,
Fig, 47), each adjacent end of the moulding being cut at an angle of 45°·
Planted mouldings which finish level with the face of the framing arc called
jlUJh mouldings (sec L, Fig. 49). Those which project beyond tbe f:lCp. of the
framing are called bolectjon fllOuldings (see F" G' and H', -Fig. 46, P, Fig. 48, and
K, Fig. 50); these are usua!ly rebated over the edges of the fram ing to cover any
shrinkage which m ay take place.
Occasionally the panels are made with one face flush with the framing;
these are termed flush panels (see c, Fig. 46). A bead (see E') is usually formed
on the yertical edges of the panel to render less conspicuous any openings which
may occur if the panels shrink; these are called bead butt pmJels (c). If in
addition a similar bead is worked on the' horizontal edges of the panel, such are
called bead flush panels.
Raised Panels.- The central portion of the panel is thicker t han the edges or
margin. That at n', Fig. 46, shows the panel chamfered from the edge of the
moulding to leave a flat or " fielded" central portion; such is called a raised
and flat or raised and fielded panel. That at P , Fig. 48, is known as a raised,
$UlIk and fielded panel. Sometimes the edges of the sinking next to the central
flat portion are moulded, when the panel is said to be raised, sunk and moulded.
A raised and chamfered panel , when. square, is chamfered from a central point
down to each edge of the moulding; when the panel is oblong, the chamfered
margins meet to form a ridge.
Sunk Moulding .-This is formed below the surbce; the sinking is usually
continued to form a sunk panel and the portion of panel enclosed by the moulding
may_ be below or flush with the outer margin. The panel is thus formed out of
the solid.
Examples of panels and mouldings are shown in the elentions in Fig. 46.
Students arc advised to cultivate the habit of drawing details involving mouldings
to fuB scale mther than make sketch details which are very frequently far too
smalL They should realize tha t it is not ulways necessary tQ show mouldmgs con-
siSTing of many small members and fil1ets, for very ofte n the si,mp1cr the mouldings
the better. In t his connection it .should be pointed out th:::t whil~t mouldings of
hardwoods may have sflmn ",~mber$, those of M>ftwoods .Muld not, for they ~re
difficult and expensive to make and disappear when two or three coa ts of paint are
appJie.!.
The construction of panelled doors will now he considered.
Single Panelled Door (see Fig. 48).-This is suitable fonhe main entrance
to a house. The construction of the joints of the frame has heen described on
pp. 83- 8 4. The outside edges of this frame may be pencil rounded by sand-
papering them, or they may be ovolo or agee moulded and thus rendered less
lioMe to damage than if left square.
External doors are uSlla\ly prepared with 50 mm (nominal)l thick framing,
, As previously mentioned, an allowance from the nominal sizes for dressed (finished
or net Ol' wrought) work must be made. The usual anow~mce for work which is given a
smooth finish (as for painted work) is !'7 mm for each dressed surface' plus 0·8 mm for
sll)ldpapering tach surface (see pp. (n and IO<}).
 DOORS
especially if they arc fitted with morti~ locks, although there is no constructionaJ
reason why such dOOB of average: size should exceed 38 mm in thickness if they
are fitted with rim loeb. In the illustrated example the door is So mm thick 90
account of the thick panel which is necessary because of its large size. Full
size details must be drawn to the finislud sizes. In accordance with the footnote
,tated on p. 93 the usual total allowance for painted wo,:k is equivalent to 5 mm,
when both faces arc dressed and sand papered. If great carc is exercised in
dressing expensive hardwoods, the tot:!.1 loss when dressing both sides may be
reduced to • mm, and this allowance has been made in the details shown in
Fig·48.
The joints of the framing of the door may be either (a) morticed and tenoned
or (b) dowelled.
(a) Morticed and Tmoned Jrnnts.- These are similar to the joints of the
framed, ledged, braced and battened door shown in Fig. 44, and are illustrated
at Hand L, Fig. 48. The width of each tenon is 58 mm. The grooves formed
along the inner edges of the framing to receive the panel are shown. The depth
of the grooves is usually made equal to the thickness of the panel, although it
should not be less than 13 mm (see P, . . 48, and the details in Fig. 46). A
I
MITRED 6 SCRIBED JOINTS
clearance of 3 nun is shown at p to allow for the free movement of the panel
(see p. 93).
(b) I>ouHlled Joints.- Typical dowelled joints are shown at J and M, Fig. 48;
that at J shows two dowels used to connect the top rail to the stile, and the detail
M shows the connection between the bottom rail and the stile where four dowels
are used. The dowels, which are machine.made, are of hardwood. 'their
diameter should not be less than about one-third the thickness of the framing,
and a common size is 125 mm by 16 mm (see 0); they are placed at about 50 mm
centres (see M). The ends of the rails are bored, glue is applied to the edges 1)f
the rails and the inside of the holes, and the glued dowels arc inserted; the ~tiles
a~ bored, the holes are glued, and projecting portions of the rail dowels are
inserted. The dowels are grooved (see 0) to increase the holding power of the
glue. Only well seasoned timber should be used if the joints are to be dowelled,
otherwise the shrinking and warping of unseasoned timber may cause the dowels
to snap, followed by-the destruction of the joints.
This method of jointing is almost universally adopted fOT doon mad e by machinery
as it IS a cheaper Conn than the mOTtle"" and tcnon Joint on account of thc savmg of
timber and I~bour which results. Whilst there is still much prejudice ulta;nst tho;-

NOT": MITR.ED JOIHl"S Mi 8FTWEE"N PLAoN"TEO

~ 8OLECTI0t-I MOULDS ~SEE'" (., 8.
SC'-I&EO JOI,,""S AltE BETWEEN $OLIO
MOULDS. A,T C (. D THE' MOULD ON TItE'
STILI! IS CONTINUOUS, TH....T ON THE
&oTTOM R.Jt.IL IS SC~&ED TO IT ~ ,.. 4Y
MIT'-E MSULTS-SEE E.

ELEVATION
C

MITRED JOINT SCRIBED JOINT PLAN

FIGUIW 47

I
 Q

R...
STONE
~TEP-"""",

STOHE " " ' " " "

h
 DOORS
doweJiM joint it i. being increatina:ly recognized thlt modern methods of production
have evolved • door, having dowelled joints, wPlich is eminently aati.f.ctoryconaider·
ing its rel.tlve low COlt. Dn.tlc changa h.ve taken place in the m.king of doors;
most imponed doors .nd thouSinda of doou made daily by mass production methods
in this country have dowelled and not morticed and tenoned joints.
The door shown in Fig. 48 has a 22 mm (finished) thick raised, sunk and
fielded panel with bolection mouldings on both sides (see p); alternative
mouldings may be selected from Fig. 46. Whilst certain timbers, such as
mahogany, can t)e obtained of sufficient width to enable this wide panel to be
formed in one piece, it may be formed in two or three pieces carefully jointed
together. This jointing is done by shooting the edges of each piece to a true
plane so that the adjacent edges will make a good fit throughout the length of
each piece; the edges are glued, fitted together, securely cramped until the
glue has set, when the panel is planed over to a smooth finish; this is called
jointing. Any panel exceeding 280 mm in width for an average good quality
internal door should be jointed in this manner.
Attention is drawn to the construction at the bottom of the door to prevent
the access of water (see Q). An oak (or similar hard wearing timber) sill or
threshold extends the full width of the door opening, well screwed to the floor
and bedded on mastic. The large groove on the inside serves to catch any
water which may have penetrated and which escapes down the two horeholes.
The top of this threshold is approximately on a level with that of a door mat
(assuning that a "mat well "-which is not re'i0mmcnded as it is difficult to
keep clean-has not been provided). There is therefore little danger of anyone
tripping over the threshold . Incidentally, small sills or projecting weather·
bars are more dangerous in this respect than are deeper and \\ IdCf sills. An
alternative method of weather exclusion is shown at H, Fig. 48, the wrought·
iron weathcr-bar being let into the dovetailed sinking and secured with molten
lead, run in hot and afterwards well caulked (consolidated with a blunt chisel);
this lead is covered flush with the top of the step with cemeot mortar so as to
exclude rain·water which may otherwise cause discoloration. The moulded
weather· board is tongued into the bottom rail as shown and should fit as tightly
as practicable petween the door posts; thir. throws rain clear of the threshold.
Hardft'arf.- The door would be hung with three 100 mm butt hinges as
described on p. 90. It would be fitled wilh a 75 mm four·lever upright /IIortice
lock with striking plal~ (see s, Fig. 48). This type of lock is necessary, for, owing
to the ahsence of a middle rail, the usual type of mortice lock (sec H, Fig. 43)
would he too long, and the two handles should be of the lreer type as shown, for
if knob!\ were used (as illustrated aT x , Fig. 43), injury to the hand may be caused
owing to their dose proximity to the door post. The striking plate serves a
similar purpose for a mortice lock as does a staple for a rim lock, and is housed
and .scre\\ed to the rebate of the post after two small mortices to receive the
ends of the holts ha\'e been cut in the post. The prOjecting lug on the plate is
slightly bent so that, when the bevelled latch bolt strikes it as the door is being
closed, the bolt will gradually be pressed in. This furniture may be obtained
in bronze, brass, chromium plated or oxidized ailver metal, bakelite. etc.
A Cylinder Rim Night Latch with staple (see M, N, 0, P and Q, Fig. 52) would
be required in addition to the above lock. This is one of many patent locks
which are on the market and the complete latch consist! of a bronze cylinder
fitting N, the latch 0, and the staple P; Q shows a section through the latch
attached to the door. The fitting N comprises a separate circular rim with its
inner edge rebated to receive the circular face plate which is cast on the case
(see Nand Q); the case contains the cylinder to which the spindle is attached
and this cylinder is caused to rotate within the case by the action of a key. The
latch bolt may be operated from the outside by the key which is inserted in the
cylinder to rotate both it and the spin~le for the latter to cause the bolt mechan -
ism to function, or the bolt may be shot back from the staple by turning t~e knob
of the latch from the inside. The locking arm (see 0) is used when required
to permanently fix the bolt so that it cannot be operated by either the key or
the knob, and thus the bolt may be fixed in the staple to afford greater security
or it may he fix ed when it is clear of the staplc.
The directIons for fiKlng this cyhnder latch are as follow8; A 32 mm diam eter
hole is bor~d through the door, the centre of thc hol e being 60 mm from the edge of the
door; the cylinder fitltn!: N is passed through the hole from the outside, the back
plale (~e Q) is screwed to thc back of Ih ... door; two long screws are then pa~
thrOU.Q:h hol"8 in the back plate to sc:<:ure the lUll attached to the case; the end of the
spmdle IS .,as$ed throu!'(h the bush of the latch o. and the latter is screwed to the hack
of th" door. The staple is screwed 10 the edge of the door.
One pair of antique bronzejlush bolts may also be provided (see s, Fig. 43)
These are not so conspicuous as the barrel type, as the back plate is screwed
through the stile in a housing formed to bring the plate Rush with the face of
the st ile. The end of the bottom bolt slides into a metal socket (5') let into the
floor or step, and the top holt engages in a socket fitted into the head of the
frame .
Sometimes ,\ leller plale, prefe rably of antique brom:e, is required (see"
and L. Fig. 52). The flap opens inw:lrds and is suspended on a horizontal rod
round one end of which is coiled a sprin,g which forces the flap tightly against
the back of the plate. A mortice. approximately 150 mm long and 50 rnrn deep,
is made in the door with the horizontal edges splayed downwards (see L), and
the fitting, wh::h entirely covers the hole, is secured to the door by means of
two screws which are threaded to slUmp.~.
A door chain as described on p. 91 lIlay be fixed.
Ooor Casing or Linings.-Whils! external doors are hung to solid frames.
it is customar y to fi, internal doors to c;lsin~s or linings which provide a suitable
finish to tPc openinv;s. Casinv:s arc thed either to (a) pallets, (b) plugs or (c)
grounds.
(a) Pallet pie(l's or slips, 10 mm thick. are built into the bed joints at the
jamhs of the openings as shown at Q. fig. 42, and 0, Fig. 49, and at intervals as
described on p. 8.. This method of fixing is very general.
 PLANS SHOWING JAMe CAS INGS
DOOR CASINGS 0 METHODS OF FIXING T5,lS I.",CHITJI.,O,VE
SKETCH SHOWING " ".n,.~~~=!5F\ IH" ~a PLAIN CJt.SING
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CASING - 5£e ')(."
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75 .. 19
lS~ 19 SPlAYlD III.OUGH
J .... M. G'-OUND .i IU)UGH GkOUNO

FIGURF 49
 DOORS
(6) A cheaper and less satisfactory method is to plug the Jambs. Wood
plugs ( .... hich should be of hardwood but are often made from pieces of floor
boards), shaped as shown at F, Fig. 49, are driven into holes f.)rmed in the mortar
joints; they are driven tightly up to their shoulders and .... ould take the place
of the pallets shown at D, Fig. 49. The plugs indicated at 0 would be used for
the fixing of architraves (see p. 120).
(c) Grounds.-As implied, the purpose of these is to provide a groundwork
for the casings and architra\·es. This method of fixing is now only adopted in
the best practice. The simplest form consists of 20 mm thick pieces of undressed
timber (when they are caned rough grounds),1 and are usually i5 mm wide,
although this depends upon the size of the architraves. They pTtlvide a con-
tinuous means of fixing for the casings such as is not afforded by plugs or pallets.
One edge is sometimes splayed to afford a key for the plaster (sec A, E,], K, L
and 1\', Fig. 49). The jamb grounds are fixed in true alignment on each face of
the .... alls to plugs at tntervals, and the head or soltH grounds are naIled to the
lintel (see A). They project about 20 mm beyond the jamhs, depending upon
the size of the brick or stone opening and that of the door. In good work, the
head grounds are haunched tenoned and wedged to the jamb grounds (see P
and E), This preparation is all that is necessary for 102 mm walls; for thicker
.... alh;, however, So mm wide by 20 mm or 25 mm thick short horizontal backing
PlletS are fixed to the edges of the grounds (see A, C, K, Land N). These cross
pieces provide extra means of fixing the wider casings and, if the ends are dove-
tailed and fitted into notches formed in the grounds (sec A and E), they are
effective in preventing the grounds from expanding and twisting when they
absorb moisture from the plaster, which is applied subsequently to the walls.
The backings are fixed near to the top and bottom of the jambs and at about
600 mm intervals.
There arc three types of casings, i.e" (I) plain, (2) skeleton and (3) framed,
( I) Plain Casing$.-Thesc are usually prepared from 38 mm thick boards
and arc suitable for openings in walls which do not exceed 215 mm thick. They
may be either single rebated (see D, G and H, Fig. 49, and II and K, Fig. 50)
or double rebated (see A and h, Fig. 49, and 11, c and D, Fig. 52). Alternatively,
in cheap work, a 13 mm or 16 mm thick stop is nailed to the casing, when the
thickness of the latter may then be Teduced to 25 mm (sec J, Fig, 49). Double
rebating a wide lining gives it a balanced appearance which is noticeable when
the door is open. The soffit casing is grooved or trenched to receive the tongues
formed on the jamb linings (see G, Fig. 49). This groove extends to the outer
edge when softwood is to be used and which would be painted, but if the linings
are of hardwood and subsequently polished the groovc in the soffit does not
extend right across but is stoppcd to house the abbrcliiatcd tongue as shown by
thick broken lines at 0, Fig. 49.
(2) Sheft/on Casillgi (see Band L, Fig, 49).-This type consists of a skeleton
I Thnc are di$1lnct from fHoughl grollnds which are used in conjunction .... ilh architraves
(5Ce M, FiR_ 49)·
jamb and soffit framing comprising 75 mm by 32 mm stuff to which 13 or 16 mm
thick boards or stops are nailed to give the appearance of a double rebated lining,
The short rails of the framing are tenoned to the long member-;, and the latter
of the soffit framing are tenoned to the jamb framing (see B). The short rails
should coincide with the backings and be nailed to them after the long members
ha\'e been secured to the rough grounds; the stops are then nailed to the
framing, An alternative detail is shown at M to introduce a dressed or wrought
ground which requires only a small architrave. Skeleton linings for thick walls
arc cheap and effective, although there is a danger of the wide stops splitting if
they shrink excessiyely, as movement is restricted when they are securely fixed
at their edges,
(3) Framed Casings (see c and N, Fig, 49),- This is the best form of lining
for openings in thick walls, It consists of panelled jamb and soffit frames, and
the construction conforms to the principles of panelled door construction.
The treatment of the panels should be in keeping with the design of the door.
This casing is fixed to the grounds and backings as described for a skeleton
lining.
Casings secured to grounds are less liable to damage during the subsequent
building operations than those fixed to plugs or pallets, as they arc not fixed to
the grounds until a:'ter the plastering has been completed.
Although internal doors are generally fixed to casings, there are certain
exceptions, Thus, heavy internal doors (such as the framed, ledged, braced
and battened type), as used for warehouses, etc., are sometimes hung with
straps and gudgeon hooks fixed in jamb stones (see p. 90), and the casings
are then dispensed with. Another exception is shown at F, Fig, 43, where a
frame and not a casing is used. Internal coal-house, etc" doors are often fixed
to frames instead of casings.
Two Panelled Door (sec s, Fig. 46, and Fig. 50).-The construction of the
framing is similar to that described for the single panelled door with the
exception that provision has to be made for the middle or lock rail, so called as
the lock is usually secured to it. The height of this rail depends of course upon
the design, and whilst it was the invariable practice to make it at a convenient
height for the door handle (which is approximately 840 mm to the centre of the
rail), this htight is now often departed from. The position of the middle rail in
the door shown at B, Fig. 46, is such as to give two panels of equal height, whilst
the centre of the lock rail of the door in Fig. 50 is 1'4 m from the floor. It will
be observed that, whilst the appearance of this latter door is satisfactory, the
position of the lock is not conveniently accessible for small children, If this
door is to be fitted with a rim lock, the middle rail will be formed with a single
tenon at each end when the rail is only 100 mm deep as shown, atd with a pair
of single tenons at each end when the rail is 175 mm or widen. I( however, a
mortice lock is to be used, the door is often 50 mm thick, and the ends of the
lock rail will be prepared as follows: If it is a narrow rail, the end to be fitted
into the" hanging" stile will be prepared with a single tenon and the opposite
 TWO l
[II PLA HER.

9S~ 30

10' &UTT HlI-IGE ~

11_THIC", P"''''~L

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DETAIL ' F'

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FIGURE 50
 100 000 RS
end will have two tenons (to form what is called a twin trnon) which art' equal in varnish by finger marks. These can hc obtainc(\ in various sizes in bronze.
width to that of the rail less the depth of the panel grooves and with a space o~idiscd sil\'er, etc. (Sl'(' J. Fig. 52).
between them equal to the thickness of the lock j for a wider rai", the end secured Doors shown at c, E, F, G and II, Fig. 46.-A detailed description of these
to the hanging stile will have a pair of single tenons (as shown at A, Fig. 52)
whilst the opposite or " striking" end may have four lenons. usually called a
pair of twin tenons (see Fig. 51), in order that the preparation for the lock will
not weaken the joint. This latter fi~urc shows the mortice lock in position. Note
doors is not necessary for their construction will be readily understood on
reference to the details shown in respect to the single, two and four panelled
doors. In every case the stile~ are continuous, the rails are either tenoned or -
that the combined thickness of the twin tenons eq uals one-third that of the rail.
DETAIL OF
Mortice lock$ are now available "hieh ,lTI." on I" " rum thick ,mu they obviate
the necessity for using twin tenons unless. for some ~pecial r~;lSon. " brge lock is
n:quired. Another type of lock;s trian,l!ul"r or \\.-dJ.:,,-shapl·d ,-nJ neccssitatt,s for
its accomodllUon the removal of unly ,I s.m"ll purtlUn of the tl·non.
A marl ice lock is iHuslrated at II and I, Fig. 43, and its mechanism is described
on p. 88. Note that the steel case is fixed to a steel Jure-elld to whieh is secured
a br,lss jare plale by two set-screws.
It is necessaT) to keep the hottom of the door at !cast 13 mm clear of the Roar
to enable it to pass a carpet with underfelt. It is advisable 10 screw to the
floor a 10 mm thick hardwood slip with splayed or rounded edges in order to
minimise drau,li:hts (see j, Fig. 50), Alternatively the door may be hung with
a p<lir of 100 mm polished brass sketlJ bult hinJftl (sometimes called lifting or
rising hult hinges) instead of the ordinary butt hinges (see z, Fig. 43). These
lifting hinges cause the door to rise 13 mm (and thus clear a mat or carpet) on
being opencd on account of the helic;)l knuckle joint. The top edge of the door
aTld the rehale on the soffit of the casing must be splayed 10 permit of this
\crtical movement. These hinges arc \ery conspicuous and are objected to .for
this rcason, although their appt:arance is somewhat improved if the knuckles
arc pro\ided with moulded ends.
A door stop is often used to prevent oJ. door handle or projecting key from ql "".1
HA~E
damaging the plaster or a piece of furniture situated ncar to a door. This stop "
may be entirely of rubber or a rubber pad in a bronze fitting (see R, Fig. 52), I 51
and it is screwed 10 the floor 50 as to restrict the swing of the door. Manufacture of Panelled Doors.-Most doors are (0) man ufactured
Four Panelled Door (see D, Fig ... 6, and Fig. 52}.- '1'his introduces two by machinery, some arc (h) prepared principally by hand.
central members of the framing called IHuntins. :\ote that the stiles are con- (a) Machine-made Doors.-Reference has been made on p, 96 to the enormous
tinuous for the full height of the door, the rails are tenoned into the stiles, and number of doors which are machine made. Mass prOOuction has been responsible
for a large reduction in the cost of doors and this is the chief reason for their popu-
the muntins are stub tenoned into the rails for about 50 mm (see A and F, Fig. larity. In the manufacture of stant!:ard doors t.he whol.e .of the operations of plamng the
52). The ,li:eneral construction follows very closely that already described. One timber reducing It to the correct Widths, forming the Jo1Ots, glUing ahd finally c ramp10g
the m~bcrs together are done by ma~hlnery. It is also e:mployed to trim the door to the
special advantage of this nnm i~ the narrow pands which are employed. These ~i~" of thc frame, form the lock morllce and. Icrcw the hlOj:lc, to th,· d"".
can he obtained in one width, and therefore jointing (described on p. 96) is Many of these doors are dowel join'ted, as shown at J and M, Fig ~!l, and the following
i. a brief deKTIption of the operations involved in their manufacture: The timber is
eliminated. sawn to suitable scantlings, artificially seasoned, taken to the planing rtylchine where it is
Whilst a rim lock is shown at A and B, Fig. 52, the less conspicuous marl ice surfaced on both .ides and edges, sawing machines cut the door panen.. sules and nili.
lock wilh knob o~ lever handle furniture may be preferred. into correct widths, rails are bored glued Hnd dowelled by a machine," orit! oPeration,
Finger Plates were often fixed to both sides of the stile oi a panelled door stiles an: bored by a machine, glue i. sq uirted imo the dowel holes in the stiles, rails WIth
their proje<::ting dowels are fitted into the holes in Ihe slIles after the panels ha\'e been
just above (and sometimes below) the lock, but these are not now in .much .Iipped into the grooves and, finally, the assembled members Ire cramped together to
demand unless there is a likelihood of damage being caused to the pamt or complete the door.
 '0'

16 PLMTU..

21~"1S LINTEl..

I'.'""ION OF MUNTIN
o
~

.j§) ~ I $ ,061
S< .... l l FOil A,II (.C
••
FleURE 52
102 DOORS
(b) Hand-made DooIS.-\\'h,I.t mac:hmtr;' his fl,m;Nn~ most of the oprrauont
",h,ch .c~ funnerl} pe:rfortnN by hand. there I. Mill. dmulOO fur doon .nd "mllar
(ramc,""ork ... h,ch require. (:Ullm If1lOI,.In, of hand prcplluuon. TN. Ipphn plrtICU-
larly to the hlgh«1 qUllhty fram~ and pancllrd doon and 'hOM: .... h,ch Ire nOI of "andlrd
I'lt. The Opl'nholU ,"voh'fliarc: (I) .ellm. 0\.11. hl fo""mR "",r1I~n and tenon.,
(3) IIuln8 .nd wedgmg up and (4) clalmng off.
(.) SCI/I. <>Ut.--llill II the ."prodU<;U(fl ' " . board (ulled 'I~lfll" OI<t rod) of the
fuji "ze detl,I, of ~ door
For I framrd p,r<;c. 'l,l(;h IlS • door, the rod ",ould be WI out .1 aho ... " I' A, Fig. 53
",hlch Indlcatel! fullllzt ,,,rtical.nd honzontal 5«110"1 of the four-panelled door, casmg
etc. ,Ilustntw In F'R_ 51. .,\ltnn.U\e1~-. the vertical section, called the h",ght TW, i. SC>t
out on ont fa('C' of ,h., board, and the honzontal KeUOn, called Ihe fndllr ,od, •• detailed
on the rnu-.e
The pl"ce~ of IImoc' II) be used for the various member1 should he carefully tclected
to "h'Htc "a,le dUr.nM ~O"'·ChlO". If machlnCr)' II oot 4.'a.lable, each pl«e I' <'ut do"n
by mea". 01 ~ rip \d" (<e-e p. 125) and across thr grllin by a pJnel .... " hee p. 12~) Th"
ItUft.5 Ihrn ITlOld up, 'In .. IS done by lirst '"SI1OR for" "lndlOR' " or" t"lsl," A p~lr
ofl<'mJ"'1l rmps (fllrcr. of carefully dressed m;lho)l~ny, BO mOl by SO mOl by 13 mm, ,,"h
plrnllcl Cdlln) 1$ used for Ih.s pU'p<,l5<:, one belllj: pllll'cd al c;lch end on lOp and ~I ")lhl
Inlfll'S to Ihe kO)llh of th .. timber .... heo IYIn)l fbI nn the jnlllns' bt:nch If the .., IlrIp'l
are nm parallrl .... hen s.Rhltolf along the.r upper edj(es 4 j3{k plane (~ee JI, [-'II< (7) I~
• pplled unul thr hlghHt P4r1S a.e remo"ed and the ,urfdu, II perfeclly lrue a~ rr"Hd by
the Itnp~ 4m.l " htralght edge. ,,\ tr}'lng plane hee J/). hR. 67) ,s then u ..... d to II"" "
am<><)th hm"h The Jo.ner pcne.ls h,s cha",clen~ll{ mark, CJlk'd a f"u lid, /tIn.1t (~ •. " F
.nd c;. F'R, H), on the face Ind thll should 41 .... ~)s POlOt 1!'''4rd, the bt·.t ...lilt Thl~
edlle. ulled the fau I'd(l'. IS th"n drellscd b)' a ja. k plM)1' ~nd sub"'<lucml~- by a IT)m~
pl ••'\lC 1,111111 it , •• "aIRht Imoolh and 41 Tlj;(hl anj;(I". 10 the dr~~Kt! fa"e. J Ir\' Ktjuare I~_.
hll' q) b.·lOR u.,.d 10 le~t for Stluarem'u, II" Pl'n(;,ls hl~ fnu tJ'!f on th., CdRI' dnd
IhlS m~\ h .. a •• ngle 'lrol<" a~ a contlnu~t"'n of the face ~,d" m~rk (see H. n.,lh fll't· SIde
~nd f ....c ....IKe mUM be rerf""tl) true a~ a1l5uh~<,tjuen' lIaUI(IOj( .nd ",,1I.nl( out op.·ut.oos
are rd.-rrnl to Ihnn A markmj;( gaus,:" (S«'"", hll6711t 00" u,<'d to mnk ofT thl: .... ,dlh
of ,hI' m"mocr. Ih .. mark beml( (·onl,"U.,u. from end 10 end and r~r~lId III Ih,· (." .... t!s,:c
_'\ pl~ne " ~ppl.ed 10 d •...,.~ do"n 10 the lI'ualle nurk to fonn the b.". ,dg, The p.ce" ,~
l(aujoC~" '<I Ih" rl"tjulrt'd Ihl(kne~s and Ihe buclcface" th"n pl~I"'d I.. r"m" ....• IO~' ,,~'''u 01'
",oot! do .... n 10 Ih.. g~uRe mark
Thf .... hole of Ihe me:nbeu ha,·inll hcen dro:-s!O.'d 10 thl\ nunnn ~r.· marked. 'he po •• ,ion
01 Ihe 1"1,1., deplh of II'rou,,,., ele., belOR tnmd.·.."d t., d ....1lI IWIIl th.· '~t1mlot out rod A
Thu" "ommen(;lnll .... '1" the itlies. onl' II pla,,,d "n Ih" h.'I/l:h, .od and Ihe """,!tOIlS of th~
raIl, .nd I) mm depth of pand groove. are pn, ked un "~'a.-., .,dRe (IO.<:C ~. h.l/ ~J ..... hlCh
shu .... , the 1101'S tranll"rr .. d I'rom the rod) Tho:- mortKI' rur th~ rlill le/M1Il5 ne thrn sct
OUI on the faLe edRe of tile Ihl" Thll and the ,.,cond ~1I1 ... t"Rl'ther .... lIh the mUll\m~, ar"
pl."ed u .hown at E, and aIded hy the try ItjUH,·. th" .h"uldeA (I .." J) arl' acluared do" n.
The muntin. are rl'mond and squared all round (<lr Ihl' ~h"uldtn .... h"'h .rl' to fil a.llaln$!
Ihe edg... of the ralll. Th" morlll" Imel are ael 01,11 on the fan nllle of th,' ~ond $1111'
. . .ho ..... n at 1'•• nd II indIcated, 110m" jomers "mphdM1e the morllce~ by dra"''lg blue
pen",1 hnee bl't,,""n thr mo""""", Ion.".. Tlw m"rllu, IIIL'" " ... ~u""d o,'cr 10 Ihe h.ek
ed(le of each It,le (see brok"n Imes all') and Ih., po\ltlOni of th(' 10 111m thllk " .. d/l"~ are
marked on the back ed8e ($f!C G). :\011' thai Ih,' l"n.l(lh o( the Rtdu excl't:ds ~h!,htly Ih,lI
~ho ..... n on Ihl' rod 10 protect the door dUTln~ Ira",p"rt~tlOn
Thl' Ktlmg of the ILliis from Ih" ".dlh rod (~ee A) ,. SImilar 10 thnt dl'scrlbt'd for
1111... The KlUng oue for munllllS. shouldns ~nd hllunt·he. (ur haunch",~) on th(' lOp
Tall ,I .ho.... n II ") and Ihe mIddle r~;I .. sho"" sel 01,11 ~t L" the laul'r IOdll'4l1nj(lhe names
appll~ 10 Ihe VIrIOUS hn"".
(~) Formr"ll _\1r>rflctl (/rid T""",u, --The ~t,l ... UI' no .... mortll'l'd If a mnrtlsmlt'
machme II nO.....llable.the morticesn" made .... ,th ~ mOTuse chl-.el (, .... p ,26) ~nd nlollkol
(..ee 23, hil- 671. A mortlSC IfLIUlle ("'. FIIl_ 1'171 II uvd '" ", .. be Of m.rk th" mon,c'" un
u~h ~~ of Ihe slIle. Ihl' polOlS of Ihe Ilaul/:e ,,",lOR ~"I 10 the ",dth of th" ~h"d .... h"h
• h"uld "'l".l orliT-th,rd th(' thlckneu o( Ihe "uff These m<)rll~" lire dl"a~, II~UlrCd
frutn Ih" fdee udt'of each ,tile Ea"h mortice II clIl half,,,,.)· thrOURh. comm.. n<IOII::l1 Ih"
It'nlTe of the blCk t'd,.. and rl'mo"ma Ihe ."(.re b) am.1I CUll, and Ihl'n Ihe m"ru,e 15
compleled from Ihe rIce edfft' In ••im,l" manner; • plflnR Lhiscl (3S. Fig 67) i. uaed
to fiOlm off, The So nun deep nub moMlCei are formed 0" the l"l1111U feet',,·., lhe lenon•• t
Ihe ends of Ihl' munhnl.
1M end~ of Ihe nIl. ITt ~uaed from the bce Ilde ., .hown I' II, F,g. S) The
.. mort.ce Imes" .n: rip llI"'n d" .... n '0 the" haun~h III""'," Ihl' ,. "asl"" II remo,'~ •• nd
the" "uK" hnl'S ., Ife llI"n do"n 10 Ihe shouldl"" h"es "(see c). The panel fi{n)O"e "
thl'n formed. by means of. ploujoCh ()I, FIR (7) on Ihl' lscc edge from ('nd 10 end of each
s{lle, Ihe top fll .. edge of thl' bn1tOm rl,l. h.. th ed/lel of Ihe middle rail. the bottom or
face edge of the tup raIl and both edgel of I'"h muntIn; Ihl' plough ITOn must be of the
proper s.u. be vt dt Ihl' c"rr",,1 deplh (I) mm 10 Ihl! CI'I'). and Ihl' ploucll must al ..... }". be
-
work .. d from the fact ~Id(' of e.ch mt"lnber_ The I.. "on lhe~ks (outer ponlon.) Ire now
remo, .. d by U$lOg Ih., tenon u .... (I). hll. 6;1 101 urrfu11y CUI do"n Ihl' centre of the
'houlder lme5 to LomplN~ the ~nd u ,t\<,.... n III I). I· II!:. SJ I"he Il'nOnl on the mu"t'n,
ar~ fonned ,n a ""nll"r manner
Afe"r lh" eomen of Ihe end~ I)f Ihe tl'nor,~ h,,\(" b<-en dm"l1ed off!lO thaI they rl'ad,ly
I'nRage In the mortl~"', Ih., "hole of the. mm1ber~ arc ",,,..mhlcd eemporanly 10 &ee If the
jomls I1t a~'-ura!(·I\'. and th" IrumlOlI ".pUI ~sld,' pendlnlllh" pr~p .. rallon of the pands.
The pan"l~ arc then lI",d~ The d"",-1I51<"'5 MC laken frnm Ihe rod or rramlllg, one
face and ~dJ:1' Me plan.,d ""h Ih~ trYlO1l pl,IO~. ~nd Ihe fa~ .. and ('"dRI' mark, arc put on
thell<:. A panel R~U)ll' In.., p. 12.~) I. u,,·d '" mnk Ih~ ."qulTed ",dth, Ihl' pwnd IS CUt
II10nK Ihis hne. and ,h .. ""d~ are .qUJtL-d and, 1,11 tn Ihe enn siZt:. Th .. panel" no"
/tIJtIl~I~d or lI"UK"d; Ih.· mu11"I" -u p'ne or ""'w I!TtM)\'ed 10 the requ ...:d IIZ(' (5« Ii •
F'II SJ}--i. shpped .. Ionl( th,' ,'dj{n 1)( the p~nel 10 ,nd.,-'ate any "x.ccs~,,~ly Ihlck pl,,·e.
"h,eh a.c "ased b\' pl.HlInll The four pand" H,· mud~ ill this manner, the .. des lTe
smoothed br d ~muolhmR plane (I-rt' p. 12.6). RI,'" PJJM:r II ruhbet! a":TO'<S the .II.alO. and
th,- pan"ls are m~erted tempor~nl)' III thl' (loIl111n".
I)) Glu"'lt m,d lI"eJI/"IW fp ,T"o p'e.·1'S of ..:anthnl!: arc placrd on the bench at
.ho"n al J. F'R, SJ .0\ (ramp •• nl'ct""LIry to "nsur.. L1.lIl Ihe shoulden o( the "u,ous
members tit ulothtl)
One fonn "I' cramp. called aT_cramp. 11 .h""o ~I J It C<lnSIMS of a sleel bJr of
T-!iCClIon "h.eh.5 from .. s I" 70 mm d""p, 20 10 2S mm al 'IS /lanJ{t' or ..... 'dC51 part, ~nd
from 610 10 ~!.10 mill I""R; II hili. '>Crtn of 11 mm dllmetCT hoi"" alun" lis j"nRlh 1010
"h,.h 4 7 _~ mm by '.1 mm munt! .t.-clt~per P"R I¥ 10.e'IW; thIS peR is attached by a chaIn
II) a ~h"e, Ih" Ja .... ~ "f .... h,eh p ..... uHr the t\~nl!:e of Ihe bJr I" "nabl" Ihe ,hoe 10 Ihde
.IlonR II; a, Ih.- other end o( I],,, b .. r Ihere is II ""till h ..ad .... h,eh I~ threaded to allo ..... the
"orkmJl: "I' a 'K''',," "h ... h hd. a r("< tM'l!'\llar plate al unc eot! h"",ol( J~""~ "h,ch slide ~lonR
Ihe bar A."oll" "hen Ih., melal r<w h.mt!l<'" '" "'Ia!ed. ,0\0 e",e"~"'n har ma .. he fiuoo to tne
cramp m order Ih~. II n'a\, 1>.. u ..... d for larl(~ (r,,,,"nR'"
Th" d ..... IIlak,'n 10 P'e(:'" Ind both "d~'S .)i the t.. n'.n~ .. nt! Ih" In~,d" of Ihe mort,c...
arc ~Iu"d; ,t,~ ~I one" r,'uvmbl"d; th.· ~'~'''P IIlhen u"''' Commenung allhe mIddle
r~,I, tht· ~ramp ," fixed In 10" fM)~.t ... n J~ o;h_ n ,.t J th.· .. h'le I~ ~lld ~Inn.lll<l the requlrt:d
posn'on. the peR 1I1"'<Cr,,,d 10 ,he ""'llr"rTl~le holt-. ,,"all prntnll"lI: hl(M;k. of ..... ood ~rl'
pla('t'd bt:1"""n Ihe .tlle5 ant! Ih .. ~h...e ~nd ""ft·" lh,'<:ks. anJ Ih" tramp is Ihen ""-'r"",,d up
".IIhtl)" 10 bTlnlt' Ihe hh"uld~n fllChe Uf' Th .. ",·dc.·. JTl' d'PP"d .'''0 .he I(luc-pot ~nd
uRhll~ dTlnn In al "ach end The H~"'P Ii ",u,~d '" Ih" bonum nil (sh"" " h .. broken
I.neo ,,' I), t."h ••·".d Up ,...d ""d""d u he!",e d ..... "hc,,J. d,,' lo"({.",, ""dn b~"'1( ,J"'el1
hr~t <;() U 10 OTlIII! Ih,' .houldch "f tht IMlllum munlln "lIhl Ul' dl:dlO,t lhe rnlb . The
crllmp i5 tioalt\' m""~-d to the IhlTd IlOSllH)I1 ~I"nl: Ihl' 1<11) r."I, I:lu"d .\Cd"". ure 1O.~rtl·d
and dn\'en hon ... , th., top .... l,d~,· ~t t ...·h end h""l~ Ii;n·d Ii,.", '" ~~ 10 mo\'c thl· tilP ra,lt"
dO$(! Ih" j01nt~ be,,,.·.. o Ihe IUr rlIUlI"', ~nd r~,k The n,u,,1' I. rcml)\',-d .lnd th., pro-
Je<llnJl: cnd. uf th" nllis ~re u\\n "If
(.. 1 C/(all'''J: OJ/. ",o\ny su,..,rllu<lu~ 1110,- I' relllo-cd Ironl the Joinl, Th" Ir~·ma
pbn" " applt-d on th .. mu,",n$ '" brmll the", lc,d .... 'Ih Ih,· r~lb LInd thc bller an· Ie' elled
IU Ihe f;t~~ nf th" ,til.".. ~n)' lIle<lU~llell'S ~I th~ .hnuld,·" bemg rl'lllu ...d. .0\ ~m""th.,,).l
,
plan" IS tht·" uwd. 'lOd If ",,,en..'f' Ih,' ~urf.."e. ~re OK'nped before bem.'! 1IId" pJr""'J
Th" nule< .. dl.("~ "I Ihe dn," lire not pl'IIlcd. nOr Irc Ih~ hurn. r"mO\~d. un(ll,h.· d ...,r Ii
bt:ml.( hunl( If! r>< ... t1<''''
If ,h" d""r.5 mould~d. Ihe 'HlnJ o,..,not"m~ "~T\' ",th Ihe t)PC. Thu~. If Ih(' pdn"l •
IT" to ha'c ...,11" moult!mtt:t. the faa' edl(CI of tho: $III", r~il, and mUl1lins .... ,111'" "",uld.·d
I<J Ihe- fc<\ulrcd .hdpt by m·~n. of the appropTlJte nlnuldmlf plane {sec p. ,2"1 bt:f<Jr"
 WINDOWS 103
Ih~ ar~ allUl'1lblrd no:moWded edJrft of Inc5111o:~ .. ,II M C(lOlmuOl•••. Ih06C L'n thl!'
<4.1. ",lib.. .U,~ In Ih"m (IK<' hI! 49) lind those on Ihe muntin. ",II 1M- 5Crt~ to tho:
SETTING OUT " HAND PREPARATION OF DOORS ra,1 mould,"~. If pl.nud mouldlllfl" are ro:quLrW, they IT" (ormed br planr. 10 tht
r('<juLred "'NWHl ~h<)"n on tho: rod l\IouldmKs "re plan,ed on thc follo"''"R manner
B C D .•. _ ..o~ .....,~""o Th" "nd~ "f u~h P'CU' Irt' cut 10" 45' m,tr<:--II mitre block (I«J" F'R_ 6,) bcml: u~d

~~~
;; 'C' _ . "".<04U "l~
for Ih,. pur~, the '''0 ~hort lrnRlh, are pl.ced In f><)~lt,on an the two 10011'" P'C'C<'I
"0' ~ .;:Q.....UTlO
ITf " ~prunll' ,nlO pi ...... ; 1M- mouldml/S no: n.,1fd 10 Ihe rrammll and th" nail h"..:1. IIU'
,........ lIHOtU. punched b.ch paoel" Itu(l'd m Ih •• m.o~r.'
u ..... Th" "lK'uuun "".)].,,] " " ....... nlll ,he c_,ng ,"",II b<' "nden,.><><1 from rh .. for~,,""nll
,,,,,,,,'11 ""- des.:npuon
(,''WOW lUll are pap;ared "h,,'h 11.\1;, Ihe reference number of the Job, to~.. tht:f ,,"h
MY""'''' the number, length. and nom",.. I"nd fin"hed ",dths of the lules, nilis. ele., compr,.",J,:(
th~ door The..e 11th arc n~,I.,hlr rnr the "OrklllCn responslblt for 'lC'tUnJ,:( out and

~~
prcpH;nllthe UtH'U~ TT,~mb~"
o
oUv UT'TlfoIG o.JT 'lOOUl
l ..... U ON i'T'LiU
TIMBER. WINDOWS
(. ~"T1N' A \\lndo .... induucs Ih~ fram~ and one or more sashes which are glalcd.
The frame may ha\e solod ""OOJ tno;:mhers or it may be constructed of com-
par.uiHly thin pieces 10 form \\ hat IS ca~lt.:d a mud or boxtd framt. The sashes
rna} be filled or made tn npcn. The IdueT, .... hen associated with a solid fr;lme,
mOlY be auao;:hed by hlllges In o'nJhlc the sash to open either outwards or inwards
like a door, or it may lit: hingl'u at the Im,er edge to open inwards, or it Olav he
hung at the top edRe to open ouh\dTd~. Another t) pc of sash is pi\'oted at Ihe
centre 10 open .... ,Ih the upper half S"IOlo:lnlo: im\ards, and another form consiSls
of one or mure sashe~ which shde honmnt.l.lly. ~ashes \\hen made to open in a
cased frame slide \'ertL(:Jlh'.
In order In pro\id\! su-fficient \cntllJtion thc Building ReJ::ulations stipulate
"o th;lt the minImum area of thc openahle par! of a windo .... or \\indoW's shall be one-

, ,
t"cntieth of Ihl' floof area of tht: room. The Regulations also require thaI some
par! of the openahle area shall be: no! less than 1750 mm above the floor. The
\\indo\\ area is frequently at least equal to one-quarter of the floor area and
m05t, if not all, of t".e sashes are made to open.
A
, As PH" L()u~l)' mrnt,,,nw. Ih~ e'{~nal\'~ uS(! of ..... ood"'orktnff mach,n~ry has chmtn.. cd
mMt nf the lahour. formrrl~ dnne h, hand, and ~\'en ,f "andard machi;,e_madc d'>OnI
" " U drsenbed .n p, 100 ~rc nOlI TfttuIT"d, m~ny of the oper1ltlon. dttatled on pp. IOl"ob
lIlTING CIO.JT "uuld n., pt'rform..,d hy machmrs, Thus the slllel, nIb and muntIn, ",ould n., cut ,nfO
"'"
1OO-,,-Z$OO 1.000G
knlo(lhs and ",dth~ h, the nrc"iar SOT!'. they would be £Ie-cd and rd~"d on a rUT/au plrmrr
and tak~n to a un,form ",dth and thlCkn.., ... nn a Ihld~"'m"l( ",arll",t'; tht rcnuns
" .."Iil he formw hy • u""""'1I' ",... 1<"" ~n.J th ... lTl.onic"s by • nfflrtisi,,<: ",ad",.,,; if
rl'1.l,n~d. they "ould be !I(1lid moulded on Ih., sp"U/ic mouldutllt'Nuh",,,, '\1.oy of thH('
"pt'r3u<>ns can be d"l>~ hy I eomh,nt"d Inlehmr called 4L 1('''' tal }1I",a, The panel, ",(.uld
be finished hy A "",,1'1
pia"", Planted muuld,nJ;!~ oould be prepared on thc 'pmdte
"","Id.'r ·\flt:r belOit u~bled and crJImpe.l. Ihe door .... ould n., It" .. n I smooth fin"h
h~ a sand /'0/><'''''1{ nl(l(hm,.
\\'h,l~1 snme of rhc~~ IUffcr aod morc c'pl'n,,'c ma"h",u atC nOII\·a,l.bl~ tn fhc smaller
~hop" then' ar~ cnmplTat",'ely fe .... firm' "hn ha,'r not 3 c,rcular U" and rnorh"nlo( InJ
t~non,nJ;! lTl.a~hme~ .• nd are ther~hy cnabled to reduce some of (he rdat,,'ch' COlt:)' hand
IAbou,"" .
\an"U~ \\oo,.J",orktnlf ",achmel In ducnbtd io Chap I. \'01. III

,
,,,.'"
Fila IH 5"

•
I04 WINDOWS
Those windows which aTe to receive extended treatment here are (a) solid
frames with vertically hung sashes which open outwards, and (b) cased frames
with vertical sliding sashes. There is also an introduction to mild steel window
frames.
(a) Windows with Solid Frames and Vertically Hung Sashes Opening
Outwards (see Figs. 54. 55, 56 and 57).-Sashes which are made to open like
a door are called casements, and the window is usually specified as a casement
window, I t is adopted extensively.
Frame.-If the window has only one sash (see A, Fig. 54), the frame consists
of two vertical posts, stiles or jambs, a head and a wood silL If it has two sashes
(see B, Fig. 54), the additional vertical member is called a mullion. If the frame
has a horizontal dividing member (called a transQme) in addition to mullions,
the appearance resembles that shown in Fig. 22, except that the members
are of wood instead of stone.
Details A, Band c, Fig. 56, show typical joints of a window frame. Note
that the jamb is haunched tenoned at each end and the head and sill are morticed
to receive the tenons and wedges. The outer shoulder of the lower end of the
jamb is scribed to the sill (see B and section EE at c). These joints are sometimes
pinned as described for door frames. The frames may be fixed as described
on p. 84, the horns being removed if the frames are fixed after the wa1ling
has been completed. The bedding and pointing of the fra'mes must receive
special attention if they are not to be built in recesses. The head and jambs
are rebated, 13 to 16 mm deep, to receive the sash. The inside edge of the frame
may be square, pencil rounded, chamfered, ovolo-moulded, etc., as shown.
The capillary grooves are referred to on p. 107.
The sill is sunk-weathered to cast off rain-water. Special attention must be
paid to the bed joint between the wood sill and the stone or brick sill, as it is
pacticularly vulnerable. Precautions taken to prevent the access of rain at this
point include (a) the provision of a metal water bar, (b) lead tucked into a groove
formed in the sill and continued as a covering to the brick sill, and (c) a mortar
tongue formed in the groove of the sill. \Vith reference to :
(a) A groove is formed in the brick sill (see Q, Fig. 58) or stone sill (see L
and 0, Fig. 25, and Detail T, Fig. 54) and the 25 mm by 6 mmgalvanized wrought
iron water (or" weather") bar, which is the full length of the sill, is partiaily
inserted and bedded in cement mortar. The groove in the wood si1\ is filled with
a mixture of white lead ground in linseed oil and the frame is firmly bedded on
the mortar spread to receive il wilh the projecting bar engaging in the groove.
(b) The brick sill is covered with lead (no. -l or 5 weight) which has been
bQssed (shaped) by the plumber and the frame is carefully placed in position
with the upturned portion of the lead fitting into the groove of the wood sill
(see 0 and E, Figs. 56 and 57); the efficiency of this joint is increased if white
lead mastic is spread along the edge of the lead before the frame is fitted. The
lead projects 13 mm beyond the face of the wall and the outer edge is turned
under to give a double thickness which adds to its appearance, increases its
stiffness and makes it more effective in throwing the waler clear of the face of
the walP A water bar, as described above, is sometimes used in addition to
the lead, the upturned edge of the lead being dressed over the upper edge of
the bar.
(c) This is adopted in cheap work and is not a reliable method (see 0, Fig.
54); the groove may be rounded (see It and B, Fig. 16).
In a mullioned and transomed window the transome is the continuous
member and is tenoned into the jambs; the upper and lower mullions are
tenoned into the head and transome and the sill and transome respectively.
Scantlings of Frames.-Heads, jambs, mullions and transomes are generally
either 100 mm or 75 mm by 64 mm, 100 mm by 75 mm or 115 mm by 75 mm;
sills vary from 100 mm by 64 mm, 109 mm by 75 mm, 115 mm by 75 mm,
115 mm by 90 mm, 125 mm by 75 mm and 175 mm by 75 mm. These sizes
may be exceeded for large frames.
For ordinary good-class work it is usual to specify redwood for the head,
jambs, mullions and transomes, and either oak, teak or pitch pine for the sill;
for first-class work the whole of the frame may be specified to be in oak or teak.
Sashes.-The members of a sash 'Jr casement are similar to those of a door,
i.e., two vertical stiles, a top rail and a bottom rail. In addition, a sash may be
divided by both horizontal and vertical bars or horizontal bars only. These
are called glazing bars or sash bars or astragals.
The construction of the sashes is illustrated at H, J and K, Fig. 56, which
show the top and bottom rails tenoned and wedged to the stiles. The pro-
ject~ng ends of the tenons and wedges are of course removed before the sash is
fixed.
The joints between glazing bars are'shown at M and N, Fig. 56. The scribed
joint at M shows the horizontal bar to be continuous and mort iced to receive the
tenons formed on the ends of the vertical bars. The chamfered mould on the
latter is scribed to the moulding on the horizontal bar. This is the commonest
form of joint. The franked joint at N shows the continuous horizontal bar
mort iced to receive the halved and haunched tenons worked on the vertical bars.
Another satisfactory method of jointing glazing bars is halving and this is shown
at M, Fig. 59. All of these joints are glued immediately before assembly.
In both the scribed and franked joiots the continuous bars may be either hori_
zontal or vertical. dependmg upon circumstances. For casements, greater stiffness
to the sash is obtam~d if the shoTt horizontal bars arc made continuous and the len/-lths
of vertical mt'mber tenoned into them; for vertical sliding sashes (see later) it is
customary tn mah the "utical bars continuous; in the halved joint both horizontal
and verl!~'al bHS are continuous-.
The ends of the bars are tenoned and scribed to the sash stiles or rails.
The sash is rebated for glazing; these rebates are from r6 mm to 20 mm wide
by approximately 6 mm deep. The glass is secured by either puny2 (see Figs.
I If the frame is sct back to fonn a 102'5 mm outer reveal, the iocreas~d width of.l~ad
should be secured by a lead dowel formed in the mIddle of the brick or stone sill (s~e p. 152).
, Putty is whiting ground io raW linseed oil.
 .ol

DOWS
~~~~'f:~~l1lOO~n tU.'."HISII'1II
111; .... 0 OF fUIo\f
,_ c:U........-:.

""'G
'UTTV

T1ro'L -ft.•

.... T'"
44.15 fu .20)
GlA:Z,NCi .... ,.
DETAIL ·S·
o G ..... u
"' " " ~~t+HT

'UTT..,

.5.44 (5 &.5,)
&OlTO'" '-All ~ SASH

'B 'H [nO _TO)

/ 0 ........ SilL

LEAO

E lEV B ELEVi\i
/"'110 SlONt S'Ll
_·'~I~I.
E

OETAll 'p' """'B TO If IlU .... IED

';_DHP'~ ~"'SHES •
F -j-~ a'
o[ T A I L. _'--'v:..'__--'-I
Fila Hf ~4
106 WINDOWS
54 and 55. and D and P, Fig. 56) or small fillet:J called glazing 6tad~ (see E and G,
Fig. 56). Note that the rebates for the glass arc on the outside when putty is
TAl
used and are on the inside' when beads arc adopted. The glass is usually shut
glass! and is specified by its thickness; i,t., 2, 3. 4. 5, 5'5 and 6 mm. Glass for
small panes is usually 2 or 3 mm thick. Polished plate glasr is sometimes
used for glazing windows in fint class work, the usual thickness is 6 mm al-
though thicknesses up to 38 mm are also available. Small metal sprigs (which
arc without heads) are driven in as shown in the various details to temporarily
retain the glase in position until the putty is set. Glazing heads should be secured
by small scrc"''S-'' cups and screws" (see J and R, Fig. 58, and 0, Fig. 66)-
rather than nails to allow for ready removal when broken panes have to be
replaced. The glass should be well bedded in putty before the beads are fixed
to prevent the entrance of water. )0. S, II! ... "

Scantlingf oj Safms.- These vary with the size of sash. Small sashes may ~S'H .", """l
be 38 mm (nominal) thick, average sized sashes should be 44 mm thick and large
sashes may be 50 mm thick. The stiles and top rails are generally 50 mm wide
with deeper (63 to I}O mm) bottom rails to give added strength and an improved
appearance. The glazing bars are equal to the thickness of the frame and are
out of 25 or 32 mm thick stuff, the latter being reduced to 25 mm finished
thickness unless the sheets of glass are large.
The bottom of the inside of the opening is shown finished v.ith a 25 or 38 mm
(nominal) thick u,'indow board. This is tongued into the wood sill (to prevent
any open Joint showing when the board shrinks). To prevent it casting or
twisting, it is secured to plugs driven into the vertical joints of the wall or
nailed to 38 mm thick hearers plugged to the top of the wall. Tiles may be
used instead of a wood window board to f.:>rm an internal sill i these may be
(Hl
white or coloured glazed tiles (about 10 mm thick) or they may be square quarry
tiles (about 1.5 mm thick) bedded on cement (see F, Fig. 16).
The following items, not already referred to, should be considered in con-
ncetion with Figs. 54 and 56. The panes of glass arc comparatively small
and the design is particularly suited for houses as the small sheets conform in
scale. A satisfactory proportion of pane is obtained if its height approximates
o T ~
"'"
to the length of the hfPOtenuse of a right-angled triangle having both sides
equal to the width (see T, Fig. 58). A reasonable size is 280 mm high by II}O to F
200 mm wide and has been adopted in the elevations A and B, Fig. 54. The ver-
tical bars may be omitted to emphasize the effect of horizontality. The windo ....'S
at A and B are not built into recesses such as are shown at E, Fig. 8. This is a
weaJmess for, unless great care is taken in the -bedding and pomtlng of the
I Beads Ire plKKl outside when double II'lazlnll' units are used (see F, Fill'. SS)·
I BrleHy, sh~I.la.. is produced by fusinll' a mu:ture ofund, ai!icates of.ooa and iLme,
elC. The malenals are melced In a furnace .... here, alone end, che molced II'lua IS dr.wn
up a lower and CUI 10 sIze (sec Chap. IV, Vol. IV).
I Polished place II'ln. IS formed by casting the moleen malerial on co a mecal table,
roUIn, it 10 a Uniform Ihlekne:u, and aubsequenlly plnd;n. Ind polishing II smooth by
machinery. It IS al., produCfli d,rect by the " lloal " proce:u.

FIGURE 55

J
 WINDOWS
frame, water 111;1\ J.:Jin culLin. c: between it and thc w,IIL The rc,,~on \\ ny du'
frame is shown in a Mlu,ut" .IJlIlh is on an'Qunl of thc imprO\eJ appearance \~hich
resuhs whell the maximum ,lmount of the fl.Jrnc IS npo-.nL Sound~r (011-
~truction j" shu\liI in Fig. S5 and also by broken line;, at I Fig. 8. The frMllt:
is checked fO rcccil c the plaster (see F, ri~. 54-) or J (mer Illould, sudl a-. I~
shown at 11. Fij.!. 5." 111,1) he prolidcJ to hide ally shrink'l,gc CTJth \Ihidl ,IPI'C.ir
:'\ouct' p'lrti~ular1} thc small ,groOICS III I'll" rcbJlc of the frame and In duo'
rails and stiles. These are capablc of arrestmg ":lIef which would other"lsc
proceed b~ LJpill.Jrit~ bet\lccll the SJsh and the frame to the in'>HJc.
The fT'Hl\e shown at I) and f, 1-iJ::. 50, is I,ider than those .. hL\\1l in Fig. 5.. ,
and this makes It possihk- for the sash to be ~et fanhn h.u.:k ;llld Lhe uilder~ide
of the head to be thro~tcd; exceptin,g in he;lI'Y storm~. lhi" throat IS etfel:ti\c
in causmg the rain to drop dear of the lOp rail.
The alternatilc dt·tilil" shml n at E and G, Ii!!. 5(" h,IH hl:en pro\Tu to result
In an excellent we.nhn resisting Ilinuow. (Jill" uf Ihe t!i~o1U\al1la!!es uf l:i1se-
ment \llIldll\l~ i" the c'Illdnsion of the wooll IIhidl 111.11 I,lkl: plaLl: tl) cause tht·
~,Ishe" to .. i,lIn ., IIr .. hind." \\"hen thi" IIUUTS. Ihl' ."Ishl·s ,ITl' "l:,lscd " (thl'
fd~c;; hl·inl! pl.H1t"l! 10 n:rnOl-e the e"l;es" t:mher) ami Ihere I~ ,\ likelihnllu
of rain and \\ind l'ntl"Til1l' Ihl' enlarged ck;!r,l"ln' .. hen tht." timber ~hrinh "uh-
sequenll~. Det,ub E ,Ill.! G ohviate thl'se lkft:l:I,,: Ihe l:O\er tillet I\hidl I~
screwed w the SJsh 0\ t'rhlps the frame 13 mm Jnd ellahk-s ;1 (1 rnm de;tr;!nl:e 10
he prondl'd whi(h is ;tn ,Ilkqu;!tl' ,dlnll,Hlee for any npansion of Ihl: timhl:T
that may Oleur: III addllinll, the tillt-IS ,Ire ctfeui\<: in excluding r,lin Jnd wiml.
The thm;!ted hood or drip Jilhl. ton,e:ued tl> the head, atfords .Ill addition,11
protection. Thl' ";Ishe~ rna~ be nude thicker and shaped to indude the fillet.
2nd the he,.d nl thl' fr;llIlt· 1Il,l~' Ill' 1Il,lde Ltr!!er §O that th ... hood m,IY he furnwd
out of the wbd
The det,lils "hO\ln in J-ig. ~5 ~rl" abo recommended ftJT adoption in huiJdin!.(s
IIhich arc e'lptl!led tll sc\ert~ 'l~e,lIher conditions. That at n shows a rl:hatcd
JJrnh "hieh gin":; a 20 nun cover 10 the fram~. The window has a large ti\ed
pane Cf1n~isttng of a double glazt:d unit (two sheets of glass separated hy a
, mm scakd air S(Mce), a side-hung opening sOIsh ,md a sma\!er top-hung one.
Duubl ... glal.in~ reduces heat losses from the room. The sashes lire lipped to
Ki"e effeelil'e weather protection. The usc of d.p.c.'s II here the ca\'ity is brid~ed
~hould he noted at B, t) and 1:.
Some of the window hoard~ are shown finishetl .. ith hed moulds whIch
are returned ,II Ihe ends. The~e moulds are usually nailed to plugs and to the
II mdow board,; after the latter have been secured. Large moulds are fj,ed to
~pla~tJ ~Tounds .. 11I(,:h are plug~ed to the 1\3U (see R, Fig. 58). The internal
soffits ~nd jdmhs uf the opt'nings are shO\\ n plastered. These are called plastN'td
Imlllgs. and 0110 pbster IS easily dam.lged al the edge:> a lIatisfactory finish is
prf)\ided when a c()mpJ[;Itive!~' hard material, such as Ke(:Tle's cement. is useJ
w form the arrises. A Keene's cement arris is al least 50 mm WIde in each
direction, and narrow lillings may be enmel), covered With this cement instead
10 7
of plaster (see e, () and K. Fig. 54, and p. 32). Wood angle bead, (ste 1 and :\t,
Fig. 63) or ,l!al,anized steel beads are often used instead of cement arrises (see
pp. tu 123).
The britk linte! IS shO\\n at II and '"" Fig. 54. supported on a mild steel
angle. Thi~ i~ nOI nften USed 1m .I single or double light "indo .. , whtre the
sp;!n is rc1atlleh sma\! and the hriLk head is usually built directly on the head
of the: frame, but such support (or th~' i1hername forms shown III Fig. 12)
comp:ies with the principles of ~ound constrllction ;!nd must always be applied
to \\ ide II indOI\ s.
The hci);:ht of "mllolls "b()\e ilflor le\"t~J ~hould he gi\"tn (onsickrati')Il.
That shown in section c, Fi,e:. H. is satisfaLlon for J house. L"pper-tloor I\in-
dOllS of the LotL.!!..:l· tlPC should 111""IS nl:Jr III th.., e,lles J~ possible, and .I ~Jt!S­
t"ael!Jn' treJlrn\'n1 ;if II1\" he,II.lls shown <It \. Fig. 7!.
Hardware. Thi,; for e;ISl'ml:nh consists of hin!..:t·" tastl:ners and SUb.
hg. 57 ShOlIS the appllL,lIlon 41t these.
Iflm~l.'f. Ordinary butt hinges (a p,lir fO l"\Lh ~,l~h) .Jre used. hut thesl' ,In'
nut l'ntirth l>alisf,lCtory 'IS they arc ,Ipt t\l hl · \\ Tenchl:.! otf and. when fixed to
upper tlqor \\induws, difficulty IS e"penenced III cl ... ,ming the e"terna! face 01
tht" !..:l.b~ frolll the inSide. A big imprultlllent UJ)(1Tl thl' bUll lunge for han,ging-
LISl'l1K'nh i, the f\/ension or deamm: lime'" Ilhlch IS il!lI"trated in Fig. 57; tht
IIpl'tr linin..: i~ ~Iwwn at" and the lower hinge is "hOlln JIll . .-\s shown in the
1'1.111. Ih\· ",,~h ..:.11l he opened to giH~ a dearance of from 100 to 125 mm bel\\een
it and thL' h,IIIIl·. which is sufficient to enable the outSIde of the \lindo\1 to be
dl'an,,! fr"m thl: lIlside (see Jlso isometric sketch). The lertical edge of the
free Sliit ,lItd tht adjdcent rebate on the jamb ~l1ould he ,,:ightly splayed to
peTllllt of the opening of the casement. These hit1!!~·" ,Ire made of ~teel or
\\TouKht iron which is shl'rardi;;fd, a process of reTldtrin!.( t)w metal rust proof
hy the ;Irplil:ation of a powdered zinc.
('cul'lI/ull Fasteners (see (. and sketch).-The pl,n, tfl II Ilieh the pivoted handle
i" all'K'bnl is ..erewed to the inside face of the free ~ti!t ,lilt! the projecting point
nt thl' hMlllle (when the sash is dosed) er,~ages III ,I ~lotteJ phlte which is scrcwed
tl) till IrJllll' ncar to the rebate. This type is also known as a wckspur faSltner
and IS obl'lined in "hcrarJized iron. bronze and aluminium aHoy.
lnsf'nll.'nf Sluv (sec I). pl.ln and sketch).-This form is called a peg stay and
consists of a bar."holcd al about 50 mm centres, which is pivoted to a small plate
Ihal is :Ie rewed to the inside face of the bottom rail; there is in addition a peg
or pin plall' which is screwed to the. top of the wood sill. As is implied, the
object of the stay i.. to IllJintain the sash when in the open position, and this it
do<:s when the peg IS engaged in one of the holes. This fitting is made of
sherardized iron, bronze:, etc.
Fixed Sashes or Dead Lights. -One of Ihe sashes at s, Fig. 5-1-, is specified
to be fixed. Su(h sashes should be well bedded in lead mastic and screwed to
the frame.
 ",,,
CASEMENT WINDOW
t _
DETAILS
lINHl

"
.... lTfR.NAT1V[ / "-10 COVE~ ~lll(T JOINT BnWHN STILE e..
r , ,
~!f!;;~TOP
DE TAil '~' h ... CHAMNCE U'TWHN
1MI-I to ~IVIME
"""Il •
HE FIG S4
SO"'4 niLE OF S... SI-t

~,..if:t=jj't PUTTY
SPkIG
,~.

50-44 r,n-)!')
TOP U1L 01' S....1It D
~t;.~~,(:~"a~ - --jl - t.J- +---II';
/lLTERNATIVE E
/ DETAll'S' - +-if--
JAM'
SEE FIG 54

.... lTERNATIVE
--ttt-- D ET A I L 'T'
~H FIG 54
15120)

B 0"1<. Sill

.v ;'",",,~;;,<~CO;;.II~~O~D
I lll

DETAILS OF CASEMENT

JOINT
Uf'HEE"I
JAM!! e.. Sill

SH ""LSO
'M',Ki-S'
~
SClI. l llfO JOI NT
Ei::;;r::g:::;;::,..
~
 WINDOWS 1"9
It i •• CQIlUl'Ion pnclIce to dl.penH! with. (:aKmtnl (or. find Ji,ht .nd to fix
the .1_ directly to the frvnt; the mullion, jamb, Mad .nd all bei", rebated for this
purpoI4!. In.n ekYlltion NCh . . ., FI,. .54, thll would .pod the 'ppaonnce of
the window, u the" .ighllinn" of the lop and bottom nil' of the cuement would
not .. 'lne through" With the top and bottom ",hI !ina of the fixed Ii~t. the upper
and lower Pinel of the fixed hShc. would be hlstler than the mtennedaltn and, In
addition, the .httlt ..... ould be widc~ th.-n those In the hinged _h.

Window. with Solid Frames and Cuements Opening Inward•.-As it

is almost impossible to make this window weather proof, its adoption is not
recommended, and for this reason a detailed description of it is not given. The
frame is rebated on the inside ra receive the sashes which swing inwards. The
interference with curtains, etc. cauaed when the sashes arc open provides an
additional objection.
(b) Window with Cased or Boxed Frame and Vertical Sliding Sathes
(see Figs. 581 and 59).-This window has a pair of sashes, both of which should
be made to open for the purposes of venti'lation and to facilitate cleaning. The
sashes slide vertically within shallow recesses formed in the frame which is
built·up with comparatively thin members. A pair of metal weights ('ontained
within the frame ill connected to each sash by means of cords or chains after
being passed over pulleys fixed to the frame. Without the weights, the upper
sash when lowered and the bottom sash when raised would of course drop to
the bottom immediately the sashes were released.' A satisfactory appearance
ill obtained if the sashes are divided into panes' of the proportion shown at T,
Fig. 58, and if the window is three or four panes wide and four panes high
(see A). Both sashes are usually equal in size, although it is sometimes desirable
to increase the height of the window when tht' upper and lower &ashes may be
two and three panes high respecti\·ely.
Frame.-This consillts of two \'ertical jambs, II head and a sill.
A jamb (see Nand s, Fig. 58) comprises an innn- or inside lining, an outn-
or outside lIning, apulley stIle (so called because the pulleys are screwed to them),
and a bade Im",g (often omitted in cheap work); in addition, a thin piece of
wood, called a parting SLIP or ,,"d-ieathn-, is used to separate the two weights,
a small partin, BEAD is provided to stparate the two sashes, and an In"n- bead
(sometimes called a staff Mad, fiXIng lHad or pard lHad) is fixed 10 complete the
shallow recess for the inner or lower sash.
The head (see It and 0) conSIsts of an inner and an outer lining, a hl!ad or
soffit lintnl, an inner bead and a parting bead, although the latter is sometimes
omitted.
The solid lill, with staff bead, completes the frame.
, hg . .s8 II Inlni/ed to pro~·ide In exlmple of I t)"pu':ll home"'"Urk .J'''''I (Ke p. 16).
The hllf fulll'~ dellil, before re:productlon, "ere: dl1l'" n to the finished lizes (see pp. 6"
94, lOS Ind III)..
• :\ fitllng rona'lt,na of • coiled Iprinl and ailed. uuh balalttt mlY be uwd mllud
of the "'e'i/hu, cords snd pullt>l. A pa,r of balances ..... ould be UHd per IIo8lh (see p_ I IS).
'WmJ"". in hor~ tlone bu,h:lmlJl (If the commerci..lor factory t)'pe espec,.lly may
conlilt of sashes ",hu:h Ife nul d,v,ded b) IIlu.ml ban IntO re:lallvely un:all pines but
nc.:h ..lib i, glued .....,th I smile .htrl.
D PIN PLATE
seal'.flO '0'0 sou.

FIGURE 57
 ~~nl.:f';
131.n (OVil
o...Hl, "-0.(;

IlfV""ON

11--=----"'",.·· "
, 0 N

NOli ... , .... _ , ,,,u ""01' ..... ' 1Hf III.lMNlS ' ....... E In ..
0IV0W" TO 'Hf "''''111(0' OIMi"~' (.. 'Hili AAi S_ IUi
T~ THf '_01"-1.' \'UI II.lU i'U Dfl""Li Nlf DilAWN THUS .....Ti,.,....,,1f[
P l '"DlT
) ...... 8
N .... l ... '

Tiff KAU '"',1ST ... ''''MS I( INCIIUoTlD ON T>1f ~'N(; , ..,,

_ I It 1_>1 1HU\
 VERTICAL SASH WINDOWS
A. shown at N and s, the inner and outer lininga arc each ploughed with a
10 mm square groove to receive the: tongues formed on the pulley stile; the outer
lining proJect. IJ to 16 mm ~yond the face of the stIle, and the edge of the inner
lining is Rush with the face of the stile. The upper cnd of the pulley atile is
either housed or tongued to the soffit lining and it! bouom end is housed and
wedged to the .....ood sill (see A, B, D, £ and t, Fig. 59). As shown at A and B,
the lower end ;)f the stile is about 6 mm below the outer edge of the weathering
of the sill, and as indicated al L, the wedge is dri"cn in from the inside between
tht stile ilnd the H~nical CUI of the housing, and this wedge is securdy nailed
to the stile. The inner and outer Jamb linings extend the full height of the frame
(see 8), the inner and outer head linings butt against the Jamb linings at x and y
(su 0), and as shown at 8 and e, the oak sill is cut back at each side to receive
the lower ends of the inner and outer jamb linings which are nailed to the sill,
pulley stile throughout its len~th, soffit linings along the tongued and grooved
joints and at the butt joints x and Y.
The parting slip extends to WIthin 100 mm (approximately) of the top of the
SIll and is suspended from the IOffit lining. A slot is formed in the latter, the
slip is passed through it and either a nail or wood wedge is dri\'en through it
as shown at K and 0, fig. 58, and A, 8 and 0, Fig. 59. The centre line of the
parting slip coincides .... ith that of the partinI'! bead.
The back hning eAtends from the soffit lining to the upper surface of the
sill and is nailed to the pmb linings (see It. and c, Fig. 59, and N, Fig. 58);
occasionally one edge is housed into the Jamb lining as shown at s, Fig. 58.
As ~hown at s, Fig. 58, the clear spale betv.e:er> the pulley stile and the back
lining must be 50 mm as the diameter of the weigh!! is usually 38 mm.
As the equivalent to a back lining is not provided at the head. the necessary
stiffness is imparted by the use of 75 or 100 mm long triangular blocks spaced
along the internal angles betwccn the soffit lining and the inner and outer
linings 11.1 intervals of from 75 to 150 mm, with one placed across each hutt Joint
bet\,\,een the jamb and soffit linings (see K and 0, Fig. 58, and A and 0, Fig. 59).
These blocks are glued to the linings.
The inner bead is fi'ted all round the frame. This bead covers the joint
between the inner lining and pulley stile or soffit lining (see K and N, Fig. 58);
these beads are often rebated in good work as shown at 0 and s; they are
moulded IS required and the ends of each length are mitred. A Ilightly wider
and bevelled inn~r or staff bead is fixed to the sill; the bottom rail of the sash is
also bevelled to ensure a reasonably tight fit which prevents the sashes from
rattling (see M). Alternati, ely, a deeper sill htad (see Q) is recommended.
This allows th~ lower sash to ~ ralK"d K"veral millimetrts to permit .air to enter
between th~ meeting rail!> of the sashes (see later); this incoming lir is deflected
upwards to minimize draughtll and the latter are not caused .It sill level. This is
sometimes callC"d .a wlltila/llrg P'«t or drau..l(ht !Had. Inner beads should ~
fi~ed with brass cups and krews (see 0, Fig. 66) to permit of their re.ad), remmal
when required, although they are more orten Just bradded (nailed).
III
The parting bead is fitted tightly into a 10 mm square groove ploughed in the
stile and nailed. The detaill show. similar bead 11.1 the soffit, although thil is
often omitted in common work; when provided. it assists in excluding rain and
draughts.
Access for U'tights. Provision must be made in each pulley stile for fi'ting
weights; such is called a poclttt .and is situated just below the meeting rails
of the sashes and ('(tends to about ISO mm aOO\'e the sill. Two forms or pockets
are shown at A, 8, e, F and K, Fig. 59.
Sidt Pocktt.-The sketch at F shows thIS type which is indicated at A and s.
The plan shows the width to extend from the bJ.ck of the inner lining to the
groo\e for the partmg bead which it includes; it is about 380 mm long for
average sized sashes and must be at least equal to the length of the weights; the
bottom end of the pocket is be\'elled at 60° and the top end is V-shaped and
bevelled at 60° in hoth directions. I The pocktt-pltct is secured to the stile by .a
lerew at the ooUom cnd in addition to the parting bead which is fixed subse-
quently. The lower sash and parting bead completely cover this pocket and
therefore any damage caused .... hen the piece is removed for sash cord renewals
is effectively concealed.
Central Pocktt. This is a less satisfactory form and is shown at K; it ha~
a rebated joint at the bottom end and a rebated and bevelled joint at the top.
This is not such a good type as that shown at F as the outer vertical joint and
portions of the horizontal cuts are exposed and any damage caused to them on
removal is conspicuous.
Sills. -The several forms of sills should ~ noted; that at Q, Fig. 58 is wider
than the Sill at ..t to allow the cover mould to finish on it. The water bar at Q
is shown at the centre of the sill; it is often fixed with the outside of the groo\'e
in line with the back of the outer lining so that the bar will arrest any water before
it has travelled more than 25 mm.
S~a"th"Ks 0/ Framt. As the weight of the sashes is transmitted directly to
the pulley stiles, it is customary to prepare the stiles out of thicker stuff than
th.1I ror the linings. The nominal thickness or pulley stiles and soffit linings is
either 25 or 32 mm, and that of inner and outer linings is either zo or z5 mm.
The sizes of the various members are figured upon the drawings.
\".,ntton "drswn to the note In FIll 58 whIch Itat.,s thlt th., d.,lllll. ha"" bHn
drilln to Ih., finlShC"d d"ntn.lon •• Ind that theM.u 5 mm Ie.. than th., nomlOal
IIln. It should b., nOlcd ho".,.er that th., memb.,.., of the fram., are oft.,n only
pl~m:d on Ihelr uposc-d fllces and thul the lollS 10 dressing IS rC"duced to IS mm; the
ba~k ImmK i. I.Isually just dressed .Iong liS edg<:s.
Sashes. It \,\,111 be seen on reference to Figs. 58 and 59 th.at the upper sash
slides in the re(css formed In the frame by the pulley stile, outer lining and
I The ~uta marlr 10 fonn these be"els arc made by th., poelfit duuf (to« p. (16): the
V-shaped lOp .,nd II f"nn.,d by ",,,km," ~cond CI.II. ~nd the $nl<llllrl.nllul.r p,ec., whIch
i~ rem<l,ed II IIluc-d .. nd n.,led 10 th.: ba~k of the sui., (t« !Xenoo xKI to fonn In .butment
(dUll ror the pockrl-pl~e.
 112 WINDOWS
parti,ng head, and that the lower suh is accommodated in the recess formed by
the pulley stile, inner bead and parting bead. Each auh consists of two stiles,
a top rail and a bottom rail, but as the bottom rail of the upper sash meets the
top rail of the lower sash when the window is closed, these two members arc
called m~ttjng rails. A minimum clearance of 0·8 mm should be allowed all
round the sashes to permit of easy movement, and Ihis is often increased to
1,6 mm when the window is to be painted.
Join/ bttwun Stil~ and Top Rail of Upper Sash (see H, Fig. 56, and R, Fig. 59).
-The detail at H is usually adopted. The alternative detail at R sho""s the
top rail haunched tenoned (like a door) at each end and each stile suitably
morticed to receive the tenon and wedges. Glued wedges (waterproof glue
being l,~ed) and a hardwood pin or dowel complete the joint. The methods of
securing the sash cord are described on pp. 113 and 115.
JOllll ~tW€l!1I Stile and Meeting Rail 01 UPI'" Sash (see T, Fig. 59).- The
bottom of the meeting rail of the top sash and the top of the meeting rail of the
bottom sash are at least 10 mm wider (assuming that the parting bead is 10 mm
thick) than the thicknesa of the stiles, otherwise a gap equal to the thickness of
the parting bead would be left (see Land 1', Fig. 58). The joint between the
meeting rails are either just bevelled, or, as shown, they are bewl rebated; the
latter joint is preferred, for it assists in preventing the sashts from rattling,
effectively increases the difficulty o{ gaining access to the sash fastener (see 0,
Fig. 59) from the outside, and enables the rails to separate easily when the sashes
are opened.
The stiles of the sashes may extend from 38 to 75 mm beyond the meeting
rails and these projections are !!haped as required to form horns (or bracktts or
joggles), but they are often omitted as they are r.:onsidered to detract from the
appearance. The detail!! at T and u show both types. The horned form at T
sh<h...s a mortice and tenon Joint (called a lork tenon) with the bevelled portion
passing over the inner face of the stile, which latter is dovetailed to receive it
(see section and the isometric aketch); the central tongue is .....edged; it is usual
to leave the upper edge of the bevelled portion projecting slightly beyond the
face of the atile, and this may afterwards be dressed down to the stile when the
meeting rails are fitted together. In the second or hornless type at u a dove-
tailed joint must be adopted, otherwise the joint would readily become loosened
when the &aSh handles (see P, Fig. 59) are pulled down .....uds whilst the sash is
being opened. Note the shaped end in the isometric sketch and the broken
lines in the alternati,·e section which indicate the dovetailed tongue and bevelled
portion. The joint is either screwed or dowelled as shown at T.
JOInt MUUtn Stile and Meeting Rail 011..00.1" Sash (see v, Fig. 59).-Like
the top sash, the stiles of the bottom sash may be provided with horns, but in
first class work these are omined and a dovetailed joint between the meeting
rail and each stile is adopted as shown at v, which indicates the upper end of
the slile shaped to receive the dovetailed tenon and be... elled portion of the meet-
ing rail; the latter portion passes over the outer face of the stile, and its lower
I
edge is usually left slightly projecting beyond this face until both meeting rails
are finally fitted together. 1 This joint is also pinned or screwed. A groove is
formed down the edge of each stile to accommodate the sash cord; this is
similar to that shown at Rand s and is indicated by broken lints at v. Note the
provision made on this meeting rail to receive the glass; as both meeting rails
are of che same depth, it is not possible to form the usual rebate on the lower
sash meeting rail and in lieu of it a groove is formed along the underside of the
rail.
The ends of the bevelled portions of the meeting rails must be cut away for
clearance round the projecting parting beads. The small piece so removed
from the bottom sash meeting rail is indicated by broken lines at v. The groove
for the cord, the clearance for the parting bead, and the dowel holes have been
omitted in the sketches so as to render the details less confusing.
Joint betwen! Stile and Bottom Rail 0IIAu)" S4Sh (see w, Fig. 59).-This is
an ordinary pinned haunched tenoned joint. The bottom of the rail and the
end of each stile are shaped as required (examples at M and Q, Fig. 58). The
joint shown at J, Fig. 56 is very often adopted.
. Joint between Gla:ling Ban.- The scribed and franked joints between sash
bars are described on p. 104 and the halved joint is shown at M, Fig. 59. Glue
is applied to the joints before assembling and cramping each sash.
Scantlings of Sashes.- The usual nominal thickness of a sash of average size
is 45 mm, but the thickness may be increased to 50 or 60 mm for larger sashes,
whilst small sashes may only be 38 mm thick. The common scantlings are:
stiles and top rail, 50 mm by 45 mm thick; meeting rails, 50 mm wide by 38 mm;
bottom rail, 75 to 100 mm by 45 mm thick. Glazing bar5 may be out of 45 mm
by 25 mm stuff but a thickness of 32 mm reduced to 25 mm gives the bener
appearance.
Timber.- The timbers employed in the construction of windows of this type
are redwood, pitch pine, teak and oak. The {ormer is most used. although a
more durable wood such as oak, teak or pitch pine is specified for the sill. Oak
or teak are used throughout for first class work.
Hardware.-Ahhough there are many patent devices on the market for use
on windows of this description, the following simple fittings have been proved
to be quite effective for their purpose. They include sash fasteners, sash lifts,
sash handles and pulleys, together with the weights and sash cords or chains.
Sash Fastnrn (see 0, Fig. 59).-This affords an effective securicy, provided
it is of best quality. The fitting is of brass or bronze and comprises two castings,
one being screwed to the centre of the meeting rail of the tOp sash, and the second
(or lug) being screwed to the top of the meeting rail of the bottom sash; on
the former casting there is a lever which is pivoted at one end and has a solid knob
• Student. should be careful 10 show Ihe joinl between the meeting ra.ls corr«tiy.
Examlnallon acnpl. and homewgrk shH:ts frequently .hgw deuull wh.ch Ind.c.te the
bevel ... nninll downwards from the in.ide w the: outside. Movement of the Ashes would
nOI. of course, be poNlble If the mee1inll ra.l. were constructed to luch dela.l •.

VERTICAL SASH WINDOWS
at the oth~r. When the lever is rotated, the pivoted end bears against the free
cnd of • Itrong and highly tempered steel spring which i. riveted to a recessed
vertICal portion of the cuting, and the dovetailed notch on the lever engages in
the tolid curved lug which .. riveted 10 the second fitting. This brings both
meeting rails cloeely together and IICcures the window.
Stull Lift (see 0, Fig. 59).-This i, the hook lifl type, other forma being ring
lifts, RUlh recessed 1ifts, knob liru and hinged lifts. One pair of lifts is screwed
to the inside of the bottom rail of the lower sash and at about IS0 mm from each
end. They are of course used to raise the bottom sash and arc obtainable in
brut and bronu.
Sillll Ha",Jl~ (see P, Fig. 59).-When a lash is large (and especially when
there are no glazing bars to grip when drawing down the sash) a pair of these
rna) be fixed on the underside of the top sash meeting rail near to the stiles.
They are not very convenient, as the lower sa,h has to be raised before the
handle. are accessible from the inside.
The followUlg IImpk o:ped,~nl II df«tlv~ A pulley I. oed 10 Ih~ Mlffil lll1l11a
of th~ fram~ unmedlat~ly oyer nch 'hl~ of th~ upper ...h, and In Q'~ or nng il
ICrew~ II1to th~ in~r f.ce .nd nellr to Ih~ end of ",ch IlIle of Ihll Nih; • pie« of
cord of a 1enKth equal to .bout one Ind a hllr times lhe h~ighl of Ihe windo .... II
pllollCd through each e)'~ and over ~h pull..,.; each cord II knoliCd Immtdl.tc1y
lbo\'~ and below th~ ryr; the ..... cis of each double curd .~ equ.1 .nd I bandle i.
oed 10 ",ch, To opcn thr top ...h, one rrod of tach curd I' pulled to dill .... th~ Nsh
downw.rds with th~ lOp knol be-nng upon the ,ye, Th~ Nih 11 clotoed by pulling
........
on th~ other end. of th~ curdl which bnnaa the lo....t t knoo apm" the ~yes to lift
As mentioned on p. 101}. in order to conveniently slide tbe sashes and main-
tain them in any desired position when open, it is neassary to fix to tl)em sash
cords which are fastened to weights situated in the casings after being passed
over pulleys fixed to the frame.
Sash Ar/~ P",Il~'s (see A, D, D and 1'1, Fig. 59). This type consists of a 60 mm
dia:nctcr round groo\'ed brass pulley (or SMtl'tV) having 12 mm diameter steel
axles which rcvoh'e in brass or gunmetal bushtl (6 mm thick annular bearings)
mounted on a metal (iron, gunmetal or rustlesssteel) case which i, Ranged and
co\ered with a brass or bronu plate; the pulleys may be.s, 50, 60, 65 and 75
mm in diameter. Tlti, hollow-rounded groo\'ed type of pulley is suitable for
flax cords, copper cords and metal chains of the form shown at w'. Square
groo\'ed pulleys are adopted for certain he...), chains. The COR wheel type of
axle pulley (ha\mg a fixed a:de with a toothed portion which bears the chain and
which revolvel on ball bearings) may be selected for extra heavy sashes.
The 125 mm hy 28 mm face plate of the pulley iSlCrewed Hush with the outer
face of a polley stile with the top of the plate from]8 to 60 mm do .... n from the
head (see A and B); the mortice for the pulley case and the housing for the Range
and face plate are shown at D. The pulleys project about 8 mm beyond the
outer external flce of the pulley lIile (ICe A), and the size of the pulley mUllt be
suffiCient to allow the weight to hang clear of the casing. Two pulleys per ush
Ire required.
,
113
Weithts (see N and 5, Fig. 58, and A, • and c, Fig. 59).-These are cylindrical
cast iron weights, 38 mm in diameter and of varying length in accordance with
their weight; thus, a 2·3 kg weight is about]oo mm long. The obp:t of these
is to counterbal.mce the weight of the ....hes. The top of each weight is holed
to receive the end of the cord.
OplnWIU differ u to the weight reqUired per tuh, but uusfaclory raul.. Ire
obtained If HId of the: IWO .... ellhu for the: rop talh " from 0' liS to 0'5 kg Iwm:in Imn
hal/lhe wtlght of the luh, and I( ~h or the tWO hallilm .alh .. ~ighl' i. from o'as to
o-s kg light" than /wI/the wright of th •• suh. Th~ .... elghl of elch IlUh II d~trrmintd
by means or •• prlng btl.nce, and dur .llowance should be m.d~ for Ihe w~ight of th~
,I •• 10 be used .nd IhlU of the paint.
Sas/r-Cords and Chains.- The weights are secured by either cord, or chains
which Ire passed over the pulleys and attached to the sashes.
Best quality stout twisted or braided cotton cord is usually specified for
ordinary work. It is obtainable in sizes of " 30 m" or " 5+ m" in length;
its thickness varies {rom 5 to to mm, the former being suitable for weights of
less than 2'] kg,and the latter for weights up to 2] kg. The cheaper cord stretches
and, therefore, each length should be well stretched before being fixed, otherwise
it may elongate to such an extent as to limit the movement of the sashcs, i.~.,
the wei~hts of the bottom 515h may reach the bottom of the casing before the
sash has tra\el1ed to its full height. Certain brands of the be!t quality are
greased and are guaranteed to be stretch proof and damp proof.
Tht defecl of flaJ[ cord is that in course of time it frays and ultimately breaks.
A stronger and more durable cord is that kno ..... n as coppu wir~ cord. It is
sohl ill 30 m lengths and the si~e is specified according (0 the nlimher ; thos, a
" ~o. ] " cord is 6'5 mm in diameler and consists of thirty-six strands of copper
wire ..... hich Ire .ubdivided into six segments; the Slrands in each segment ar~
intertwined and the segments in turn are intertwisted together.
One form of sash chain is shown at w', Fig. Sq. This;s called the thrtt-
and-tu:6 II"k coppo- chaltl, as it comprises a series of thrtt links or plates (each
1 mm thick) ...... hich alternate \\ith a pair of links; the overall thickness of the
fi\'e links is 6 mm. Each link has t.....o holes and loose fitting pins or rivets pass
through the fi\'e links at each connection. The chain can be used in conjunction
with tr.e ordinary axle pulley shown at s as it readily accommodates itself to
the sharpest cun'e. Special fittings are used for connecting the chain to the
.....eights and sashes. One fonn of connector to the weight consists of a hook
which is simply passed through the eye of the ..... eight. The sash fitting com-
prises a plate which is scre .....ed to the edge of the sash and a pin is passed throulth
the brilckets on this plate and the holes of the chain links. The chain i. an
improvement upon, hut is more expcnsi\'e than, the flax cord, and chains hive
been kno ...... n to last for mnre than thirty years before requiring attention. Chainll
used in conjunction with the c~ ..... heel type of pulley used for \'ery heavy sashes
are of similar construction to the abo\'e, but the links Ire of rust proofed stttl
connected by means of phosphor-bronze rivets.
..,
DETAILS OF WINDOW
WITH CASED FRAME
SLIDING SASHES
i

M 5

~
.

.
"""
OWH
-
"
"
-

,~otJro.
.-.xLI: PUU.EY
-

~",.j--+-

fellOH

P L 1\ Ii
oJ J'

,, c o, T o , 5 Itt S H
sRi ....

J
 VERTICAL SASH WINDOW
Fwrtg Cords to Sasllts and Wnghts.-Two methods of fixing the cords arc
shown at Rand s, Fig. 59; that .hOlAn at S IS the mOlt common method. A
better way is shown at R where a groove i. ploughed to a diltance of from 15°10
250 mm (depending upon the size of the aaah); this i. continued by a to mm
diameter hole which is bored to a depth of about 100 mm and is terminated by a
2S mm diameter hole fonned at the edge. The cord is secured by threading it
through the smaller hole, the end being knotted and hammered into the bottom
hole.
Sash BalanuJ.- This fitting, referred to In the footnote to p. 10C}. dispenses
with weights, cords and pulleys. A cased frame is not necessary. but inner,
outcr and parting beads must be fixed to the solid frame to form the necessary
recesses for the: :.al>111:s The balance vcry much resembles II steel tape used for
surveying purposes with a face-plate attached to the balance casing. The
balances are obtainable in various sizes to suit the weights 01 sashes. :\Iortices
are formed in the jambs just below the head to recei,-e the casing'S of the
balances; the face-plates are Sl.;rewed to the Jambs and the looped ends of the
metal tapes (coiled springs) are scre..... ed to the edRes of the sashes. When
the top sash is pulled do ..... n the tapes from the two balances are dra ..... n out,
and ..... hen the lo .....er sash is raised the upes in the other two balances are coiled
up. ·\nother type of balance I~ ~hOVoll in Fi~. 2i, \'01. III
Manufacture of Windows. Th., pr.,p;.roit.On of th., fr~m"" and Juhn IS donf'
chif'fly by ma(;hlnf'r"1 Mnd rompa .. t,,-.,Iy fe'" "'lnd""1 lTe no" f'nt.rrl~ m;ld., by h~nd
Standard CIIKTTIent ""ndo",., complete ""Ih frames .nd S;lJhe,. n., nocked by manuf.l(.
lurer. of ma ... produced ""ndo"'~ Th~ \·anou~ opt"ullOn. of setllllll "ut, prepannM
Isscmbtmll, Illulnll lind wo:dginJ! up. and Til-anini! off In th.· maklnlt of the frdmf' Qnd
nshn of. '" Indow Ire .. mIl .. 10 thf' mlll'ufaClurt of doon d.·I~,lo:d on pp_ 100-· 10J.
General. The .... indow sho",!) ir Fi~_ 5R is shown fixed in a bmldinR whic.:h
is faced with 50 mm bricks ha\·in~ 10 mm mortar joinu and finished at the
openinR .... ith stone dressings, I.f'., stenc head, ~ill and }Imhs. Note that the in-
bands and outbands of the \;lUer course wllh tilt' brick.... ork and that the \ertical
joints btt"een the stone and brickwork arc irreJ::"ular. If ~tone dressinJ::s .1fe not
desired, the rece$bCI may be _112 mm deep as ,>hown in FiJ::. 8, "hen the outer
face of the pulley stile conforms with Ihe facc of the outer rneal. \\'hibt Ihis
undoubtedly ensures a weathertight joint l-.et\\cen the frame and brickwork, the
iippearance is not so satisfactory, ;1.5 ;III but a narro\\, marRin of the frame is
concealed. hence the openin~ are often pro\idtd .... ith square jambs which
permit of the whole of the outer faa: of the frame ht'inJ:: e\po<>ed (see JI. and !<,
Fi~. 58). The defect in this constn.lltion is referred to on p. I 10. One of several
methods adopted to prc\'t'nt .... ater Riiininll: Ac.:Ceu bdwten the frame and hrick-
work is .hown at 0 and 5, ",here a narrow 'Itrip of le.d (or felt) is fixed al the
jambs and head.
The If'.d lit the head II j;utl b.,1\\een the 4n;h ~nd tho: rl';nfQrcf'd ,'JOuete Imld
.... hen the lauer IS bfOmJl fixed, Ihf' final dft' •• nll m-f'! tho: fr~m., br-,nj;l t.lo~ ~I ~ 1~IN
"ollie Thf' If'at.ll,mnllill the jlOmb~ II fiu..:llult !lntoT t<.) Ih.· f"unj! of the fT~me ",hen
a Hru~.1 Kroo~"C .. ronnal ,n el<.h ,Mmb. tht' It'11d .. tud...·tl tOto It .ntl PHurf'd "'I ..
IC'Iod ",c:d&n (11ft 0, F'I. ''I) dn\-f'n "' at about 300 mm 111\<;0.1, ..\rtte th~ fume h ..
"5
been fixed, the lead" dr~ ovcr, lind •• shown, thllier.d i. c(wered by the .. ood
mould.
Windows with cued framo and sliding $Uhes (often referred to as" double
hung sashed windows ") are most effective in excluding rain and draughts and
are superior to the ordinary casement windo..... for exposed position•.
Windowl witb Pivoted Sashel l (see Fig. 60).-This type consists of a solid
frame and a sash which is pivoted to allow it to open with the top railswinRlng
inward,. The pivots (sec later) are fixed slightly abon (about 25 mm) the hori-
zontal centre line of the sash so that the sash will tend to be self-closing. T.he
construction of the frame is similar to that of the casement window except
that It is not rebated. Both inner and outer beads are required (sec det ..ils at
II. 1 and K) All lIhnwn, the ush is in the middle of the fr.lme with the upper
portion of the 011.1" bead and the 100:" portion of the '''''" bead fixed to the
J'Qm~, and the up~r half of the III"" bead and the lou'" half of the OUI" head
nailed or scre..... ed to me sash. These beads should appear to be continuous
'" hen the window i, closed, and they should be cut correctly to enable the sash
to he freel)' (jpened "nd closed .... hen required.
A method of setting out thc splay-cuts for the beads is shown at J. As
indicated, a \'erticAI section of the complete windo" is sct up. Thc sash is in-
clined to the required maximum opening position (this varies from 10' to 20
to the horizontal) and the inner and outer heads are drawn. A line (" ~ ") is
drawn throu~h the centre of the pl\ot joimnJ:: the points" 1 " and" 2," ~hich,
are I) mm abo\c and below the heads, and two short lines are drawn at ri~ht
An~lcs I(l it and a<:To!'.:> the widtb of the frame beads to givc the nils. Wi:h the
centre of tht pi\'ot as centre, the lrcs indicated by broken lines are"dra"'n to
gi\C the correspondlll.'( points for the splay-culs on the sash beads. The I) mm
c.:learancc.: bttwct:n c,I(:1I of Ihe pr:t1ll1S " I " and" 2 " and the sash beadb permits
of the remo,,11 of the ;;,1sh when required.
The unucro;ide of the head of the frame is il>lightl}-' splayed (about 6 mm), and
the lOp head and the t(]f' of Ihe $.Ish are made to conform to it, to allow the sail>h
when openc.:d to de;!r the frame.
Hardware. The \\indow tittings conSist of pivots, cyelets, cleats, catches
and p.lttlll \cntil"tine ~caring.
Sa.h P,('O/~ Of C,."rrt'1.- Of the varioull forms, Ihat shown at \t, Fig. 60,
con!ioist.~ of a br;1!io5, malle..!bl e iron or ,fo!unmetal pin or stub mounted on a plate,
scre\\cd to t"c inner f;Ke of the sail>h, and this engaRes In a melal socket the plate
of .... hic.:1t i ~ screwed to the inner Lice of thc fralne. One pair of fillin~s is required
per ..... sh.
The "ash pi\ot sho\\ n at P conil>iS1S of a pin or stub plate and a blotted plate
or ooocket. :\ pair of Ihe,;e fitllnf(s is h\ed to Ihe edfo!~ of the ...ash and frame.
The pin pl.lIe rna} bc tiwd citho to Ihe frame or Iht' SJsh. If the f()rmer, each
sockt'l platc must be <;cre\\ed 10 the edge orthe S<I~h \\ ith tho:: open cnd of the
• ("rl, .. .J,,,nl,,,... <>1 1"1. f'pc vf ",ndo., i ........,f"Tlu d..r~r .. r-.J .. n"l ,h~ ."cona '-e~r
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 VERTICAL SASH WINDOW
slot do,", "\.lards (not as .hown It p) and in.... ard.; a p:roovc for each fiuiop:
must also bt: formed along each inn('f bead attai,:hcd to Ihe sash and continued
to thc .10t of the lOCket plate (sec broken lines It 1); .... hen inKrting the sash
from the mSlde, the ends of the pi,'otl are cngagt'd in the bottom of the groo\'o;,
the sash is pushed dO'>l""n"ards and outwards until the slots on the socket platt:!I
hne been rCOIc:hcd. Altcrnat;\'dy, each pm and lOCket plate rna> be screwed to
the .ush and frame respecli\'dy; when thiS is done, the socket plate is fixed
"ith the open end of the slot uppermost (as shown at to) and the groo\'c is formed
in the frame. These P;\'OIS arc not so readily fi'(cd as the typc at \I, and if thc
SJsh is pilrli.llly open, it can be easily remo\'cd from the outside.
The r-'tenl 'YiM' Ihown at Q is an improvement on the ahm-e centres. This
consists of a J{Unml.'talscrell> bolt or PI\'ot with three plates T, li and v. A holC'
is hared throu~h the middle of the lash and frame. As shown at It, plates T and
l" are scfC'wed to the edges of the Ilile and plate \' is screwed to the frame. The
pm IS thcn lnS('rtW n) screwin~ it throulCh the threaded block on plate T. This
is an effective fininJ( as il can be easily "I[ed, the sash can he readily removed
",hen required. and it il a lecure method of han~in~ the sash as it cannot Ix
removed from the outside unless the bolts are withdrawn. The size of the bolts
I
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I m 1 .,
uri" from 7S to 100 mm long and from 6 to 10 mm di.ameter. :\ pair of these
finlllJ.:~ IS required per lash.
('a/rhn.· · A simple form i. shown at s, Ihc latch fitting being "I[ed in the
mlltdle of Ihc inner fdce of thl! top rail of the SJ.sh and the stnking pilole being
screwed to the undl!rside of the frdme to rccelH' thc end of Ihe lalch; a spring
retdins the latch in the fixed position until Ihe sash is required to be opened,
"'hen Ihe IJIl:h 1\0 rdC'dSCll hy depressing the ring.
Alterndllvl'iy, the ush mdY hc securc.:d by sm:lll barrel or flush bolts, as des·
cnbC'd for doors.
A~\'tlt's and efta' s. A simple arranj(:ement \\hich permits of the opening
and dosinJ.: of Ihe sash consisls of a lenJo:th of cmd which is attached at each end
10 hrass or brom:c eyelets scre\\cd to thl.: insidl! face of Ihe top and hottom raill.
The cord must he of sufficient length to belay It round a metal de,lt fixed at a
coO\'enienl point on the pmb. One form of eyelet is sholln Jt N, and a cleat
is shO\\n Jt o. If the sash catch s is u~J, tile tIIp end of Ihe cord is £OlStenC'd
throuRh the hole provideJ fOf it Jnd therdore only Ihe eyelet at the bottom nail
is rC'lJuired.
There dre mJn), pdlenl Je\ ices for openin~ Jnd dosing pi\'oted sashes, one
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 METAL WINDOWS
of d:c simplest consistlOg of • \crtical 5t~1 rod \II hieh has ;01 hinged arm con·
nected near its upper end and i~ lower end pas.sinJ{ through a gunmetal ",jnding
box; the arm is Stturcd to the botlom rail of the suh. The sash is opened
and closed as required by turning the handle of the winding bolt.
Pivoted sash windo .... s are comenient for lighting and ventilating high rooms,
as they can be conH'mently openw and closed (rom the floor level. They are
sometimes used for {actorie&, warehouS(:S, laundrits. staircaKS, etc. A pivoled
sash is often used u a fanlight over a door.
Windows with Horizontal Slidint Sashes (tee FiR 6t).-This type of .. indo.. is
falrh common, "pee,,1!}, In cerlaln of the nonhern COU"IlIn. II II generally known aI I
}'Q~lI:IhiTt ughr .•• lu~h "'IOdO.Of ..... a charauer,s!lc feuure of many of th., old.,r .lOn.,
bu,lt houses in that rounty. Compal1llu\"~I)" f~" .r~ no ... mad~ IS II has ttrta;n undnlr_
IIbl~ fntun:s, I.~, an unutllf~uor)" apf>ellnllnce and II tendency for the slldmg !IIIsh to Jam
-\, ,ho"n In the de'·lIlion III II, the appearll~ is marred on ~ccounl of the" lil!'ht hnes .,
not bell12 contmuou,. Ii' Ihe top and bottom 1111;1. of the slldln.!!" lIi.. h ne nol pre~en! in JIll:
fi;ud hght; lru. cau-.el each paIr of panO!!l in Ihe fixw III/hi to ~ of three dIfferent hel.l(hts.
The...... mdo", an: aull 'pcclfled for ahenmonl lind elUent'OIlI 10 bUlldlnR'- and ror
replacements
The wllld •.," " Iho'" II m a R'KlJlar coursed rubhle ",all. It con~lIts ora fixed iiI/hI ~nd
...holnjt: sash Deu.1 It shn", •• he melhod adopt"d for pt:rmllllOl! mo'·emenl of tho.' l.ish
.-\n,.k bHd (or .1I,,,,r,), "lth rounded Ngt:, " utllf:rted :n the oak 'til lind ulends ror Ihe
full ",dlh be:t"u"n jamb.. (Ht t: and i00i); a corrnpondmfl" but .IIJ(htl~ ",der J(roo\"e ••
fortned on the 10"'et Ngt: of Ihe bottom rail of lhe: lliuh. The hud of the fnome I. rebaltd
thl"OU"hout Ita IC"nJI'lh 10 reccne the top rail of the ...h (I« p. ~nd the ASh i, retamed m
postbOn by an ,"nrr bead planlN on the jambs and contmL!l':d round Ihe head and 1111
-\ •• f:, mm elcaranc~ shoold be: pro,·idw all round the saah to penmt of free mO\~mcnl
RII.n and d,..URhll ne ucluded by lettmg a bead Into Ihe jamb", hlch engages In a RtoO'e
10 lhe stIle (sce 1..) and teballO/i{ the lilies of the fixed Ilghl Ind ,lldlOR ..... h (s", \I).
A barrd bolt II Renerally UKd to KCure Ihe .1,dlO.II ..... h
METAL WINDOWSl
These are of galvanised mild steel, bronze, and aluminium alloys; they
inc:bde fixed lights, ~ide and top hung casements opening outwards, inwards
and pi,·oted. Ther~ are many sizes and types,' with or without glazing bars;
simple examples are illustrated in Fig. 62. A fixed light consists of a frame only,
and:oJ c:ascm~nt hu a ush which is attached to the frame by means of two hinges.
Tht details show that the Jramr a1ld JOJh orr DJ 3.2 RIm Ihlck m~tal and tlrnr
U(II01lS art idnttl{alm HZt and ,hap. They ar~ of Z.. sc!.:tion. 25 mm deep with
20 mm "ide flan/ol'd, one of thc latter ha,·ing a ~hliht rroJection beyond the web
to allo,," the salin ,md frame to on'rlap 6·4 mm l'oth int~rnal1)' and externally.
The horizontal and verli!.:al member.; of the frame .1I1d ush are wclded together
at t~e COTnI!'T"S.
Th~ hinge. are of th~ extcnslon I~·pe similar to that ,hnwn in Fig. 5i; when
h.lly ~xtended Incy Vhc a 100 to 12; mm d~aran #' Ott"etn the sash and frame
I Se-e Chap. II. \'01. III rOf • fuller ~nptlDrl Ind addlbONlI enm.1'1~.
I F..e. Module 1 _ rall,e lind Wao nn,e (~1.et.l Wlndo.. "-:>c.).
enabling the outside of the glbS to he cleaned (rom i~lde the room. Th~
st~1 hinges are provided at the top and bottom of the sa..h (see A, E, G, Hand K,
Fig. 62), the fixed arm bemg riveted or welded to the fram~ and the mo,·ing
arm (rotating on a hard weanll,g pin of phosphor-brollle or st,linless steel) is
fixed to the sash. The skeu:h at " shows the position of the partial1y extended
hinge rel:ltive 10 the frame and sash.
The sash is fined With a casement fastener, or lWQ-polnt ha1ld/~, and a case-
ment stay, both are of brOllze or RUllmet.a1.
-\ t.... o~poinl h3ndle IS .ho'" n 10 Ihe 1"'0 omalJ-scale e:1e",UII)rIs.at ... dnd £ and Ihe pl"n
"t" It is mOUnlN on II pin ~II.lChed I<> 11 b~ek pl~t~ "h'lh .. riHlcd or .. elded to the
lOner ftanJfl': of th~· sash. and 1$ 110 c"lIed because of Ihc polO!> fomlN lit Ihe: no..e b,· Ihe
nOllhcs (I« s). .""Isho"'n, Ilhm bronlc ~tt1kmj.l "I~(l {;lhOUI 2\ mm hy 10 mm IS ~UTed
10 Ihe mm:.flanl(" of Ihe franIC!" lIS obJccl I~ lo.p',,'enl Ih.· no,,, 01 the h3ndle COnlaellnR
Ihe Ranl{e·and d~maj;:1II1{ the p"'nl \\'hen the )lOSltlon of Ihe nose I~ ;11 shu" n, " tl~hl lit
bel'" kn the sash Ind the: rr~me: .hould result; the cJc~r;once: ,hO',n i~ c".lltl1entted to m;,ke:
Ihe dCI",I. tl.,.... A. n"'.:d, ":nlll~l1on c~n be afforded hy enM3MIOI1 Ihe tlanMe of the
f!llme (lind .tnkioK plate) 11\ .·"hcr nOlch" I .. 0'" 2 "; lin opcn1ll1l up 10 25 mm," .. idlh
nn thus be mamlamed
Addlllonal venulaUOIl can of course be oht~lnw by JI'PlymM the c~~emenl lIay.
Th,s nl;O~ be;o pel{ st;oy hce 1l. hI!". 57), "h"n.l pm pl;lIe or h,.I<ket II fh~-d to Ihe: lOner
RanKe of Ihe: ho"lon!;,ll11emht't of Ihlt fr~mc. Th.· obJc~lIon 1<1 Ih" It~~· IS the damal1e
10 1{1;t,.. .. hlCh may h., uu_ed If Ihe .... h IS bfo" n \"IoJently .Igam<1 the "all m the It'·ltnt
(If the .. ,ndo.. bemK lefl t>p-I:n ,,"hout Ihc pIn enll~l{mJ( In DOle of the h..,l~ of the bar
-\ betle:r form IS the 11",""1: 11-1.\· (con."lIoll of a ho,,;<ollt .. 1 arm h,cd 10 the &ash ",hich
slldel throu.i/h II ",,·otednil mil .llhlt ftee end of a rol:lllnl1 hracket ",cd 10 the fnme), as
Ihll. "hll" permlllln.lllhe u.h to be mamlamed al .. n) JIlJ(Ie,lP 10 '10 ,al ...."y. keep. 11
und"r reuraml Aitern.:ll,,·ely, frlCllon hm.lll'5 ma)" be u ....-..l .. h,ch rc:nde'r the SI3Y un_
necc:ss.try.
Fixing.-The metal frame may be fixed direct to the wall or it may be
screwed to a wood frame or surround.
The w:ndow shown at A, Rand (:, and detailed at G, 11, J and K is fixed direct.
EiRht 8 mm dia. countersunk holes are provided in the web of the frame 10
recei,·c the fixin~ screws ($ee~). If it is to he fi,ed to maSQnry. terrJ.-cotta or
concrete. 13 to 16 mm dia. hnles arc cut in the pml!·, head and sill orposite those
m the fr:ame. These are prderahly p1u~£:ed w;th lead, althou~h hardwood
plUKS or r~wlrluRs :are more oftcn used. The windo\\ is then placed in correct
positIOn and the frame screwcd to the plugs. The frame i,. fin;II1~· ,e:routed in with
cement morlar and pointed With mastic. The delaib Co and H show these
fi,inp;!O. The details:at J and K 9-how an ~hernali,·f' mf',h"d of fi'(inr.- tht' framl'" hv
means of 100 mm by 16 mm by 7 or 5 mm lugs (provided by the manufacturers)
.... hich are hent up 50 mm and have slotted holes in the bent-up position to give
fixin,g adjustment al\owinc; the horiJ;Ontal part of the lug to be placed in :a eon-
~·enient Joint. If ne<:e5Sllry, holes are cut in the jamb~ of the wall at the correct
position. a1d the lugs are inscned and firmly cemented in. The frame is secured
to the luJr.' by 7 mm dia. fixine- oolt:l.
The above method conforms to Ihe best practice, as windo .... ~ should ne'·er
IZO ARCH ITR AVES
be fixed in posItion until the roughest work has been completed. OtherWlse
damage may be caused, not only luperficially from daubs of set mortar, etc.,
but sashes may become distorted and g\ve rise to leakage.
It is, however I the U&\.lal practice in cheaper work to build the metal windo"".
In as the construction of the wall. proceeds. especially if these ace of brick.
Typical fixin~ details of a built-in frame are shown It J and K, aJready mentioned.
The lug. are bolted to the frame and the window is pb.ctd in position. It i.
kept level and plumb as the wall i, built, and the lugs are securely built-in with
mortar. The lug. are shown bedded in the horizontal joints (see A, J and K).
Lugs are also built-in al the head and sill.
A vulnerable part of a metal window which opens outwards is the outer
Hange of th~ top horiwntal sash m~mbt:r wh~r~ it contacts the fram~. In an
e.lC:poRd position 'A-"ater may enter hert: enn if th~ sash is ught fitting. It is
ad\'isable thereror~ to throat the underside' of the head and adopt wide exttrnal
jambs by fixing the windoW3 well away from and not nelilrer than So mm to the
face of the wall. Th(' more elaborate type of window has a projecting metal
stnp, fixed to the top of the frame jUlIt above the sash, which senes as a protec-
tion.
Criticism IS dlrect~d against metal windows fix~d direct in certain types of
bUildings bKau~ of the mean appearance presented by the narrow frames.
This is emphasized if the colour of the painted windows contrasts with that of
the adjacent walling. Hcnce, as shown at 0, E and F and detailed at L, S, 0, P
and Q, metal ".,indoW8 arc often fixed in wood frames. The latter are rebated,
or double rebated as lIhown, 10 receive the metal framCi. The sletlframe is
~dded In mas/j(. affd Ihis must Iu rull d"ne to prl!f.'l'nt the mtra"CI! of waler betlum
tilt two frames. Th~ metal frame IS then screwed to the surround, 8 mm dia.
holes are pro\ldeu in the former fo~ this purpose.
Putty is used for ~Iv.ing standard metal windows. Ordinary putty (whiting
ground in ra"" linseed oil) alone is u»cle" for this purpose. as it will" run,"
and gold size is added 10 enable It to set. Small m~tJl ) mm dia. sprigs are
sometimes used to retain temporarily the panes of glass until the putty has
hardened, thtS(' fit into holCi in the web (see G, etc.). Alternati\'ely, spnng
wire dips are UK'd ill lieu of the spri~.
Steel windo".,,., bemg gahaOlzed. are \'ery durable and compare ra .. ourably
with wood Cl5CmCIlb m exdudin~ weather. l ' nlike those of wood, they are not
affet:ted by atmlhphenc I:hanges and consequemly do nOt Jam, a dcfel:t com·
mon to certain hadly constructed wood ca~ments due 10 swelling.
:\letal windows can be coupled to~ether. to form composite windows of large
,Ize, with metal mullions and Iransomtl. Such a window may also consist of
&C\'eral frames and sashes h'l[ed In a wood surround WIth wood mullions and, if
requir~d, wood tranM)mes. Special types of metal wind<)ws are a\'ailahle for
S(;hools, hospitals. commerCial buildinlfl. etc. These, tOJl:ether with metal
doors are de.:nbed In Vol. 111.
ARCHITRAVES, SKIRTI NGS, PICTURE RAILS AND ANGLE BEADS
The fixing of certain joinery work can only be completed after the Wills have
been plastered. Architraves, skirtings and picture rails ate examples of such
work.
ArchitraVH,...These are used for the concealment or the joints between
the casings with their grounds and the plaster at dool1l and occasionally windows,
and to provide an effective fini5h.
Casings or linings have been desc ribed on pp. 96--10) and various se.:tions
of architraves are shown at Hand N, Fig. 49; architraves are also detailed in Figs.
So, 52, 6) and 64·
An architn.ve consi$ts of twa \'ertic:al and one horizontal members with
mitred angles; they are nailed along both edges to the grounds (at plugs) and
edges of the casing. Vsually th~ feet of the architrave are continued down to
the floor to which they are nailed, but in first c1allS work they are often finished
..... ith plinth or fOOl blocJu (see Fig. 64), These blocks are slightly thicker and
wider than the architrave and higher than the skirting which is housed into them,
and their shape roughly conforms ..... ith that of the architrave. A tongue is
formed at the foot of the architra\'e and a mortice is made in the block to receive
It j the: tonl{Ue is glued and securely nailed or screwe:d to the block from the
back. Plinlh blocks provide a suitable finish to the architrave and skirting and
serve as a protel:tion to the moulded architrave.
The size and design of the architra'-e depend upon the size of the opening,
the quality of the timber and the .:eneral effect desired. A 100 mm (nominal)
wide architra\-e is usually sufficient for doors up to 9 15 mm wide; for lar~c
openings the width should not exceed ISO mm if in one piece as it is liable: to split
whe:n shrinkin.e;. The plain architra\-e shown at s, Fig. 6), would be suitable
if the door has square or chamfered panels (see J and L, Fig. 46), but a more
elaborate archLlra\'e would be preferred if, for instance, the panel mouldings
were of the section shown at ~-', Fig. 46. Certain sections. 5uch as those at L,
Fig. 49, and P, Fig. 63. should be avoided unless well seasoned good quality
timber (preferably hardwood) is used, otherwise unequal sh rinkage will occur,
resultin~ in the members curling or twisting on account of one-half of the section
being much thinner than the other. Simplicity 10 design is a characteristic of
modern construction (see also p. 93).
Skirtings o r Plinths are provided to protect the wall plaster and to cover
the joint between the floor boards and plaster. Several sections are shown in
Figs. 63 and 64. The size varies, but the depth rarely exceeds 175 mm unless
for very large rooms.
The best method of securing skirtings is shown at Q, Fig. 6J, and B aT'd E,
Fi.e;. 64, where horizontal rough grounds arc plu~ed at about 645 10m intervals
in the \'crtical joints of the brickwork. Skirtings ..... hich are 100 mm or less in
depth only require one set of grounds. When two rows of grounds are fixed, the
space between them IS not . Iways filled with plaster, and when it is, care should
 ,
ARCHITRAVES, SKIRTINGS PICTURE RAILS 0 ANGLE BEADS

PICTURE 1t"'1 L

110-20
W ... HUID
IN ,~ U !

PLANS OF ,JOINTS D[TwEEN S~~TrNG ""1 ANGLES

of' t.. °G"
"'J<.CHITJ<.I'V T '0'
tnr AlSO f1GI,.Q S
122 SKIRTINGS
be taken by the plasterer to ensure that thc facl! of the plil:!lter does not project moulding w. Fig. 63, architrave 0, Fig. 6) and panel mouldings v or c', Fig, 46
beyond the grounds. form an agrct'able combinat ion; the chamfered Or bc,"elled edge shown at
The cheaper and morc:: usual method of set:unng skirtings is to fix them direct Rand s, Fig. 6] is preferred when a simple effect is desired. Alternative ski rting
to plu~swhich have been dri\-en into the Hrtical jOints of the wall at about mQuldings an:: shown at T, l" and v, Fig. 63; the cavetto ski rting at x, Fig. 6). I•
645 mm intervals. For deep skirtings the plugs are staggered, .... ith the plugs pro\ides an effcctive finish, but the labour in formin g Ihe trenching in
fixed a]tt.:rnatd) near the floor and top of the plinths.. The skirting al R, Fig. 6] the floor to receive I .
is sho\\n plugged to the wall.
It is the general pr:Jclice to fit or scribe the lower edge of the skirti ng to the DETAIL AT FOOT Of ARCI1ITRAVE

l
floor, ....-11Ir.:h may be uneven.
A B
Snlbm~ ,~done by I"b~'inlllhr PI,","," of skl~tinlo: In \>05111on and p~ckmll Or ""djj:H1U
." ""'"'"'AAVE---L
up Ih~ l,mn ,"nd untd Ih"II'p .. dg~ I. len- I ; COrup~Sks (su s. F,!,:. 67) ar .. t~hn and, PLINTH aLOCK.
,
,,'
"lIh till' ('loon' •.• p.ut ~4u.,1 w ,h" hCllo(ht Ihm the IO"e!1 JKImon of Ihe flOOT IS bdo"
~OUGHGWUN~ ,
"t,·
t===jnrt-iin
,

~S.,.z5
Iht' "'>lInn) ~dg<, of th~ ~klTlml:, dr,,,,,, along Ih~ fa<:t of Ih~ Sk,rlllll: "ith Ihe
pn,nt' .. \ th., <:omp.l» m a "'rl1c~1 plan<:; ~s Ihe If"',-r pOlnl follo"s Ihelrrt'j!ldariuC'S
of Ih,· fI"or 11'1" mh.,r IllMks ,I p~r~Hel hoo: on Iho: plmlh; tho: 10\\0:' edge of tho: sklrtmg
SItIUING
.. Ih"n •.•"" .llo,,~ thIS lTrq.:ubr 1m" and Ihu~ a IIghl fil b<:1"0:"" Ihe Sk,rl1nll dnd
fl,...,r" ~~sur"d "hen the fom,,,r ,5 fi""d " ,,
:\ gap Imariabl} appear5 lx-h\een this hottom edge of the skirting and the
tluor boards due to the combined shrinka~e of the skirting and the floor joists.
--.
'['his allows both dust and currents of air to enter ground floor rooms from thc
sp;ll;e below. \ smJl1 <10 to 13 mr'l) quadrant co.cr mould as shown at R,
E LEV A T ION
Fi/;!, 6], may be bradded to the floor to prC\"ent this; alternatively, the gap may be
tilled with a m;lIeri,1i called "llIllie u;ooJ which is pressed in whilst in a plastic
condition, smoothnl o\cr "ith ;\ knife and sand-papered over when set to bring
it tlu~h with the fan of the skirt mg. A bt:tter, but more costly method. is
shl)\\n at Q. Fig. 6.1, and F, Fig. 64; a tongue is formed on the lower edge of the
St<.ETO+
fiklrtlllJ! .md this IS titted into a grome formed III the flooring. SHOWING
Se\'cral Joint:> hen\ecn the ends !If !;kntlllJ!s are shown in Fi~. 6]. The AJIt,CHITRAVE.
cht:apdt mdhud is to minl' the cnd~ .It huth e\ternal and internal angles as shown
at " Anotht:r cheap Intnnoll.10int tOllsists of scrihin~ one end Lo the face of the
otht:r "hlch holf; heen tI,!.!htly J.nd slll1J.rely fitted into the an~le. A better Joint
'1
for internal an).:les is sho" at z; une piece of the sklrtinR is grooved from the
bottOlY\ cd.!!c ~ the hottonl (Jf the IIllluldmJ!, the end of the adjacent picce is
C
~
s!.AlE.
P l. "t-I
+ loa!
..
zoo!
FH;,·Rf. 64
E
PLINTH eLOCIC..
6 SKI~TING

tollgued and tht: moulded portlllTl L:i :>eribed to that of the first piece. A joint
used In \ery ~(Mld ,\ork for hoth internal .. nd e\ternal allJ!les is sho .... n at A'; tile
thin hard\\oud tross-tongue is ,l.!lued and the joint is assembled before the piete"
,Ife n\.ed to the ~rollnds. The Inltr{'d and rehated Joint at B (:llso called a Iipp'J
jOint) i~ a /l:ouJ form lor e\.temal angics, (foss-hraJdin,!.! a~ !>ho"n is necessar)".
As illllieatl'd in Fig. 1I4. sklftin~s ·He housed into plinth hlocks. If the latter
,Ife not pro'ided, tho.: ends of the ski1!inJ1:s ~ho\Lld he let into archLtra\es, other
\\Ise cr.lcb .... tll sho\\ \\ht"n shrinkage OCCllr~.
Thl' deSigns of "klrllnp', aTlhitnl\t:s ;lnd pJnd mouldings when ;lssoci<lted
together shoulli cflnfurm, thus. the skirtin~ ,11 Q, Fig. 63 harmonizes \\illl the
architrne K, Fig. 50 .ind the p.oIIlei mOllldllllZli " or A'. Fig. -46, and the !lkirtllllZ
PiClul'e Rails. The$e arc often omitted in the modern h OIl~c, e~pe(i'IHy
in rooms \\h ich Illa) be only 2'5 m high; they have may the efreet of ~poiling the
proportiolLs h~ bre3.kin~ up the \\011\ surfaces ;lnd "lowering the cei]ing:s."
\\ hell the\ are required, a satisfacton finish IS obtained if thev an! fi"\l'd
at Ihe level of'thc top of the door afchil ra',~".1» sholln at A, Fig. 6). :,1,.ltcrnati\·e
sections Ihrou~h picture TJils arc gi"en at H. j and K, and the plug: aud rouJ!h ,
,ground (t\\O forms) fi\:nJ!s are included; plug~ arc generally us{'d and arc
dri\en ;nto the n~rtical.!Oinh of the \\allinJ!.
Angle Beads. Extern;.l .Ingles of pla!>tered walls hJ\c to he protected
,l,!.!"in~t dutnJ.l!;c to tht" plJMer .ITTises. '1' .... 0 mcthods of accompli~hlll.l!: thiS
.HC shown.lt L and \I. Fij;:. (,3. !'lugs are drin'n in to the joints. the proJectmg
ends .Ire cut off in true ~lign1l1t:nt, .lnd .6 or 21,1 mill "ood beads are n,uled to
 STAIRS 12 3
them. The plaster should be cut or qlli,lud as shown, but this is often omitted.
An application of this form is sho"n in detail in E, Fig. 61. Another type is .... "'IILlI. IXA""III ".
s T A R s
('M'" J VOl 2. <M.., 1
the gah'anized steel an~le bead nailed into the brick joints. The more costly VOl J "'Nil <HA'I I
TIM8f~
Keene's or Parian cement arris has heen referred to on p. 107 (see "'I, Fi~. Sf) Col VOI~

and described on p. J2.

STAIRS
A staircase is a set of sleps or fiightleadiog from one Roor to another. Timber
and stone are two of the many materials used for constructing stairs (see Fig.
65). Each step consists of a horizontal portion or tread connected to a front
part knO\\n as a ,iu,. The goill.~ of it step is the horizontal distance between
the faces of two consecutive risers. The riu of a step is the vertical distance
between the tops of two consecutivc treads.
It t- 1S been founo that. for comfortahlc usage, the ue~1 pruporliul1~ uf it stcp
are such that going plus twice rise equals 584 to 610 mm. Thus at F, J05 +(2 x
152) = 609 mm. The Buildine: Re)!:ulatim:s require this figure to be between
550 and 700 mm.
Timber Stair. The simpk internal e.\.lmple shown in ::>cction at A and
plan at B has a total rise of 11",6 mm and there are six 191 mm risers. The risers .... ,,,., OM 0'
andt"attached treads span between two 250 mm by 38 mm strings which are ,~,AO "MO .. " , .
plugged to the side walls. The treads (see D) and the risers are housed 13 mm , .. " . . . . IJ'~IIIJ · 51"0"''''
into the strings and glued "edges arc used as shown at (' to make a tight
secure .wint. Triangular ~Iued blocks (si" fJCT stcp) are also required 10 stiffen 3 O{TAll'V'
the CC''l.SITuction. The detail al {- also sho\\S ho\\ the risa is tongued, glued into
the adjacent treads and screwed. The distance be'"een the outer faces of the
strings is 840 mm (to suit a space IJ mm greater between Ihe walls); when this l'
latter is increased to 915 mm as is common in houscs, then additional support is
required 10 the steps running centrally bdow Ihe Hight. This compriscs a
100 mm by 75 mm raking bearer whi!.:h h.ls 150 mm hy 25 mm thick timbers
nailed to it to fit tightly under the treads (see Chap. II. Vol. Ill).
"-,, r-," "•• '''~.
The simple handrail detailed at E is of So mm dia hard\\ood fixed to steel
hra!.:kets plugt;::cd tu tht: \\al\ .loS indicated also .It A. The Duilding Regulation,
state that the handrail ,hould he fixed at a heiy;ht not less than 8fo mm as
shown at A.
Stone Stair. The steps are made of hard i1on-~lip stone ~uch as York
!landstone. The elevation at F and plan at ,; Jl e uf a shrJrt Right sHch as may be
required at an entr3nct'; it is made wilh selid STone sleps. The:;e haH': a ~ore
or less re!.:ungular shape as detailed at II, but p:Ht of the soffit is chamfered as
indi;:;ated bv the broken lint' .1nd 5h(,\\n al!>/) at J. The chamfering is not essen-
tid ho!re bu', it rlduce~ .... t'i~hl and gi,-es 3 neater finish on Ihe underside ~holJlci
~he soffit he o[l<:osed 10 "iew J!'. in open Ill,o\'hl .lairs. fhe steps rest on brick-
work at lither side as noted at G and J. The elevation at~· (which is actuallv a
'lCction throu!;!h a returned .• inforccd concrete landin~). !'.hows how care h3S
(

-.
 FASTENINGS
been taken to course the steps in with the brickwork 5(J All to ;lvoid wI bricks. ScreWli.-Thne UI' scl'l'l,,1 form8 of sere"" but Ihose t:hidl)' used for fillin. woodwork
arl' the flat headed (SCI' K) lind rnund_hl'adl'd (see L) cypes Theil' are made of wrouaht
The balustrade on the open side of the flight is formed of mild steel or .ron, .1«1 and brllt. and a. IhC' thrud II 1'fi"I'CI;\'O: in cuniog InCO ... ood. thC')' arl' IOme-
~rought iron members and the handrail :1 dr .. wn at K The 20 mm square riml'S called rmod 1lT('f<I. Serc" , a,l' fixed by ml'.ns of the Jcrewdr;I-I" Of brace and bit
sla,ttla,ds or baJustus Irc placed in pockets in the step as shown at H and fixed hy (sec 40 and H, hR. 67), .nd thC'1f ad\,anlalll'S O"'1'r naIls are' (I) Ihl')' can C'I.\II)' be '1'_
mo\l'd "hrn rl'qUI'I'd. (a) Ihe)' can be fiu'd in poImoo, where jarring hilS [0 be' avoidl'd,
lead which is run into the holes. Note that in accordance with the BuildinJl: and h) 1M)' " ..... e iI .lronll'O:I job on IICC'ouot of fhclr g.ealer holdtnll POWC'f.
Regulations the height ot a balustrade to a landing must be at least 900 mm for I
private stairway (1100 rum for a common stairway). NA LS. SCREWS f. FASTENERS
Similar steps 10 these can be made in reinforced concrete and they can both

~t ~~~"~-~2~d; 1>.
,,,~;' '>- . VJt:ii~~~';';~~~~==~~'.
be built 102 or ISO mm into walls to cantilever out <;0 as 10 be unsupported on
the outer edge. Care should be taken to provide sufficient \Ieigh! of wall above A adI lililit 1l1lAA"""'1 .. II!III! 6
the bearings to .. tail" these steps down. IO'AD OVAL WIItE NAIL $fCltON CII'.CULAR WII'.E NAIL SECTION
Further ~xamples o( stail'1 ar~ gi\'en in subsequent volumes as (ollo"s
Stone and reinforced concr~te in Chap. III, \'01. II. Timber in Chap. II, \'01.
III. Rein(orc~d concrete and steel (including fire escape stairs) in Chaps. II <c:~;;;~~~~, . (g~~~~~=- . 0
CUT CLASP NAIL SfeTlON WROUGHT N,A,ll SECTION
and III, Vol. IV.
E L" II F
===:;;
NEED~lEG
-I!-
PANEL PIN PO..... T

_ FLOOII. 8"'AO UCTION. C

JOINERS' SRAD ~
. -: ->. ~

" mmmmlI:'::O=~~ 8 J ~I
D
NAilS, SCREWS AND FASTENERS
SIC('I or wrou'thl uon faslenin~ used In cJ.rpentr~ and Joincn indude onl K ~)II\\\\\\\\\\\\ H MHHOO~""CONCEAUNGSAADS
J
and circular wire n,l1ls, CUI da~p nails, wrou~hl nails. hrJdl;. H.I! dod TlJund- flAT HE .... D SCUW "'!"O \Ou"ItE HEAD

De -l i \ \\lm:m'M
headed screws, cGach scre\\s, corrugated fasteners and holts. The biter i~ J.... (...O"
deu.ilcd at J. Fi~. Ro. and other fastcnin~s are IliustrdlcJ In Fig. 6b. L 'IS $I \ \ \ \ \ \ \ m\\\
~OUNO ~E""D sarw "'£""0 COACH SCREW
Wire Nails. Th"" aro: O:lIh"r nul (Stt \) or ,,,,ul.,r \5n' II). (h"I""rc o~Ils .Ir~

ol'''@N
wma4\A~
.~
u ....-d for ~t"o~r~1 purp' .... ~; rhc)" .I.r I"u~h .. ",j ~ ... ""I hahl,· In spIll ,h~ w,KKI "h,·"
dO"rn In; Ihc d,~hl ~tlJlIo .... .l:r<""u. ur IKrr..llnOI In Ih" ~1"In ,"H~d ...· Ihr .• holdlnij

iI
power" nr ~blilly ,0 .llTlp the fihT<'~ <>1 Ih" wn•.u ml .. "'h,,,1-1 Th ...· nn' d',,·~n. Thn arc
nhl~In;lbh: 10 .,,,,0:5 '·.Ir-Inll from l, In I~O mill ~oJ ~rc •. ,Id hy ""II/:hT. rhe \,trculn "all / 'cup -<,·T
,hown ~I " II nOI '<I, t"\lcn~I\'rh' u ...·,j h ..: 'h" jOlOn"o .It·"',urH "'I' UnSIGhlh fI~1 ... rcul .. r
HCTIO .... SHOWlt-IG
h"~d; 11·' chIefly cnoli -d 10 [emJ'<,rMI' "r ummporl.lnl ""rk_ Ind m ,h" m.lk,nll"fboM- (L(V"110N \ £Nl ...IlGfMfNT Of . "" '5'';;-
p.l<'klOli: ,",,', etc
<UP WITH SC!II.fW
IN lIOSITtOt-l
a "VV'V'V'V S",W EDGE '\
o-c__
CUI Clasp Nails (!'Cc t·). -Th".., h~", 1>«-n "u~l"d by ,,,"l ""t" 0",1~. Pl.A ....
Wroulht Nails (sc,' n)-TdPo:rrd m bo,h \\ l,jlh ,md ,hlckn"s5 10 form ~ poml.
u""full~ emploled for fixmlt Ihm membrrs. ~~ ahrr p"nl·lr.ll1nlt Ih" mJle,,~1 Iho' poml ~dn
CORRUGATED SAW EDGE ~ASTENU.
OIVU,GENT P... THIt.N ~_.
,<, MITIt.EO JOINT

0.' r,,~d.Jy h.mml'rrd mlu [hI' ,,0<><1 'Jr t:knt:hl'd h",' p. Sh) Th,' .,z", "'"rl' frnm :~ ,.)
100 mm "~~'=====Sili.c~I:=~I~:§§~~1
"tAli • "!. tun JOINT OF FASTENflt
,toPPLlC,t,Tl0N
Spike. ~rl' u"l'd fur ..,curmlt lar~"ood membel •. "'I,' n,,,I. "h"h """"",d J 2~ mm '0
1,'n~lh Jnd "roulthl nail. "h,ch ,H" luolte' rhao 100 mm ...., .1."sln,·,j ... ~plk". FU;l'RI' b6
Floor Brads (see ~.I , -Tk"5" \\t'rl' 00'" u'Inl lot ~"'UTlnl: """r b"~rth InJl k .. ", 00"
~n ro:pl.eM b\' o,~1 n~,]. Tht: knvlh I~nu ImOl lR 1<> 7~ mm FI"'·"f"d~d IIr ('''''''It''<lIIl''Sonu,-,-\s Iho"" ,II k. Ih ..· "Ir~u!~r flat hl'~d (which II
JoineM!' Brads Dr Sprill (~ II f Th""" '"'":mhl,, floor br~J,. hUI rh.· ~I"'", .lIe fmOl O<II~hrd 1<> ... ,'~"" ,he ... ·rC'''drl\t'rll~ IJPcred J.",o 10.0 f'I'"0[; Ih" Roll h,,~J c .... be
(> 10 ~o mm , .... \. ano m .. d .. of.rft hu.... nJ c"pp'" brouj;lht Ilu,h ""h Ih~ limber; "'5 "hl.unabl" In "ZCI "~rymvlrom 6 10 '50 mm 10nR ~nd
Panel Pons ·...... e) l Th...., unall Is. cl,,"UI,11 01<"('1"'" ,111' g"m'ull" u ......J fur n~",g from I h 10 .t. mm m J •. lm"lct It" J',,"lrablo' I ..... J In, h~ld"o..<b II IS t'.".cnu~1) 10 boh· a
h.lrJ"uod m.-mh<"rl fu.u~lIy moul,j,o,:" h,,1<- of J tmall"r ,j'~mt:'I"r loan th.11 "I Iht" ••:r,·" hI onC' of Ihe SCHral bo,mll: 1001. Illus_
Needle Points (~n' c) ·I·h"..., .rc ""..I pln~ u~"J f<lr h,'ni ~"1.l11 ml,uIJ,,,!;!,. ~"n""n. 1r~lcJ 10 hll t.7 pnn, '" m''''lml: d,,,,, ...·r""
• elc. th"\' an ,If" "0 ,n oJ sn.lpp",j.,1' tluhh wllh Ih' ~urt.ln, 11, :y .1re .,J,raln .• hl .., III ." ('"p. (-el' -.;) ']'h,·~ .. .!TI: "f hr .• ~~ .mJ ~rc "hl,IIt",h)'" 111 '· .. flOUI sizes 10 ~UII th" h,,~d
,jcgr"l'~ "f t; ..cn~, of Ihc .,·rr'" "o,,-h thr\- ~ ..' t., n ... ,." ,'. The\' ~h .. ultJ "" u.....J "hl'rr,-"r mouldlO~~, bo:ad.,
I, IS ,j,lh~ulll" J.n· ""ull·,.,,I •. po •. rt. ,n'" h_,td ... OfIJ "".I",u' ""ndln.: unlru ,,",~Il ""'" ..... 1<1 to.: n·m ... rd ~uh""'fu.'ntl .... "lhe~11oe ,he ",,,,.h.ork ,,,II beC()nlr dam"RI'd hI
h"ln h".1' bn-n bored f., re.e.lt" fhem_ On"0lt II f....:,III.II"J IllhC' l"'U'lI' .n' J,PJX...J 10 Ihc rcmo,,,1 and ''',"~.'rI,on "f Ih.· ...·I~"~ \ .......·I"'n "uh ~ "up '" pt")!Iu"," ,. sho"n a[
grt""~" II, ~nd o:\~mpl~-. of 11. u<c ..." ~ho"n ~I, ~od 11_ 1-'11/: ~I'I. 10 "uonc.;uon "'Ih ,h", lOner be.d,.
 TOOLS
A hole .I,ghtly smaller t!l.o the: d i~r of the lop of the cup, i, fOfTl'led by • ccntre b,t
(Ke 46, F'I. 67) In the requtrled pos,tIOn , ,Imlt alue " pillcni round tM holt and the- cup
18 dnvcn in.
R...d-4Ntkd ,so_. (10« L).-Thne arc ...mlar tQ thoK dncnbed .~, Cllccpt thaI
h hud " .Imoat hcnllipMric.l They 11ft eenerally IIIIItiI fo:w Ulna: metal to wood, ~.,
loo::t. and •• mllar blI.rdlu.c • ,l, /1'."._11,. u..ed for Mnlunl: larJIC areu Ot" ~m:les; COT\IUIl. of 1"0 meta l head. each
CrMCftl/-..1 DJ Fa$tltlWfl'.- -\\'alU\ nails and hnld, arc dnyen Imo IOf,,,,,ood diCI. heads
"II: dnven ,bout 3 m m be low the lurface by u.a,".I h .. mme. on , Itcel pu....,h (II« 10,
F it. 67) and the: ho la ne filkd or .. $IOP~ ...... ,Ih putty beron: the .... ork II pamted
For hudwo<xb wh ic h arc: not to be pamted, the he.llb lire: pu nched .. nd the: boles arc:
uopped .... ,th mat"nal ... rllch II colou red to conform "'Ih Ihlll o f the ... 000:1; this Ho p pmg,
which i. me h td and Mpplled "'ilb • knife: 1$ a mast ic, K II hard and IS t hen IIffiOOtDW ove r
to the: .... rf..::c • the .. ood to rende r the posillo n. of , he: fix,",,: inCOnsPICUOUS. A nc)thu
method of con«ahna b.-do. II .hown al J, F II. 66; a .harp chUlei II u.Kd 10 carefully cu.
and IIfl 1 amall portion of the wood. Ihe brad II p unched bclov. Ihe l u rfact and Iht chip
_turd do"n.
Ptllrt"'1f IS ra.orttd 10 for f.ono:::ealmg tM heads of IICre".; Ih ls conSilII of "nkma In ..
hcad belo" Ih., .u,face by n"",,,nl ofM cenlre b,l Illd I qlmdna.J pluif or pellet of wood of
.. m.1ar Il"un 10 thai of lhe member II gJuc-d, drl\en In ",nd c h i...,11ed off Rllsh
C~h Sen"... (II« "I)• . These are of sim.la r consl ructlOn 10 Ihl' wood acr",\\. CXC"'P'
that die h~. ane squati:' or helllJlonal so that Ihey cwn be lurn",d hy W .p~nn.,r; th"y wr"
from 3010 300mm long lind from 5 10 IJ mm In 1I1~n"'lct, II"d "'t: ..ft,·" U....... fUI f.unnc..l-
Ina nwt.1 platn. ItraPl' ~nd a,.,.1n 10 "ood
COrnl,ated Saw Ed,e Fas te n ers (..., ", Q Ind M). - Thcs.e are CflrnlA" .. lc-d p.rtf.-S of
IItHI or bra... " h,.,h .n~ ,h~pt'd lind sh~tJXned wloo/l: one ed~ 10 If"'" W h ..1 He ulkd " 100ck
points "; nch succeed,"R poInl IIlhltJXf'C'd on OPJ)M.t", lides hke a sa'" (I« II); Ihe)"
art made In <kPltu \al"},n& from 6 10 lS nun. Thty lITe bem.lt el[lensllely 1I...,d for m~kmlt
hpt framlngs. bons s.,d Ilmllar t~porary "ork, r"'pMlrln~ "r.."ked ho~f<J.t. ct... Two
appllcatiOM Ire .how n " .Ii lind T, the fonntr 'ho\\lnll' a butt jOint lind Ih~ tiller a mllred
JOlnl Thek fastene ... I,e n!llJ)' fi,xw by 'Imply dTlnoll' Ih~ In ,,"h ~ h~mmer. durioj:!
which Ihe \load members arl' druwn toRcthl'T.
WtOlllChl iron bolt. and Tlv(:ts ute dO:SCTlbtd no p 16,
WOODWORK I NG TOOLS
Whilst machinery has very largely ditoplaccd hand lahour particularly in
shops ",here standarJiled units like doors and windows are made, the Joiner is
asked to perform many ta~ks necessitating the UIC: of haod tools. The follo\ling
are in ~encral use and arc c5sc:ntial parts of a kit ~
C lll55i fie:at ion.-II.",d loolR m,,}' bt da ... hed 1010 IhOk required fur Cd mllrklnlf
lind Kllln.lt OUI. (2) .. ultlOlf lIod ~hll'IOR, (J) bonna-, (4) Impellln.lt. (5) abudlnl/. (6) cramp_
Inll .lOd hnldlOR. lind (7) mIKl:ll .. rK"O\I'" ~I,,~( or Ihef" lIrtc "hO\ln In hR 67
(1) M arlUn, and Sell ing OUI Tools.· -The..: ",dud.· ruks. m;lrklnJ( knlf"" 5tr~'Rhl
edj:!e, try .... uar~. mitre, i>e\-el. c;ump;osses. call,pe~ wnd If~U"'"'
kwiC", (scc I) \I •• d" ~.r box"ood ~O tm r"ur-fold. I m four.fold. nc
1t1ur/""", Artl antlClltlln" J\n,jr {Ke ,). ,-·l·..c:d ror kltlnl( out lIu;urue I'ork (IC'~ p. 1021,
Ihc ~"I (or polOll belnll usc. d fur pncklOR po'nl~ fwm thl' rod and Ihe Ih,'rp edge belOj:!
U~CllI0 CUI tM., shoulda, 1'1", II""",.
St,m"n/ F:d)!, IS ~ 75 to 100 mill \I ,dt howrd 13 mill th."k. 2 or 3' 5 m lung" IIh one edRe
pcrf«ily "IUd,e ;lnu th~ (liher bevc:lJed 10 dISUOIIUIf;h II frOlm Ihl' true cdjl'e; u~d ror
tt'tltlnl!: lurf..ces, mllrk.nllllnc:l, elc
1"", -"'I"'''' (~ 2" For ..·tI.nl( OUI "Rhl unRIci. lind I«Unll .... u .. 'e .'Ol/In dunnR Ihe
pl~nlll).! up .. f "uff; obl~lO .. hk \\lIh 115. 150, 1'10. 225 "nd 300 lonll' mCI .. 1 blold" •.
_l, IMj/<'r '<.Iu."e i. III .. ) R-quln'd: cnnf;llh of .. mah'll::"ny hl .. de .. h,d, i. uSWllh
51l nlm b~' 6 mm by 760mm 100111 tenoned to 1I400 mm IO",II.tock.
-\ .\1urt SiI'drC"D' FI'la lJC"f,,1 h;osil sleel hl"de "xed "I 4~ 10 ~ '10K'" ~Iock; Ih.~ II a
uKful 'pol for fCllmfl OUI 45 'nll'lo:I.
Bft..,{ (He 3).-The bilide \;lin be fCCIIri'd '" wny a nfl le ; uso:d for Km....: out WIIII:In olher
Ihan neM ..... gln; the b lada are. us, 367 aod )00 mOl 10"':.
C_JjlUIU (Me S). ,UKd fOl mark"'R p&r~lle l Imes 10 'rrquur AUf..:a .u~h u
senbo.ng Rlmnp 10 ftoon (HI' p. 1:Z'l) Ind mouldmp 10 \lall,. and fot ducrlb nll CIl"t1ts
and Ktlma off dluancel; 'lOCked 10 ISO, 175, lOO, :uS and 350 mm "&H.
havlog a 75 to uS ITLIn poml. ,,·hlcn Ihde ,,1001111 hanl\lood I lid:; the POIOU CIIn be fixed ..
dt'tllred lod one of them rna)' be repl..:-ed by .. peOCl I sockel.
ClllllpoJ are used fOt" mcuutmg dlJmeterl of cun'cd .uriaees; OHt$ldt ClI l h~ ...., used
fo r external dlmenslOfIS, conSist of '" p;olr of hinged . Ied c un'i'd legt which a re s haped 10
a fine polnl; ,,,ridt ~1It1lptn. for inSide mt'tl. uremCnlS, hllve IWO hmRed dod Idpe red legs
"hich fi nis h "'Ih pomll wh ich t urn oUI", rd •.
Ca u,es \lTC 10015 used 10 mark one of more 1H'It'S on Ihe wood pdTIIlIellO the HIKe; Ihe
\-",nella ,nduik Ihe m.rlllnif pUJIC. cutnn, pURe, moniSt' !lIluJte .nd panel g;.~.
,\1(lrlmq( GIIJIXI!: (~ 4).-1'he ho led adjustable beech head rO:CCIHS Ihe Slffll, ntllr
00'" end of" h.ch "a lleel nurlung loolh; after Ihl' Slffll h"s betrl SCI .nd Ihe Ihumbscrt'\\
II lChtt'llw. the face of Ihe head (Ihat nrarrll lhe loolh) 's pl"ced "1I""IOlllhl' timbe r dnd Ihe
poinl .. pr"5SCd dO\l 0 10 ICQ"", I Ime on the .urf~ce ils Ihe htad Ir-~'-erset Ihe edge .
,,,ltinl( C""Jlt Simi lar to the m~rklOJi "",u~ except thai 11 has '" steel CUIIU m pl .... e
of Ih" loolh; uSC"d for ~U lllng p" .... Ud tlTlpS from Ihm 51uff such ;11 \'enullI ~od for
m;,lrkmll' ............ Ih.· f!nI.n
.\tartlY Gm/flC" f_ ",).-Thll hal a mo\ublt pin attached 10 Orlt' "nd (If .. nrllU s l'de
and 1 pm fiud to Ihe "em . ......, d'5t11ncc bt'1\I ttn Ihem may be adjusled from 6 to So mm
The 1I00uge Ihu. ",nable. 1\\0 panlUcillOt'I to be mark .. d and IS emplo)ed for settlOR 01.11
mortl .... and len<>l1I; Ihe POlOtS of lhe fl'lIU/lt' arl' KI to thl' "'Idth of Ih., morlifC and Ihe
he:od IS IMn adJusled 10 Ihe: r""lUlred dlstanc .. (rom Ihe mo\"ablt' pm
P"n~1 Gt"'~t.- Th ill' I.rger th~n bUI r",,",bl.,. Ihe mark"'l( RaUl/e; "is ust.lall), m4de
by Ihe JOIn"" th .. ltem belOR ~boU171 omm 10nR Th.. p.n is fiud aod I~e ht'ld is adjusted
hke Ih., markinJ.: R~ U ICI'; II il used in Iht' conllruction of door pan .. "
(2) Cultin, a nd Pl a nin, TooIs.-Thesl' compnse 5<1\11, e:hisel., I!:ou ges, plone$ Dnd
.pok"'h~vcs.
s.wa.-1'he man)' \'ariel,'" IOclude Ih", crosa-cut sa", np saw, lenOn .. W, do\-t'tIIllllIl',
t'omPUIi saw, pad 18\1 Ind tJ,o.. .. ". A a;I\I ba~;I ~prinj:! 511,,1'1 blade \I,lh a wood (usually
beech Or ~ppl .. "ood) h~ndlf K<:urdy n'eled 10 II; tbe 10\l"r edge or froni oi th .. blade
IS dlnded IOtO fin" letlh; Ihls (Umnj:! .. dRI' II usually specified a(cordlOR 10 Ihe number of
P"'"/' (nol rHlh) prr zS mm; Ihu5;ol A. C aod o. Flit 67. Ih .. numbtr of POlOts per ~s mm II
•• x, four aod leo rClipectIVely. The teeth are bent .. lternately 10 ,h.. nRhl and I"fl of Ihe
blade; Ihl,,, called ,tiling lace II); In adllillun, the blade, of Ihe la'lCe r ...... s Ire grouod
Ihlone r ~I Ih~ b"ck (opposit~ ed.lte to Ihe I .. elh) Ihlln ~ I Ihe CU lling cdNe. T he 5elllni/ I.
done by meanS of thl'..,ft Itt (see 20). \ a;I'l should be Ibm 10 ,nold wast" of m~ l erull
Croff·fut Stm- {Ke Ill. ·Th" iJ "'JM:nllally UMed for CUttlO.It acron Ihe fibre. of Ihe
\lood, bUI alllO "'lIh Ihe "tim, and 10 (";IT1'Cnlr~- for .lteol'ral sa"'lnll'; II il mad", ... lenl(lh.
uf 500 10 710 mm; the number of poln" II 5, 51. 6, , ~nd 8 per z ~ mm; Ih .. ~'il:hl poml
N " is comid"red be., (or hardwood,. a K'tn-POIOI saw for bolh h .. ru\l ood linG 5Ofl"ood.
and I fi,t'·polOl U\I for ro"'ll'h caTpl'ntl")'; Ihe leelh are shaped a~ 10 Ihe enta'Red sk.. leh
~t A
Il,,, &m.-Th •• is only used if machmel"}' II unn .. ,labl .. for (UIlIOII' limber alonR Ihe
Il'r~lO; 11 resemble. Ihe ((OS,·"ut sa", " 710 mm 10nK, ;lOd has leeth Ihapt'd as shown al C
,,,ti, (UUI pu".I. pe l a~ mm
PIOII,I Sat< i.lke ihecTOIlS-cur \11th" finl'r bl~de ,md Iccl h shaped 11.1 at A: 1680 mm
bl;ode \\llh I~n or l"eh'l' POIOIS per 2~ mm II oormal; II is u...,d for IIccunlf work-aod
m.lt'lId of the I.. non .... \1 for CUIlIOJI pan"'. and slmll,., "Id.. \lork
T,n,," Sm, (5«' 131. I-or finn \lork Ih.. n both the ~f(_-CUI and panel5a\lI, u..ed
for CUllinII' '~nons ~nll \lhc~. clun CUI II rI~ded; the J~O mm blade .. preferr"d "hich
•• ~t.ffcned by the bra.. or ,ron bar on Ihe top edjlC II has len or 1"'t'II'1' polOll per Z5 mm
3nd Ihe leelh (called ~ le(lh) U~ shaped as .ho"n ~I o.
[)Q,,'r/ail Sm~ (~t' 15) ·Tt". hili a zoo. US or JOO mm Mad .. \lllh fourier" polOlS per
15 Olm; u-SI'd (or ~'ery fine work, III for formiog dOHlal1 j0101I
126
CON{lflJI or T",",'l/l.'j(", {6«' ,6 .. "0 17).-For c;ullmg ",un'\'3, it h .. irottn:.hangnbk
bl.od",,; th., Ittlh a,...h~ped U II! c.
Pad." K~·lrol.. S-m (I«' lin -For '''nn,"g k,,~'holu lind "mll;!r cur\'rd work; it i.
1M In.... llnl aot", Inc blade un be, p_-d n~"llh",ull'h Ih .. hllndlt "Mn nm In use; tht
tccln UTII' ,.mllar 10 thOS(: 01 th.. comPIIP taw
HOle $mc (so..'C H). ·t:tcd for CUlllnlf curn-d \lork "lIh "'\Inops "hl..:h lire too quick
It> "" ntROUutcd by tht l"tlmp"." 6;1"
Fmmr Strr~.-II .imlh., bu. 10000I-'1:r lind ,uon!!", than Ihe bow sal'
Chit.Cls ha\'c fOTlCcd ",,0:1 blarlo:!l wllh ;Ish, boxwood or he~.... h handln; .,..~h bl"d" i,
b.;\'elled on th" hack lind h ... I cuumt!: C'dl{t; L'ard to T.-.nO,,' thm layeR '>1 shann~ of
"ood In ahapmll surf"",". formmg morh"..,., et~. ,'''nout kmd1l mdude Ihe pannl/.
firmer lind mon.".: <h.scol, lind JCOURe6.
P"",11! Clmtf (M'e lS). -l '5C'd for p~rlnj.( pl~nc ~urf,,~c.; Ihc blade may ~ either "'lUafC
( I ' bel,tlled, the Litter IYpe bemu uklu1", lormonlo: Kftxll-"'i obt"onllblt on lel1uths '-aryonJ.:
(rom U5 to 530 mm .lnd In l\ldlhM 01 Imm 6 10 SO mm.
I""",t, Chutf (H .. 16) '\ ~tr"nJ{"r t}"!k than th .. lut on .. l1li II hR' to \\Ithlt;lnd Ihe
m,llIet uK<! fur propub.un: u"dul for pe~nl "o.k and in .cmOI'lI1I1" "ood m Ihm ch'I".
Iho: lenJ.:th ,-aflr!! from 100 mm upward. and the,,".dlh from ~ to So mm
H,I"'''' (",hur/.-- "or tormlnl:' n1(lrt)('eII, It .s ~tronll"r thom th .. firmer ChUM:I, the Nil
.. t 17 .. knOll n ;oa .. J<K11t1 ",,,~,iJr rliiuf; Ihe ordin3rv monlS<: eh.!lt:ls He 3 10 10 mm ",d~
~nd the ma",murn "ldlh of the"", kel type II 38 mm
PI"~::IH/t (111$11 (ICC 31!1J - -~bde entl't'l~· of fOrlled Ml·d :lnd uso:d for prep'lrml:' hole"
In brKk\lork. CIL. I'M wood pluj.t5.
PtKl«l Clu,,1 -\ '·.. rv tine chlscl .•h"rJ><:n .. d both "d...os. 11 15 uMd for formmlf pock"I'
in I:>.-l"cd wIOd"" Iran'eII (k.., p. ".); oblo"n~ble on ",d,h. hom 3b 10 6. mm.
Gou,e, ~re cun'cd lhlad~ pnxluun,v: ur~ul~T cu,.. I'~r'nj:!. fim,,,r ........ kel. etc.,
J,t:0u"..... ITt' oblam.lb1e; lh.1I shOlln ;11 }" .. ,In <lul",d" ur<>und IIDUl:'e for h('"~n' work;
Ihf>k' .ll:T<lund on th,' ,"",d~ I...· u«ed fur p.lTlnJ,t:: "idlh. I;Ir)' from J I<> JH mm.
Plane. Jfl' "" ~;oIl"d a. (hey "r,· ehu:lly u~ed for ~h'''I0~ nr sllloothonR pl.m .. $urb~e~
~ltcr I..h" umber h.,~ lx....·n ,."'n~ IhcI ,rc of rtl) "nod (bt:l-..h) lind (hl mr{,11 (ea,t ""d,
JnlnmcIa] ~nd mall,,~h1e Iron).
(a) Wood Planet.- -Of Ih" many ')J'<". Ihc ja<'k. t~onll ,mJ .mOOlh'n)l pl~nn (Mno"n
:oJ /nn.-h "1",,,.) _Ir" "".... ntl;oI IIcnl~ of kll; .. ,me of Ih,- olh"rJ .If" sc·ld,,", u...,d
;u.-l.. I'I",,~ (~ ...,. <II L -Th .. IS the tir~{ pl"ne used "" ~ pl~' 01 \\",><1 "f,~r II has I"fl Ih"
U\\ i II elomm,""os Ihe "". ,m,rks ,md I,';,.·,·, Ih,' surb"" ~uftki"ntl~' smoolh for Ihe ,ub·
.rc.ju"nl tinl~hlO,,: ... Ilh th .. IrylO!! ,md 8mCIIllh,n)l p"'n..",,; "nm~ist1 of II _Iood. douhl" ,rnni,
"cdJotl' and handl ...
The 'I~nd~rd bt...",h,\()(><! "«lrlLh,,uld he '·,ITl·tully ...·ll'Cu,d; th", h.mdlc
;I slu, "nd" hole is fomll:d 10 ...,,,ell-e ,hI' ,wns .. nd ""d/:\,,: a 20 Illm hardllooJ stud"
I.Jl:lul-d 1010
JOINERY
Ihe surface of the "'ood by 1M j"ck plane: .nd for fotmlllR Ion. ItrliRhl cdsa. It 11 tl,~
largat ben~h pllne (Ih~ 11_ belOR s60, 600 and 660 mm).nd retembln thej.ck plln,,:
the ~I of 1T(.on' .. uswolly 1·6 mm for IOft"oo(1I Ind 0·8 mm fof h..d"ood •.
S",ool~,..,.plm,e (5« l:9).-Thll .1 IDr nn •• h,ng plane used to Jmooth Ihe "ood IIfler
Ih~ 1"ck Ind If) .n.il plan« hal,· betn operlted; Ihe lIock .1 onl) 100 mm long Ind It pro-
vided .. ,Ih dnuble iron, leI u for 'he Ir)inll pIli" ....
Rr6nu Pilmr (~ J8),-l'~d for formong rebatn and hal 0"1,.. I sin)":l,., eumn)": iron
from 6 to ~o mm Wide find hI' • wedll'" lind placed on the ,ke\\
Holitnt' 1,Itd R.",M P/flntl (we: )0).- Thr fonner .. used for makin.il eonl'ex lurflen on
Ih,., hmbrr (Ke cni3'11cd &t<;uon Ihrough Ihe ,olt lit 11:). Ihe edkr of the .ingl,., Iron cOflfonns
10 th,., CUrl·C. ronuI'e Burfae~ a~ mad.· by tht round pllne (Ke enllrged t«.lion l).
Buui Pln"t (~ )}).- Thla mouldlOJI plan~ " 'hll r<'<{u,~, and 1"0 or Ihtff d,ffc,."nt
.izes should form parI of II kit; "'S used for fonnlOg a half·round mouldin!t \lllh II qlu,k
(I",k'nJ(1 on edR'" of members; the SlrlP leI 1010 thc IIOle of Ihe nock 15 of boxwood to
tHiSI "c~r. II .k,.,tch shoWlIlff Ihe IIpplication illflvcn II"
SOIr. ~louldinff plan.,., .uch u 011:«, 10rO$, r~. IISlnlgal, 01"010. etc., hnt
pn,cueillt., fallen intn d,_uw, III rnouldlll.lC' are m ..de mort' cheaply by machinery.
PI"'jl!h PI""" {ate } I) ,I u....d fnr fOrmll\,lll/rOOI'C:S ... lIh Ih,., II"rlln from } 10 16 mm wIde.
and up 10 j1 mm dcep; Iht .11111"1 .... Iron. se<:ur"d h~' a "edge, panet down 101 nanO\\ mouth
III Ih" mt'lll] run""" ""relied 10 Ihe "ock: thr deplh of the grool'e '"~ rt'gulaled by Ihe mtlal
thumb- ... ,e" I\hlch dcpr".,u nr mls'os II mn,,1 IOleplecc (nbout 20 mm \lide) \\hich
OJ><:r.llu b~-"'cen Ihc runner and "ond fen,e; Ihe .. ood nUll and acrew bars >Ire 1ll1l11ipu-
(aII'd 10 .ldJuu Ihe I\ldlh ~I\\«n Ih", fen"c ~l'Id Ihe runner I t required; th .. ploUllh IS
pro",ded "'Ih ,Il( Or e'lt'hl Irons of different I' ,dlh,.
Rmlftr 0, Old 1I"0...,./n·, Toull, (ke jl).-LHd for mereasln" the deplh of /Crool'n
(,.,,,rJ..'W) furm"d prCl'I"u$lI' b~ an<>lner tool; Ihe $lronll:' Iron .. from 3 10 13 mm wide.
S".,ltr.hm·r (5CC H) - l'~ed for pL.minff ctrcul.. r work hal'inll' quick eUTle~: thr "on
(ICC 0) has ll1n t"perl-d tunp p,,<.ro.ll Ihrouuh the siock; II II :tdju"eJ by lapPinit' ellher
,h ... proJ,-..tlnu ends of Ihe WIIIII 0. thl' bl.,dr (,e.: leCllon "I :'>OJ
(Omp"III'I"",.-'i'h,8 I. II ImOOlh",£ pl>lf>e ,,"h II conle~ ""Ie: and So mm ",de double
irons for pl~nlllll' l'urn_-d lurlole.,.: II I I nOI much used
Too,IIi"l! PIIII.r.-l-Kd fur prep~rinR ~urfK~ of limber "h,eh ~r'" 10 be !tlued lo!C"ther:
In 50 Iltm ",41,· ~"'I:1c 11"011 h;l. II 1It'.r.IIM ed,::t·.
1"0"1(""':: ",oJ (;,,,,,,,,"1: P""'~I (ub.o knn\\n liS If/(IuhilfllpolaMI)_ ---l'",d to form tonllues
;rnd ~rO<t,"'" on Ih,· edJ.:e~ of bo.trd. re<ju,rt."d for m"'<h-b"ardlrtlt'. b~ltcn"d "oon, ele.
AhhoUllh m05t of ~ueh "nrk I~ done by m,'.:hlll<:r~·. thcse pl,II\"~.lre occasIonally reqUired,
~"peei~II)' \I hen pr"p'Lrln~ \I ork dunnJ.! n"mll
(b) Melal Planes.- \Iost of Ih,- 1,,>0<1 pl~ne. d,.,;cn~d ;,bme are ~I&O obl,un,oble in
m"'~1. such ", e.IM 11.'<.·1. anrnmel"l. m"I1""ble i.on or ;llumlrtlum
tmprOI,m"nl upon th" \\ood pl.lnn. hUI ,h,., ,,0tJd j~ck pbn,· e5pl'C1,,11) IS ~ull eomlurrcd
Snme of Ihem Irc ~n

filll·d "to IUP n""r 10 thr ,,(I" nl Ih" pl.mr 10 n""·II-" th,' bl"". f«fl1 the h, mnwr "hen I"~
,ron~ >lr.· bcolOll: adjuslt'd
Th" Irnns conll~1 01 ;I (IIlIi",! i,,,n (t·) 'lIId n />.1(1. lOr '''/I "OJ" (I)" hleh ;!f,' m"d" of nul'!'
hie •· .. ~t ~Ied; Ihel "Ir m.Ld,· in 1':lTi"U~\\HJth., I",· flo mm II~,' b"IIlII populi.r, Th" buttom
rd.ll" of ,he ,·UllmJ.r ,mn I~ r.mnded .1~ ,I " rcquln-d In remon' ~h"nnJ,f' "hit h hh"uld o~
thld'e~t III Ih,' nnlr,' "nd fin"r ," the rdl!e; Ih,s ,-d).:e I~ d"uble_hel·dl .. d (...e rnl~rl:"d
• .-eu".. thmu/.:h Ih .. rdl!e ~tl;). ,h~ fl,o,d,,. 6n.-~1 b.:1O).: .IUfhlll 1",]]0'" IIround .,n.! ~ppr"!I.
Im~h'I)' 2< , Ih" 1h"T,.,."i~ 1I",,1~ " .Ibout .11'; Ih" Ih"kn".. of the .roo rn<'TUxt Irum
l: mrn WI th .... I"P tn nhnul. mm 111 the 1"1" "C 'he .l!nn,""" held; Ih.· i."n i •• Ioncd In
wll"" m""'mr'll of Ihe II..,."" ... h,,,h on' ... h .... II 1.1 ,he h.,ek Iron. Th" borlt ,rtln (F) I~ of
unlf"rm thlckn~ •• of ~hout .1 d""n 10 OIlx;ut l j mm frum Ihe bollom. "h,'11 it IS ~llllhll)
"un",! .Iud r"dU(;"d t" 10 '111<- l-dgo:: "bnt~s "1.11 itL ,In~(-hl·tl tl' ,I" It<>n.or 41 'i,ea ,h ...
••:R''' v. h"'h ~..,nne<" hf,lh plat,,~ t~rtl""f /,t'C' J): the d'~I"n ..'e Ih~1 the fdll" ,t ft. .. CUlllnJl
In'" proj",," bo"yond Ih~1 "f ,h .... blK"k ,ron ,~ "alkd th .... , U,. Mnd this drp ..·r.d., up..... Ih.
cnar", eer Cor tb.· v.ood to b.: i''''IIN ..u,d ,I" :1",;'n"111 nl tlll' d".ired ",h.~""Il: the:.,
"l'l'rm"m.oottl·. ) mm f<lr ....ll" .~~ lind, ofI "'m for h.lrdw"".d~. Ihr ot.j-o:,_. {II,. 0 .-k IrOn
.111<1 br... k thc hh~"nl: .. nd "~nd It .. " I'roc:<".-d, Ihr{lUr.h [h~ moulh
'Th .... 1T0r.' Nrr ~e<:ut .. d III Ih(" Sfod. L) knuLltrnR du\\n ~ \loud r,rdJ:r (5"C 11 lind II).
T'jllfll Plant (1It'C' 16). -Lud for p .... II .. ork ••uch at ro:mo\"IIlJt lnrlt'ul~T1l1r9 left (In
III be thc hrn lor liS purl'''''' ·m.· mel.II pJ.,nca ~re mOre fr~,v:i]e Ih~n th.."c of wood
l(rlul S"'w/ll P/<lrlt (lICe 4~1.-L-~d for ~m(N)lblOR' the surf~ct'l of h3rd\\ ood. of bc1;t
<.ju"IoI'· "h.ch h",,' been prt'l'Inu.ty dtrs~e:d III,h Ihe juck ~nd Ir)'lnll planes_ Th .. C"'P
5l·cU ..'~ Ih.' 1\\41 Imn~ (Ihe rlll/tT) hI''' Icre" "h,,,h p~S!lcs.lhmu.ll:h 10 Ihe fro~ Ihallupports
lh"lll: Ihe ,"'P'R ad!usteJ bl-ic'-rr"" ": 1("1-"'" y " adj,... I. th .. CUller tideway., Ihe fml{"
Ie ·dju~kd t·"hn f,tTl'"rd or h'!l·kl".rd hI .on wdJU'"n.ll5<:tt''', ;rod Ihe InllC ~H"II Or milled
nu, '''''0,,,41 Iht" Imll "dju<l$ lh. ,·ul.'~· '" Ihe t'ult~r In re):lulal" Ih~ .h~\'Inlllhl<:k"",.. This
,.\,,1 i. "hu,.,,,ble on ML~' '-"~'''''I: Ir<>trr ,.0 1<1 2~O mOl m I"nl:lh uf 10k "'Ih ,'uU"n f,,,,"
.11 I<l flo 111m Iltde.
Hffl("J. Pf""~ (>t'e +4).- ThiJ '. ".~ usd'ul lur ~mall IIork which i. not readily de'H~lble
,,41 for prq"I"rul).: m,\rel "fh"rd"".>d m"uldlnc<; II" IIdl "wled fnr planing a.:ro» II-.t
lin in; 'I J-..I~ "nly;o ·';"Ill.· ~o '"m ",d,' ,f'," ·,t ("'.III,·r ",dmrd "I 11 to 20 ; Ihe he,d ,.f
t], .·'tIl,·r II upl','n""" T" .,,,.. mol,- !h.· roh,·,·. I]", Iron ('<'I hle-h IlOIlI:I ",.,nlral ~I",IIC plICed
~'n lhe ml.Illl'ro~UlOt: I.. ,-e, co'l' 1I0:r"", ,hr c~p ("h"'h h~ •. _ knu"kle jotnlll~ fillc.-d Ol'n
'. 1>nd "h"n n,rree'::' pl.Krd, preuute n" Ihe (,'r $pn-:"•. ~ "",. p<>IlII"n; II-.e cJf,.;.- af lh
"uttrr if otnut:hl 1".It;lllrl \I Ilh ·h., ",nulh II>.o.t.·J, " m", ,,:11,'\ t...- I .t ... ml mO''t"menl .,r tho
1..le. and th" dll,an .. e bell"'"n Ih .. edt:t· ,'f ,he ,'utter and lh,' ('''"' "I the mHUlh " r~I!U_
);,t .. d ~~ requlr .. d by ,h,., milled In,"\ Or nut ~ho"n belo .. Iht· "'Icr.
Olher Iln"'lel of mtllil planu ,"dud,' Ih t",lh'Il" "'m,, (Ih" edge ,f the: iron Ii cl05e
 ...
"7

o o
>'.
TH .... "."· Of"
---! TOOTH

PI ..

II.

IJ

PINCEIlS

19

'~--t:"l
GOUGE

11.00,01 "

IlATCI1ET

,IT .
... IIA.ACE
."
50 )H£L .. 'IT
SCALES VAMlUl
 JOINERY
up 10 Iht ,It>~ of fhe plane and .5 then-fon- u""fullo, pl'1M'f11l' >urf'K;n al the tnd~ of .ehal,'"
h:tc.) dod the should" pf"lWi"hlCh '5 II foml ot rcbalt' pb"c uKd lor plamng ."halrsm
h~rd .... ood ~nd putlcularl} the end~ 01 mrmbru su"h as ,h ... ~houldcn or nuls,.
(J) Borin, Tool •. - ·Tha.c mdude the br.ICC and b.I5, aUII"'. RIm! .., and brada.-!.
/JTtlU and H.u (~ 45 10 ~o).- .\ hUll' hold. " cuner or bit uK<! for bonnll haln;
h;tnd prniurl- un the head of t~ bra~ ""'51' Ihe boron!!, all"'" of Ih¢ b,t "hil.1 the br.. <c
illnpp..d b~ the handl .. ).s .c,"ohf'd; Ihal ShO"";l1 i5 "of the r'lIrlltll}~"nd 'Ithe bt.-Sl.
,u, "he" d"SITl-d the lurnong rnou:m,'"1 of the handl" mJ~ be rutnclcd 10 a tmllll art; 10
~11(", bonng 1M confined pos,tIons; Ih" bn.<:" " .. h Ihe Iuc"dn,,:r b,t all.l<:hcd IS 11150
,-mployed 10 force In Sere"5 "hen pr~sure on [hI: ordin3ry iKrc"dn ...·r would be lnade-
'llIall:; the chuck c"malnl slcel sprinJi;' ja", into" hu:·h thc ~hank of Ihe bl! is Ins... nN and
~·c;ured: thl' ~1\l'l'P of Ih~ bTllcl'" of stet'l. Ihl' hrud ,lnd h.lndll' oITt' \If hJrd\\ood
Thl'Te drc many 'UTll'lietl ~nd s.zt'S of bill. Thl' nllirt 1m ( .. 0) (J [0 J1'I mm 0.1",.) 15
"mplmed tor bormg; Ihl: I:d!fe I' CUIS OUI Ihl: Circu,"fe ..·ncc and the turned hack edge
Q nmol!'!' Ihl: "as[r matrnal from thl: holl:. The rhrll /,,' ,1110.1 the spoon I", f"rKmble the
f,:ou~c, thl: ,t<J1r b" ~nd the sern .. b.1 (which has u snl'" Ihrl'lId) lire used for prOOuclnlo1
hoi ... hom J 10 IJ 111m did. AI/If'" or It,il! b,ts I'rOOu<.;1' hole, "h"'h ~r .. dl'uner and more
"nunlle Ihdn those fOTTYIl:d by the abo\"l:; thl:rc arl: In;ln), pallern •. r.l(.. Russrll Jennmll's
(41i), (;rdllr'. and In'm', (411); Iht"lC' II,.., 10 1\\0 len$llh,. the shonct heml( known PI dO'H'1
lUll, ~nd the dl~melcrs mueas" by [ ~ mm from b to 31) mm The F01l,n.. ,b"" unhk" [h ..
I" IllCd bill as Ihc "nd has. circular rim m~lead of a poml, lind Ih" IMrlter blls h"H unl~
pl.JUl and nOI IplTal.hanks; il is useful for bo.Tlnl( 10 Un)· d'rl"Chon Th" r,p""m", 1m I~
pro"ded IIIlh "dJuJlab1c cuttcrs of d,ff"rl'nt Slleti. Thl' rcnfl"drll'ff bit (45) II an mlpor-
la',1 tool and has alrl:ad)' bel:n rdl:Hl'd to. ('ou,,/urmlt bill are used 10 prt'pure shallo"
"nkm~~ (0 r""el'~ he~ds of coun(l:tSunk lere"l (1« ". F,it. 66), eIC.; Ih" 'fl'"
1m (H) IS lunable for both hard"ood. and m~ul'. th" ,,,,Ill Hlunt"tsmk bll ("m,lar to th.,
lOUntl'rllOk
TOM: bUI ha"n~ a .h~rpl'r POlnl ~Ild II groo,,:d "nd) " u_l'd for "ood only. ~nd Ih" /lilt
counl.. Tllnk bll (hu·ml<: a flat I'nd "h,ch ,. taptred to ~ polOl) I. on!. ,u,,~bk forbonnl<:
Ihroul1h mel~1 R,,"u, ar~ tlpcr"d bns "hlCh ar" uwd for I'lIh"r pr"p~nnll I.pered or
to"'cal-.... ~prd hoi" or for IOCrell5lnK Ihl' .':te of hok.
Au!(t, -ThIS has a II~I stem, ~bout 600 mm lunlt (~hhouRh Ihll m~y be uettded),
h,,, 10K a round e\c II one 1'00 10 rtee"l'. \\ood "rna h~ndle; Ih" OIMt "nd , .. shaped !.I.e
Ihr b,,, 01 Ih,. nalTX'; 'I ull':<l for d""p borinlll up 10 SO mm d'~meler
G,,"ltl Tht: small tool .. u5l"ful for bortnr.: hoI" 10 mark Ihl' f'OS",on "nd f~uhl"le
Ih~ mJl:rlOOn of lerl''',. 11>1' l"1,rioUi pallern. Indude rhe IfnJ' .,,,,/n (8), ,//#·/1 /:,,"'tl
(resembletl ~ !fOUge "ith. SCr"" ~OO) and th~ "UK" X,,"I,, "h,ch hoi' ~n ~u~"T<'d .h,'nk
R",dm,' (...~;u) The small st~1 bladl' II Ih~rpent'd for makmll o.nl.lll hoi.",
(4) Impellin. Tool. includc hamml'rI. m.nell, Ierl'"dnH'Tllnd naIl punchu
J/nm"'t"J.-That Iho"n aI, I 's callf'd Ih" 11''''''''1(1(>11 hm","t'.; the h".,d (u~u"lly of
til.' 11('('1 ","h I temptrf'd facl' .nd pcnl') is "I:dgl'd 10 th~ .haped ~~h Or h.cknq .h"fl;
of the man) ~'ze •. that ""th thr hrad "'I:ilth,"!, apprOXlmalcl)· 0·45 I.JI II II..,.t u ...·d for
1I...""rll purJ)05l:'.O The ciaR h",,,,,,u (I.) II made ,,'th hncl. "1-.r.:hlOll frt"'Kll at klllo
0·7 k.w:; Ihe cld'" I. us.rful for In·l:rJOIf back or ""hdu,,inll n"II •.
\tufftl (se~ ~ ,) l'Kd for drl\'mlt chlSorls and knO<.klOll (r~OIln" IOQ'l'lh~r; Ihc I~p.:-r~d
m"rtl'l' 10 the bn,ch h"..f r"~..,"·I'S the .hlthtly tapl:rl'd a.h or bu~h ~hafl
SHtl<d .. ,·u,.·· Th~rl: .. re 1\\0 (orOl •• i.t .• the fiKed-blllde I)"" .. nd Ihe muir .., dr"·cr
I+e); Ihf foml~r " ob[amable" IIh Ihl: lcnllih of bl~d~ '~rymlt from 75 10 JOO mm ,md "
the fiTTYIu 1001 lu cmplo}" for hl'aner fnmmg; (hI' rw,,:hel .ue"dri,·cr, by udJuSltnj(
,h" shde, can be lurned riNhl or Jrf[ WIthout rded!tnll the hand pressure; It ~an alilO rn,
{"n'·l:rt~d to Ihe "1I,d ty~
"/111 P""clr" (see 10) L"srd 10 punch na,1 huds bdo" Ihe .urface of Ihe "ood
(s) Abradin, Tools mdudl: KUPI:TI .nd rasps
Sro,,""t h ..-.: SJ) Thc "'0 lonk... r f'd/l:es Oflh,s [ 6 mm thick "~el plat" Irl' turned Onr
to foon a .h/l:ht burr on e~"h "de; It ,. uSt'd On h..d"ood .urfleft to remov\:, mar'"
left b) pbnmlt
Raft" T"o Itrades of th~ IIN'I h.lf-round ra~p Iho"'n II "J Irt' u.ed 10 prepilre
U.lT\f'd 'urf~"I:'; Ihe coal'll: and fine files Ire about :150 and 100 mm Ion. rt'tpttl,,·el),; fl~t
ril_p' I.e also obllmllbl...
(;I,IJ!.p"p.," .... 1 .. , "· ..,,,·d ,,, ..J·/'<'f>t""'If. I~ Ih,· tinal .. r....·6~ "pplred I<> "ood surfaces
Thu~. ,III,·, Iho' ~Url",C ha~ be"n pl.,n ..od hI Ihe J.... k, Il"\mll ,md ~mno-thlOl'( plan!:. and
scrap<.od, II IS 1...1a .....t (Joi' ..m·rall) ""h Ihe !.!r~m I b, Ihe
"hlth IS ".app.:-d ~ plI."'I.eof "'1.,...
,,,""a. TllI~ IS a pltte of cork round
·p .• P<'r 'I'hl~" ~ ~tronjol paper. mw ~Ide of "hrch 15 co;oled
,,"h "n .. br,,~"·t:; ,t ,I "bum~bk m 'a.".u, IIr.,d,·, .md UffU~lIv "ppl""tron oft"oor,hrN' of
Ihl"n IS ncn·s",,~· b.·fore Ih .. ~url"." I~ ,,,n,pl.·h·d 'Iahot;:an~ .. nJ cnl.. m otht't hard_
,,<>Ods should Ix: d .. mp.cd "'th., hllk hUI ".lIer and all""cd tu dr" "'·fon: Ihe finer grade of
JI~l>I-pap"r IS applied. [h" r",.". Ih,' j,[r.olll "hl~h h." bo:,·n d"pren,od bllhl: coaTSt'r paper
(;""dIf,mr-PI,IO" , ... ns. ~hIWI~, ""' h,,'~ tn tW/{Tflund I-ttfore bemR sharpl'n,.! on
Ihe ",lstune .\ h"rd Jlr" lion" {I• • arh"rundum "'I""nj,[ 0..1,,,: ., used for Ih,. pUflJOSC
Oilslrm" .. nd 11(>).' (~l~). !'here ... ,. ,,· ...·r,,] n"tur"l .",d .lftllltl~1 OIl-Mones and Ihese
'·ar), "onSlderahly In de!.!rl'e ul li",·"e"' , "e!l-kn""n '.''''·hO:~ MI' Ihe .\rl.anfhls. C:arbor-
undum. Indl .•. Wdsh,t". ,,,,0.1 Tur~o:' ... Itm 4u"I,I'· ",I ,hou\d Ix usee ",hen marpen'nlf
thc luol~
SI'/J SImI' ("l,(, l7) S,m.J,lr II> UlI.wne~ .",d uwd Iur ~hJrpo:"mf,: !.!UU!.!o:iI
(6) Cramping and Holding Appliances ",.IudI' T-~Tamps. G-~·umps. b ... nch hold.
(asls .. nd mllre hl,,,,,k.
T-umll/J Thl~ h .. s ixrn d" ..... h-nl "n p 'Ol .md ,. ~h""" "I I. hr;:. 53; It .. ull':<l
to cr"",p uplr.l1l"n.t8. ct~ .. durm~ tilt' I:lulIll: .I"d ",..t~ml( pn""e.s
G-a"",p ('L't.' "" I). -.-\ ''It'lal cramp lu, ,,111,,11 ""rk; ",o:S '·;,ry up to .100 mnl.
fullrll Ill/Idlml '" Clum/J (~6) h "f .1 .... ·1 .mol II" "bJ''''1 IJ to j,[T1P the ,tuff on the
jome",' "'·n~·h dUflnJ(lhl' proc<.;.. ~ "r "n.l.lnlo(; tI ... h,·n~·h wp II hoIrd to r""I"..., Ihe h~r
~nd .Iht: \\ ... k IS l(t1pped bl Iho: .hoe
JJand,CTt·,," ( ....1' ~J).-Th .. lon~'~I~ "I t"" hnrnb.,,,11I. oc't.'t.·h (Or m"I~1 lIt're"s '\1lh tlln
oc'e<!h la"~; II 'Ii 011<' uf thl' he~1 ,Ippl •. ml'·' 'nr O· •. II11I'IIlJlIII.,.tn nut{,
Mit .." Blorlt (5I.~ S.) " .• 0.1" nf" ,""II" 'nt'" n1lln.... <>n ~ITh'lr~""lIId p~n,,1 muuld",!.!".
"'''. Thl' I.,nl:ch 01 m" ... ldm.: '''' pl.",·d lin Ih,· hlf"k ,,,,h Ihe ml",ldLod f.."" oun, .• rds. tM
sa" ,5 pl,........ d III th,· lUI. ,,,,d thl' m"uld"'10( I' ..."", ,"[h Ihe ""fre "uti """"lng U a !.!tI,de
., ",I/Tt /HI, In Ihc 10m, "I a d",,,"d "I(h I"" ~Id" P'~'<:~" hall"l1 n'ru",,1 nlllT., ~'Ub
and .ecllr.,.,j 10 a ",~"j IwJ p',·H· I~ .. m" limn u...,d I ... lark.... mOllld,n~ The muuldmg
's pla~ed In 11'1" bo, .md .n",k .. !.!,d I" "'''''''.:1. d", I."..., ... " .. pl .....Td :terou Ihl' hooK
and o:nll~"'Cd m t ....· t"u ~h"rt ,ul' .. 'lId ,''', ""1"',, ...... n dooo.n Ih" ",ould,nJl
:\ ,,,,'u Itlftpfrl u>o<'t.l 'n trln"'",,!: Ih.· • ul 11111 ..". .. no.! s"_I1~ I'*, J<u,,',~ borad.·· u",d
10 plamng .rutr,,~ ~nd ,·JI:O·' "lIh Ih,' In 1011 pI..mo.. -~h' <Mh"r ("""s "r L'tju'pm.,n,.
(7) Miscellaneous Tool. and Equipment """I ... d~ the fnIlO\"n~
('old (,1" ...1.-'11", " ~ 11"'''11 .h·.:l 1".. 1..,I~"'I 'J mm ,,,de, "h,~h is -.:I foc the
~nnu,,01 "f sUfl'<.·rH .... ,ul "I ... , .... ,·t. pTlnt 1" Ihe h.onll! of ar"hUnt,l'!!, skrrllnJ!S, ~e.
P'rI£rrs t...... 1-4). l· ......t IU n'lll<"e n~'I-, et.
~ht.-·I'\J' '. u..,f ... 1 I". r<lul1h .... 1'JI'I.·nlr~ ", .... k
Plu,""-W ts~" p zK) 1"'"
\ .....d. bt..... ' .... plumh_buh. ~ual'ht'd 10 a knll!fh of IItlnlf.
is ~n"al for Ietlunl( ""rl. th .• 1 I~ ht'lIlll h~,..t
SpiTiI Ln.,1 (5<..., '7, hlo.'. "11 l ,,·d I"r 11'~ttnll! k..... ~·I, ..1 sudan."
Oil (''''t 'In., lion-leak·' ,·"n,· ,hJp<·d I\fl'<.· 's prdnr~..t
Portable Power Tools. -Th",,· ~II\ •• II IiM,I~ h~ ..." I"..,n dndnpcd romp.,r.,I"·rl,·
r«ently for usc: by Ih" ... o ..d"'or~o·r. 'I·h.,)' M., c1 ...·,r... n,· or e:!rlnd.:e npl'ra[<-d ,Ind
""n be used on outside JOt..; ht·.,d,·, In .. "rk~h,.p' 1''',I"hl" "1~",,ln" 1""ls ,or" l1l,,~h '1'1',,0.1-
,,,r Ih"n hand lools ~no.l u>n~<·"u'·nll~ Iho'" .In· "'['I.lhk ••1 ~uh,no\lally merO: .. <1111: outpU(;
whlisl 5OfO\'whm he ........ r th3n "rd"",T\· h'''lol 1",,1 •. p''''''r ",.. IH .ITe e~"I\ h,mdled ,,"h
mu~h I,," f~llllu~ tu Ih,' ""l"f~'O' Fath 1'1""'" t.H,I,. ]1r"... "..I.'d \\lIh ,I s",,~h. usually on
Ihe hJndll' and Ih"rd!)Tt, ,,"",enlo:nll) ,.pcr~I"" I'"rt"bk I",\\e. tool~ ~hldlv used (or
,~,"..dworkm!.! mdud., .''''' .•. Ind,·r ... $~n·wdr"·.·", h.m'",<'N. pl,u,,,s. d .. 1I5. "tl'. Sume
of them ~rr $hown on F'll. bll'
P,,~/,rhft Fltrl~'"c S""., Th,·.c ate pro~ld,·d ... "h '-"r"I,,~ ,."w hl.d,·. SImIlar 10 tho··~
drscnbed on Chap I. \",,1. III. Iho: ~'II' ... ar~ f"'n, 1 ~o IU JoolIIOl d,.,mo:tt·r ~nd Ih" eorrl:$-
pondonj,[ cuts Ih4' ,·.m Ix f"","·d ~ro: r. ......, ~o I" ,,0 n"n d,'cp r .., h ... " ,s pro\',df'd ,,,th
1,,0 handln. one.ol Ihe "'~r .• ",1 "nl' I)f1 Inp Th,' hl ....I<: .. prm,ded "lfh a !{\lard "h,ch
, TI1....., a[ , 10 .. ~"d II ~r~ m.nuf.... ,Uted b)· Wolf I.I«mc Tools Lid. Ihr el«lnool
Itln.'haOtIlll of tht'te 1$ ~,mll;or \0 Ih;ol dl:krrlxd. for drrlh
 TOO L S
co\er.. Ihe leelh, Ihe .... f~,ly of rh" operdlnr .. Ihu,. _u,.~..J. H,I'. U"'iII-Iur .md '1)"11.,1
hl~de. :I re m'cr"h~n~eablc, unJ h"nce ,h., 11101 ~'an h,' u ....·d I". ~nwmg '''Ih ~ml dU"~~ Iht
liT"'" as d";red It ,s d"",,ed th~ t II porl~bk de~lru; ~"" "~II ~UI 1"0 lImes Id'in Ih.m
P 0 WE ll.. T o o L s
Iht ordmal) .....005;1" SWIHI+
Dl ,1" "'DJU.STMHH
The rxampk III , " mounle<l"n 11 ....1" I,ldl<' \\h ... h r~-';Is 00 Iht· IIIn""r t...·,0j,! ,'UI 'rht'
blade 11,110 <>1<>1", d'dmele r, g'nn~ ~ m,,'lmIUlI \<·rll".,1 "UI III' flo mm; mh"r bldd~.. ;or"
anllillble, indud n~ .. plan.. r for 'mooJlhon.l( IInlher unJ J sihn>n r .•• bod., .,Ilrn,,¥.· d", (ur ,t.NGLL - DUST lAC;
UJllmg ~IOO", hlll'k, C,UI Inm. hr"nze .md M,b,.'1<I05; a" "Iuoll","'" <lud.- d,.... I,. •..J I"r
,",Ullmjf sl..el, A fronl and rC'lIr handk, wh,,'h mcorpll •.• ,,·, Ih,· In.:o{t.:r '" ,I< h. arr pro>vld,..1
ftlr ,h .. o~rah'-C' 10 nUHC' Ih,·,..,w I)"cr 1m, mdle" •• 1 h,·tIIl( I'U! Th.· sol .. pl;"e h", an ~n.:k
;odJunmcnI '0 1/:1"" 1x'\'C'1 cuts ,md another IldjUstlllenl III rq.:ul.'lr Ihe ,·ullin.: (kplh
Lndnload. Ih .. blad.. ~"oh'C'~ dl 3.00<> re,,,IUli,,,,. p.'r 'llInuu' w,lh an "'put of '.050
" ... ns, It c~n be fined ""h a jfuidC' 1I11 ....:h,,·d In Ih.· 1',1) ""re"'! ,'" Ih.· ,0;01., pl .. lc fur
nppmRlong lenlrth~ o( umber.
PlJrl<lbit Eluf,ir SIJ"duJ_- Thew ;Itl· u",d to produ"''';1 ~nlUolh finl~h tu 1'1."1<'<1 ~ur­
races Thl-~ u~ 1"0 d",," of Ihl~ .dnd... r. I"·,, the h.-lf """df" .. nd Ihe ,/,,,. q"d.-r The 2.
hdl undC' •. \\ha-h i. u'<."d for Itat ~url.. n" h~, an t'n ..I1,,~~ bell (10 "h,~h Ihe ~Jlldp.,pcr
IS ""achC'd) "hKh pa.... ~t O\'C'r {"O pulI.,y~ "I" hll:ll .p......-d; hdu from ~IIIO "_, Illlll
",dC' u., ~as,]} "lIer~hJn~abl",; Ih ..... mdet" pre,,~.·d do"n un Ih~ Ilmhcr dUmlli Ih.·
s.ondrnlt opC'rallon; Ihe better I}'P'- of '~I\dn 's I'H""J~..I ",.h ~ v"'uu'" ..IuM ",,11,'~'''' SOtE

.
or b"101 fi~C'd al Ihe rear 10 n ....:I\C' Ihe dU~1 dunnl! ~ .. ndmll Th~' d'~l' under •• u ....ful 'L"'U
for cur-'ed or Itl"l'Jlular ,urf~cC'lI; Ih .. ,."" of d"K ,-,olin t mm 125 III zzS mm d.~m"I'·r; Ihe
"hra3lH' pape'" li'fC'd 10 IhC' disc ~nd th., lattn roldl,'S;II" hl;.:h .pn-d as Ihe I,,"II~ pU'''ed
"Itaim, the ... ork Th", ",lIrC' po"erful und_p~per;n;.: mdl'hlOn are ,jc~, Tlbt.d III Chap, I.
Vol. III
ThC' eumplt ~I 2 h4" 100 mm ... idr brh lind Iher~ .s on .ldJu<lmem ~nnh 1O~"nlral,~,·
l ,c T
• c ,A 10DII\,OI

W b ,
S.... NDJHG ''''T _~

A N D ,
Ih" Tile s\\'lch "IOCIIled 10 tM rrar handlC', Ihere il .1", a lmnl h'lndte ,,,,d a tllhl hal!
Tht' belt has ••peed of 3ho m per rmnUle on Ill[ht lo"d, "'Ih an "'put ul 77~ 'ldl15 nn full
load
Elut,il'Sntudnvrs. This povoer l,lQI, pL5lol-h~C' in appe~un,",e. hu" 1T1RR"r ,,,,1'::1'1
10 IhC' handle \\111'1 In adJuu .. ble clulch al Ihe Op.,..,lIl' end "h,ch jfnp, Ihr blade. It IS
emlO.. ntly tUlied for mall produced "ork, ns It is c;lp"blc of drl\"lng IICTf'''' home at a
\"C'ry h'lolh s~ The ICrewinR operallon ., flcil,ult'd ~nd Iht spllltlOjf of Ihe 'IImber
,"vo,ded If p.I.,1 hoi" arC' fint m3dt' br mean. of an tlC'Clnc dnll (ICC below) 10 r«C'" .. Ih~ ELEeTlt..I(
~crt''''.
The example shown al 3 has a 'p",dl .. spe('d on full load of lf~ re,·olullon. per mlOule SClU.WD~tVtR.
"'Ih Mn IOPUI oi 280 ".nl. It hat a reH"lnlls"'lch for "'lhdr~"Iflg IICr .."s Mnd c~n be
used for dn\"IflIol ht'.J:aR"'l headed melal serC'I" and nUI$ up to .0 mm dla. It hal 1\\0 SWIT'"
~pe('d. 10 gi"e IhC' corr«1 dnvC' for Ihe dlfferrnl malC'"al" belOl{ drilled
Elutrll" Ro/.)oy P",'(IUSIO" DrIll (I« 4), ThIS" ust'd for both nonnal dnlhns: and
pt'rcuulve d .. 1111\I{. tilt: t'hangeovtr being made by ~n adjultlOR rmg '" rt. .. front of thC' El f er "" ,
mach.ne F.,..,"eill'hll nf ,...1l'"UI\·e dr;"e are pronded 10 fol,ve lilt' corrC'CI "tlghl 10 lUll P t kCUSSION
the parllcular lob WhC're limber fixmgs a~ mlde 10 conerC'le the machinC' enables
Ihe corn'C1 IClion 10 be gi"en for dri lling through the wood, and by adjusllng, IUII.l/hl

I+cAr'~'I T'' '',l,iI.r'''~

··
1010 Ihe concrele which require. percuuive IClion for effieienl drilhng Tht' dnll 15
doublC' ",sulated ro. operator prOI«uon-th,. means Ihll II doe. nOI ~Iy enllrC'ly on
earlhlOJt for II' "fety al the" hole of the body •• made of in.ulillng mattnll 1'1<.' uu . .n
POltable Elu'rI't PlontT'.-Theae Ire melll pllnea, one Iype hsnnlol a IOle whIch II
app rOXlmalely 500 mm by 175 mm Ind a cunmg Iron or cuner blade of 100 mm Wldlh.
It hlll"O handl". one near the heel and Ihe olhC'r or prelllure hllnd:e near and above the
~ A IngRer .w,lch " hOUKd .n 1M hftl handl." and Ihe blade IS rndlly adjulled for
,.
depth of cut b) meana of a thumb ser.,,, and fixed by a "''''R lock,,'g nUl Thi. eleclrlc 1/
. ... llEN f1XlO
planer pbo" un limes .. fall .. Ihe jack plane dncrrbed on p, 126.
Por/able 1:'lu/nc Dr.III_-Th~ Ire employed for lorming hoI" (If vary"'g diamelC'rI; TO 6f1.lC -' WO ltilt.
like the btKe and bll (p ,d) an 1:leCUK drdl h .. a chuck which lIahtly '''P'
the bll of .ize
and th.pe reqUl~. a secure gnp bema _U~ by rotat"'g the chuck by meanl of a ifni]] 6-4 MM.
key AI m .. nlLoned above. Ihe d,,11 .a UKd for borlOR small dlameler pilot holea for
Kre"', but much larger holes can be dTilled Ind, by fixmg. lpeclll.t\achmC'nl, Ihe "ze of C. .... fl.Tfl.IOGl A SSlHlD E l E( T~tC
hole un be up 10 loommdlatnt'ltr, ThC'lmaUertype i. one -handed bUllaraer doll. ha"e
'" T "
TOO L Dil..l l l

FlCuu:68
 JOINERV
'3°
o:oJ and ~iJ~ !or two SI<.I ... ) h.lndles and, on add,tlo", Ih" mo .... fJO"".ful tool ,~sullubh
d'sh-sh"J)("d on lOp to penni! of br"ast-prcuur...
Th .. ~umple 1It 8 15 " snMII VI:ocral dUly droll ~nd II In" forl'runn.." of thc IU<)I~ dcs-
cnbt-d abo,'c It j, rap.,bll' (If driliong 6,. mm d,~, holes In ~tcd ~nd .6 rnm dIu. hnk~ In
hard\\ood; on (ullloo.d thc bit rotutr5 III 1,400 rc .. oIulion~ per mlllUU: ",th.m Input (.f
lila ",,,ns \\'h .. o the <;urren! ,~ .,,,!,h,,d on 11 tlows throu~h tnt: coils, !Ie[{lnll" up a maj;l_
nrllr IidJ UIUStnK rOl~t"m uf Ih" urm~lurc "h,eh tr.lnsmll' '" l(... ~r~; Ih,,~c "po:.ule arlin
(n. ,-, .. ,J",!! ,ond Jlso a spIndle ""h the aUilehed chuck 'I'h" Jrllll~ ~n "II,nsuJdled modo:l
"ml. the.<:for." d, ..... s not rt'l) upon ... arthmg for ~"fd~-, ,h" "h"k bod. bt·tnJ.: of onsulnt"d
maler,,,! In ,"0".1 Qrll"rutor (Onl~LI ".Ih any "k~I"G.I p"rt. Th,s ~"lllpkIC """'Iope of
InSulal."n '·'''.I''s<:8 ~ sp<:e.al nylon chuck spindle "h,ch lS<ll~les Ihe melal ... huck fwm Ihe
electr..... l part~ Incorporaled in Ihe chuck are three J~"'S (or grspp,n!! th." hOI "h".;h can he
opened or dosed hy fining the key (see 7) Into a hole'»1 Ihe oUls,de of the Lhuck, S"rr~"ons
un the ke~' en!!a!!e In tho~e on Ih" chuck, enahling the bll til hc ~ecured or rc1 e,l$ed
Yarious att.l"hnll'nls "an he fitted to the drill lu drin" a d'$" s"nd"r, urLul.or , .. " nr lathe;
II can .. 1'0 he ti"ed to 3 drill siand or press "hl<'h IS f"stened 10 Ih." b"nth fur droll,nf,l
hol.,s H'rlR'alh Th" JarJil:er modds (up to 2S mil' dia.) Can also h,' .,d"pt.'d .Is mnrll~n~
for ,'uttin/.: mort'LCS.
" IId" . C"""J~r-"uH,~.J Twl hee II) Thl~" .I perLU""" loul' p""Lr"d by a slnall
. cartndl(" .·xplus,ve. It L~n bt< used tur att"Lhlnf,l door ,md "mdo" r..unes, baw:ns, pIpes,
bntLket~ ;,nd Londu.t Lhp~!U brld, Lonerete and slOnc. It d,mIllJh's Ih., dnlhng of hn1es
for these: fiXings and .t Lan .. Iso be u~"d to dn\C fa8temnl1S d'll!<t mIn '1,·c1. !;pecnll
h~rdened steel n~.ls known "5 .\fuk.\' ""n .ne u.s ed and these are l"rLed through thc ,t"l11
hemg fiud mlO Ihe back.ng maten,ds g,""n ~bon" Thr« mam IYiW'l of pm a.r~ mad",
'H{h rounded head "5 IIldleated ut h. "lIh thT~aded end for suh~'1uent fixm)of of a nut, .md
wllh II rcc,,~sed laPP<"d end mto "hich 1\ bolt can be scre\\ed. The tool eompnses an
ouler 81"",'e ~'untll'nm!/: a h~rrd "here'n ~ .:artndll:" plull)ofer and ~ front plunger art""
"ndosed, The UUI"T end of Ihe ".r1rod)ofe plunger h~~ a h"ad for reee'nn!! the hamn,..r
bh)" and tht< mtern .. 1 end IS re<.:essed tu huld" 6'4 Illlll u.a. eartndl/:e. The end "ftho:- front
plunl/:O:-T ;5 reeess.:d tn cont~m the head of Ih" pm th"l IS bem!/: fixed .\ blow fmm a
I ,8 kg <"Iub h"nllll"r ~ends {he G,nrod"e plunl1er fnrw,orJ. milkmg contact w!lh the front
plunltcr Th .. ,.,uses Ih., ..... ttodl/:e to he fired. drl\'ln)of th" fronl plungcr for"ard, thus
Ihrusl;ng Ih" pm mto Ih~ hdllell and mlO the b,,~k"'g 1ll.00n,al.
, \t.mur.Rtur~d hI to.IEA-Aku"nll:es ... lt""hafl, Seh,'dll, l,u~chten5Iein, and mark.·ted
b~' Wurdr,," Ltd on Ih" Lountry.
 CHAPTER. FIVE
ROOF
S),f/lJims. Bnef dCSCrlplH'n of thl"" prq'"r",inn ;1111.1 ch"r.lc'<"rl"ics ,,' ,bin;
III"
SLATING
Formation. Slale is .J hard. fine-grained sl:dim~ntar} Jrgilbecous (clayey)
stonc. Originally, Ihe partidl:s of clay were deposited 1)\ water and suhjl:tled
tu vcrli .. ~1 1"r;:~SUIr;: 10 form 5h~k (inunnedialc belween eLl), and sl,'te); thi"
was subsequl:ntly changed into !;latc JS ;, result of tremendous lateral pressure
and heat. Owinj:!; to the latter action the ,;bte is bminuted, ha\ inj:!; numerous
parallel planes of ciCflt'ugC, so that large hlocks arc relldily spht into comparati\eI)
thin sheets or larninJe knuwn as slates.
The cleavage pbnes are nhliquc to the original hedding or st'dimcnl;lIion
planes. Thus at tr.e llonistcr and Yew CraR mine:; (Cumberland) th~ .mgle
of the beddinj:!; planes is about 35 . whereas that of th~ d~~\'a~(~ planes is
approximalel~ 70 (see A, Fig. 69).
Slate is quarried in Wal~s (!'cnrhyn, Dinonlic, Bangor and Ffcstiniog-).
Cumberland and \\'estmorland (Honister, Buttennere, elc.). Lancashire
(Burlington) and Cornwall (Delabole). 31st) 10 Scotland (Aberdeen, Ar~yll and
Pt"rth).
Quarrying.~SIa!e i. Obl~In~t!lrotn l"llhu 0Pl'" qu~rr1Cl1 or mlm's. Thus Ihe Penrhyn.
Dinon~ (or Vdmhdhl and Delabnle slale is qu;orril·d. wh,lsl thH from FfUlmloll and
Ilonlsl ... r ,g oblamed from undH~round "~\'Crn' "pproochcd by "allenn Cunpo" dcr
or p:Cligllll'" 1& used 10 bl~sl Ihe rock and dislod,t;:c huge blocks Qf ~Iale.
Convt:rsion.~Afttr Ihl' blocks h,,'"e heen reduced in size by the use of Ihe mailel,
chisel. C1C .. 10 pcmlll of their ron,"en;enl remm.,.1 from Ihl" mine or quarry, they arl"
tranJiported 1<) the ~,mmill fnr sa"ing, sphllin" and dr~~'In).l.
S"'''ng.~A d;amo'ld or o.:ircuhar sa" (see p. 36) IS used 10 d"ide cach hlock InIO
Sl"<:I;OnS "hieh arl"" irom 'BO 10 600 mm ",de and up 10 )60 mm Ihick Thl" sa" cutS:1I1
.Hragt: raIl' (\\'eSlmonand "1~1e) <)f 3m per minute
SpfitlinlI.- The sa" blocks art: now rt·uu~.-.J to ~!~t.." !lI~h lire .. WUI 15 mm Ih;~k, "nd
each ,lab is dl'"lded by hand lab<)ur into Ihm lammal" or slatn A" 'phUff," "'Ih Ihe .1~b
reslinR aJ(~in~1 the sid .. of onl' of hiS leJ(s. dr;,"es a chisel into th ... I~b:ll onl"" of Ih .. '3"n
ends (sec c, FiR. 69). Thl" chisel u ..... d for \Velsh .Iales has a hT<l~d edge and IS dri\"Cn
In '''Ih a wood malleI; Ih:II u~l:"d for Ih~ lougher \\'estmorl~nd slall"S is !eu hroad (~II,
Fig. 69) and I h",mtner IS u~ed m$lead of a malleI In ~plill'"ll a slllb, 1\ is tina di,id .... d
, Sel' p, 68. Felt ~nd lead {o,"ermg fnr fbI roofs " dOlCn~ On pp. 70 'Ind '48
resp~cli,dy. P.nt;I.... , Itahan and Spam.h tiling. 510n .. slallng. sh,"~I .... , eoppe' lind
zinc eo\'enngs. nbestot 5h~u and thatch lITe descrlbcd In V,,1. III L.:hl"l:"ight Inetal
and asbesto. she-e.;nlfl and deckingt arc Included in Vol. IV.
COVERINGS
~ize.; lerms; n~I1~; ,·aH.,.. ndl(l", \l·r~ .... , hip and ,-.111 ..·,· dl"ud5 Pla;n and in,erlncking
into ("0 or Ihrel." se,-IIOIlS. ~""h nf"hich'5 c"t<"fully_~plit!O form Sbl~5 oflhe requlrcd
Ihlt"kn~'''; the ~-h"cl IS dr'ell firmly" dO"rl Ihc Rt~m "and pTls~d ;lfll"r ~~(h suceeSS"l"
lap un " un,,1 the ~plil " compiele
TIl<" Ih,dmc," of Ih,' ,1~le, "Mil"s ac<:o,.dlll~ In Ih" '1u .• hl\ 'Illd .. ord"r " reqUlremenls.
\\'chh ~I." ... s , ..." fHlm 4 10 II mm. and for bcsl qualilY \V"'~lmorlalld slatc, " .. ~ per
.10 rom . (c~d" hcrn"" 5 mm 'hKk) r5 prcfcHcd
f)rtmllil 's Ihc fi",,1 np<ralion and may h" donl" l"l1hcr by rn"chinery or b~ hand
One I\PC of mJchtnl" ha~ 8 q"hndm',,1 drum ""h 1"0 diaJ(0I1"Uy filCed knives; "
mc"'urmg g"u~e rrl"s~mhlinJo: the sIze su"k sho\\n ~I Ie. FiJ(. 6<,1) suck, "UI hOTl"onl"ll" from
nn,' s,de of Ih,' m~chml"; I."u·h sl;lle .s pl~ccd 011 Ih" !':JUgl' tn Ihl" nOleh "hlch" 111 g;'-c thl"
re\.luJrl"d s,zc; .n Ih ..· drum rOlates, Ihe superHuous sia le 's rl"rnO"l"d, le","log a siraij(hl
~..Jgl" "h,,,h IS somc"h,1I sl'l,,~-,..J ,md rou!'(h 00 Ihe und~hldt'
If drcs~l"d 1" hand (and al Ihe lanter sh~d~ Ihous~nds of .lall'S arl." dn,ss.,u ;n Ih15
manner) ,he .. da·sscr:· "h"n In " Sill"'!! f>l1S11ioo. p);IU'S e:l<"h slale on 1m: ''''/I'nll" or
Imrht (~t'., G, Fig (9); Ihl" '!~I~ is hdd ",!h ~n Irregulolt edge o'erhangln!{lh,' cdJo:c of Ih ....
lion und a dean ,·dJ!c ;< fonneU "s hl" mnkt,s 1,,0 or three do" n" ard him's wllh Ihe .,",lIttle
(sc(' H. Fig. 6</) Ill' Ihl"n U,l"S Ihe 1f""IIl" or jl~t .Iid. (Sl"e E); knJ(lh~ ,·erYII,!: from '5010
Joo 111'11 (ad""'cm!! bv 2S mm) and 300 10 600 mrn (ad"~nemJ( bv 50 mm) ~re measured;
Ih" mCldl pO"'1 of Ihe stllk m"rks ~ Iml." on Ihe slalc ~~ Ih., Slick 's tr~,-er5<'d wllh Ih"
required notch hdd ,,!!alnSllhe recently dressed ed/l:t' CSt'" f); Ihl" "hinll" is m.d '" remo,""
the 'upl"rtl.unus sLm' b~ ,,,"killl' a CUI ~lonlllhl8 linl·; l"~ch l""d~" i~ dr~s.l"d in-this m~nnrr.
Snntl"!;m.,s Ihe 1"0 top r:orner~ He remo'-~..J as 5ho"n all'; Ihis t'n,]hl.,~ Ihe Slall"S when
tixl"d 10 I'l" clo~el~ on <,'ch Olher (e~per:i.,lly If Ihe bcd, He nOI perfcCily flal) and r"duces
Ihl"lr "C]).Ihl :\5'] rule Ihe hol"s "rc form...d t'''hcr III Ihe Slaler'S yard or on Ihe budding
~lle (sel" p, IJ.1I. Th~ .1"les ne drl"ss...d 10 Il'''l" the ma",'mum size ""h Ihe mm,mum
I'asle, dnd Ihc'- .. rc "fICn'.lrds SOfll'd IIlto siles.
Sizes. -Sbll"$ "", proouu'd in a large number of s'u.,.; SOm" lJf Ihe la'Rer qUJrrles
~upply o"cr I"enty ~nd Ihe B~nJ(or slale~ un be obl~med In no I"ss than th'Tl"-I,,"o
~Iand •• rd ~;Zl"1 var~-mg from f>oo by 350 mm 10 200 n11n by zoo mm Common ,izes arc
600 mm to 300 mill, Soo T'"Im by 250 mm, 4So mm by .llS mm and 400 mm by 200 mm;
L.rJ(l"r ~nd ~pl'~i~1 517l"' can bt: oblain~·d ~t ~dd,t,onal co,t
ThO' WeSlmorland. Cumberland and ;\orlh Lancashire slales are general)" produced
m "h;lt arc lennet! " r~nd()m si7.(:~."
Random slalts Hl" frolilloo to 600 mm lon~ ~nd are proportIOnate In w,dth, Ihe ~\·er./{t'
"id,h helng half ItS length; Ihe,"" Me" s,~.,u" afler ~lnR drcssed. i.t., sorll'd lnt" IIZes
600 to ~oo mm, SOO 10 450 mm ant! 450 to Joo mm lon/{, These ~I'iI" arc usually Ilid In
rel/ullir r/,milliJlilll! rlJ"~UJ (sec p (39) for "h,ch mixed Ji~es are requIred.
PrXI!.ItJ ar" small-slLed random_.; Ihe<" arc 2~5 II> 300 mm Ion/-! (" besl p~gllin "J and
ISO In .lSO mm lonll ("~econd pe).li(;N"l. wllh proportionale "idlh~"
In add,l;on II> c!a,,,f\'inj( sldl~s according 10 Size, Ihey arc d;\·,dcd into three or mo~
gnod"s kno\\o as" \.Iuahlics," i.t._ .. firs15 ,. (or" bests ")." seconds" and" Ihlrds" :\~
~ rule. Ihese lerms r.. fer to rhickness only and nOI to ".Iue. for, m cert~m quanie .... bt'~1 .,
'3'
13 2 ROOF COVERINGS
,1.It,·~ .IT~ \ h"'''per than" sl·cood l ." Elich of Ih~e qual1li" liTO! dIvided ,nto maximum and.
minImum Ih"kn,·'>I' ; "Kconds " are th.c ker lh;l.n "fints," and" thirds" are thicker
TOOLS {., PREPARATION OF SLATES 1h'ln " set:onds "
'ii ,/ly Jla/n ~rc \\'c I5h .Iales "h,eh nm~ III .,7.., from 600 mm by 360 mm to JOO mm
by mm ~nJ are w Id br" count," ....,., per thousand

I
20Q
Qw" n .Iak. arc Welsh sillin "h,ch arC from 600 to 900 mm (increasinl/:" by So mm)
lo n l( and are sold by ,..rll(ht.'

Characteristics.-<\ good slate should be hard, tough and durable, of

1.... rough tc\ture, ring bell-like when struck, not split when holed or dressed,
practically non-absorbent and of a satisfactory colour. Those which feel greasy
art" ,l!cncrally of inferior quality and any showing white patches or marcasite
(iron pyrites) decay readily, especially if subjected to a smoky atmosphere;
patches of lime also adversely affect durability .
() 'SUrIIINTO
" SIUTnNO$lATn When left immersed in water to half its height for twelve hours, the water-
line on the slate should not be more than 3 mm above the level of the water in
Ihe \·essel. In slatts of poor quality, the water IS readily absorbed and rises
T c • se\'era\ inches up the slate; such slates are easily destroyed by frost action
(due to the absorhed water freezing and disintegrating the slate). If a dry slate
is kept in water which is kept boiling for forty-eight hours, its increase in weight
should not exceed 0·3 per cent., and if a spceimen of slate is immersed for ten
days in a solution of sulphuric acid it should not show any signs of flaking or
softcning. 2
In general, Welsh slates are blue and Westmorland slates are green, but
there are certain exceptions to this. Thus Bangor (Carnarvon) slates vary
from blue, blue-purple and purple; Dinorwic or Velinhelli (Llanberis, North
Wales) slates vary from red (maroon), blue-grey, green and wrinkled (purple
with green markings and slightly furrowed surface) or mottled (blue-grey with
rather indefinite green markings); Penrhyn (Bethesda, North Wales) slates,
similar to Dinorwic; Festiniog or Portmadoc (Wales) slates, uniform blue-grC'y;
Vronlog (North Wales) slates, various shades of green and grey; Precelly
(South Wales) slates, green, grey and khaki. Westmorland slates include those
quarried in Cumberland lind North Lancashire as well as Westmorland; those
from Buttermere, Coniston, Elterwater, Kentmere and Tilberthwaite are of
various textures and many shades of green; most are light green, others are a
darker green (olive) and at least one is grey-green; those from the Burlington
Qt:arries (Kirkby-in-Furness) are dark blue in colour; Cornish (Delabole)
slates are green, grey-green, green and rustic red. Some of the Wrlsh slates

,.
~Imil.
I The practice of wmg the follo ..... mg lemu when ,pcclfymg s lales SHOUW 1If. D1S-
COUIl.o.GEJ) n, ..... ith few exceptions, they are not nO\\ used in the trade, i.e., " smalls"
SCAUS:.....wous . UAWIO fIIMlJdIiC:IM: QI'\/IH (Joo mm by 150 nun), .. doubles" (JJo mm by 165 mm ), ., lad,es "(400 mm by 200 nun
or 400 mm by 250 mm), .. countessn" (500 mm by 250 mm), "duchnsn" (600 mm by
JOO nun), etc.
FIGURE I'l9 I B.S. 680 for Roofinl Slates lIVe. full details of these ,es...
 I

SLATES 133
are very duf'2h&l:, whilst the best Westmorland slates are practically indestruct- made o( ahtimony, Ie.d and tin or copper and zinc, and are harder than copper
iMe; the attrw::tive (lI)loun and coarse texture (with apalled edp) increase the nail.. Aluminium alloy nails are also used in good work.
artistic merit of the latter alatea. Galvanized wrought iron nails (see D) and zinc nails are orten used for cheaper
work, but they are unsuitable for industrial and coastal districts. The former
~ti_ 01. Slare. _ Site _ in Slaler', Va1'd..-Thi• ...,.,.,11. of holinlf and
cultin, the ,lata to vanou. wpn md liza. With the C1ceprion of """II random, arc invariably u$Cd for good work for fixing laths to the spara as the zinc covering
(neb of whICh nuly be .ecured at the heed by one .,.,il oniy), each elale II lixed 10 the roof" offers a protection againat corrqsion.
hy two .,.,il. (_ p. 13..). Thil hobng iI done by the ,I,ter either by (/I) hind punehinK Naill arc specified according to length and weight, the size depending upon
or (b) machine drillina:.
(.) HMd PIu.dIi...-Tbe poJItlon or the holel i, marked on the .Iate by. ,/llIIle diclc the thickness of the Ilates, and the length should equal twice the thickness o(
or _tlttl, thil ill a piece of I,th through which two naia. are driven It • dittance apan the Ilates plul 2S rnmi if too small, "tight nailing" results, and this may cause
equal to that between the bottom or tid of the alate and the centres of the nail hotel. The damage to the holes and ultimate cracking of the slates. The following gives
~, -..: oc ~ (_ J, Fi,. 69) i, uKd to punch each hole by .trikin, the alate with the
.pike. The.mooth or bed ,Uirace of the elite ,. uppennoat when it is bet". holed .a thlt suitable length.! and weights o( nails ; -
whoen the ,pike penetrate!! the ,lite "",,11 piece..rc bunt off round the null,;n and on Ihe
uoderJlde to fonn , rough irnlulu c;ourlteninking of the hole; .. the 'latet arc /i.",ed on TABLB VII
the roor WIth the .urfaee h.lvlnl the rough edges uppennoat the head. of the n.,l. an be
driven in Awh with the eurface bec:ause of thil counter.inki",: otherwile tM head.
would project to cause " ndlng " of the alate. lbove them and thill would admit nin or Galvanized
.now. QualIty of SllIet l...math Coppcc or ZII'IC Compoeition Wrought Iron
~b) M4dn1N Dril/....- Th,.,. perlonned by the portable slate 1toIdi• ...at/UM Ihown at (Re p. IJI) (mm) (per 1,000) (per 1,000) (Gauge)
1'01, Fi,. 69 which an be bolted to, bench or clamped to a plank. Mtff the mKhlne has th,ckl'l_ (~)
..,
(lo,) (lo,)
been cl.mped I bock ,. fUed on the plank on each auk of the midline and at the c:orreet
diannce from it, the di'lInc:e betw~ the bncb betn, equal to w lenJlh of the elate;
the alate i. pla«d betv.'etfl the bncka, with the: .mooth .urflK% uppcnnoat Ind one edge
.pil'l,t the pille .howI'I m the sketch and which i, 3. mm from the po,nt of the dnll; _the
hal'ldle ,. "vero I partial tum, the dnll detCtl'ldl Il'Id puncturet the alate, the POll'lt ,. w,th·
........
Beat
Rlndom.
01" medIum • . J'
""
1 ' 27
3' 18
.. ·.5 4
....
a'95
5'-45
J.J
J.'
drawn by revening the ha",,!le, the "!"'e i. removed and rcpla«d w"h the end. rcveraed
(but with the smooth .urfla .t,1I uppcnnoet) . 1'1<1 the wcond hole ,I drilled. Thi. i. I
much qu,cker procell than hand punchlnllnd i, 1_ li.ble to crack the ,llta. Sometimes 32 mm nail. weighing 1·8 kg (copper) or 2'3 kg (COIJlPO) per 1,000
A cwtt•• innt, dot or drtu, .. ,roll (tee III) I. used ,"",hen ,Iatet h.lve to be cut to cen.in are used for thin small slates.
• iza or ahl,ptl on the job ; II II oftero UKd on the roof, the a1lteT drivinl the potnted ends
uuo I spar or otbet convenient mem~r. After bell'lnulrited to the: reqUired wpc, the TERMS.- Variow terms used in slatillg Ire ;
alate " placed on tbe iror'l with w edge to be cut projt<:lmg the r~ql"red amount, and I Batk.- The upper and rough surface of a s1ate (sec 0, Fig. '9).
(ev.' sman blo,"", wllh the pe neatly tnm off the edge.
The Iw",,,"~, picll or /l«1c <tee x) i. used for dnvil'll the n.il. throush the .lltes, the Bed.-The under and smooth surface.
cllW at the .ide i. "stful ror withdnwmg nlil, Ind the pomt i. uaed (or holing. lleQd.- The upper edgt: (see 0).
A la.ile Mlfllller (tee L) i. used for fixing . 1.te 11th. or battcn.; lath•• re CUt to len~h TQi/. - The lower edge (sec 0)
by usinl the .h.lrpened bl.de Il'Id na,l. mlY ~ v.ithd,. .... " by means of the notch in the
blade. COlUse.-A rOw or layer of slates (sec A, Fig. 70); the couraea are equal
The nPIHF (Ke 0) i. ued_ ror removing defective .llta from I roof: the blade i. pused when the .Iates are of uniform size but vary (rom a maximum at the eaves· to
under the allie, and each nad It anpped. Ind cut bv lhe hooked end u the npper It given a minimum at the ridge when random. are used to form di,.inishing COIlTSts
, .h.rp pull
(lee p. IH, and I, Fig. 71).
N.l1a,- The quality of the nails used for securing slatea tS moat important, BmuI.-The arnngement of slates whereby the edge joints between the
as the coat of maintenance of I roof depends very largely upon their durability. slates in anyone course are in or ncar to the centre o( the slates immediately
Roofl quickly become defective if the naill corrode and headl diaappear, the above and below them, When the slate. are o( uniform size the edge joints
loose Ilates being easily removed by the wind, Ihould run in straight lines from eaves to ridge-" keeping the perpends " -
Copper nails (see D, Fig. 69) or compoaitiun nlil••buuld IlwIY' be uacd (_ A, Fig. 70). Thisil accomplilhed by uling a wide lLate, called, slate Qttd Q
for good work;' the Iluer, ,110 ca~ I.-d "compo" or "yellow meta!." are Judi, or a hal( slate (in inferior work only) at the beginning of every alternate
course. But such mechanical neatncu il not ,Iways desirable, especially if
, Copper, IJllvanlKd wroUiltu 'I"0I'l and Sine nail • .t.ould not be uKd for roof. ",hich Westmorland or Cornish randoms or peggies are laid with diminishing courses,
are m Ihe v.cin'l)· of IJII v.orb or chamal worka or where the aI.llnK II .ubjected to when a Ilight deviation (rom straight lines results in a more pil~.. ing appearance
Ilconl ICid fumn, u the IUtI nuly dettroy them. Lead na,l. or chrome"ron n.,l. should (lee J, Fig. 70, and!, Fig. 71).
be uled for .uch roof,; the former are .bout 100 mm lonl, the Itema be,"• .,.11«1 through
Ihe holes of the elilet .nd bel'lt round the steel purlina, etc., of the roof. Pitch h.. been referred to on p. 64), and the minimum pitch for " large,"
134 ROOF COVERINGS
.. ordinary .. and .. small" sizes of slates 1$ ltat~d. Comparatively large slates
should be uaed on roo& of about 300 pitch. On steeply pitched roofs most of
the weight of the slates is carried by the nails and therefore the alates should be
small and these should be secured with stout nails. Hence the .tec~r the pitch
the smaller the ,Iatea.
lAp is the amount which the tail of one slate cove'rl the head of that in the
course next but Ollt to it; this applies to centre-nailed slates (see below). When
the slates art: head-nailed (see below) the lap is melUlured from the ctntre of the
nail hole instead of the head. As shown in the various details in Fig. 71, there
are THR£E tlrjclmnm of datu at the lap. The amount of lap varies y,ith the
pitch and degree of exposure of the roof; thus for roofs with 300 to +s' pitch,
the lap should be 76 mm; for stttper pitches thr lap may be reduced to ~ mm;
for flatler pitches than 30" the lap should be increased'o IJO mm to loomm , and in
exposed positions (such as on lhe coast) " lap of I So mm may be necesllllry.
GQug~ is the distance between the nails measured up the slope of the roof
(which is the same as the distance between the tails of each successi\'e course).
The gauge depends upon (I) the length of slate, (2) the amount of lap, and (3)
the method of nailing, I.r" centre nailing or head nailing.
Centre-nailed Slates (see A and c, Fig. 71). -The gauge equals
length of slate-lap,
, thus for a roof covered with 460 mm by 230 mm s!.ues and
60 6mm
1&1"d"
With a 76 mm lap, the gauge _4. -7 mm, T he position
_. ...
, 192
'!he nail holes measured from the tail of the slate is shown at P, Fig. 6cJ, and equals
the gauge, plus the lap, plus a clearance of 13 mm; the dearanee is necessary to
allow the nails when being driven to clear the heads of the slates in the COUTU
bylow.
Head-nailed Slates (see E, rand G. Fijo':. 71).- -The hAes are pierced 26 mill
from the head (see 0, Fig. 69) and, as mentioned alxwe, the lap is measured from
length of slate-(Iap + 26 mm);
the centre of the hole. Hence the gauge elluals _. =-"-"'''::-''''-,
thus the gauge for 460 mm by 230 rum slates with a 76 mm la~ ""
460 mm-(76 +26 mm)
- , ""179 mm .
In both centre and head nailing the holes are approximately 32 mm from the
edges.
Comparison between Head- and Centre-Nailed Slates.· Head-nailed
slates offer a better protection to the holes as there are two thicknesses of slate~
onr ",ch. They are not readily damaged or strained when being nailed as
they have a solid bearing in the form of battens or boards. Their tails are more
readily lifted h;.r a hi~h. wind owing to their big leverag~; this allows rain and
snow to blow betwttn them and the ucessi~ mO"'ement of the sbtes may
gradually damage and increase the size of th~ holes until the slates Ire 1\tlmately
displaced and blown off; hence lar~ slates should not be head-nailed, especially
in expoeed positions. More head-nailed slates are required to cover a roof on
account of the reduced gauge and therefore this method is more expensive than
centre nailing.
Centre·nailed slates are leas likely to be stripped because of the reduced
leverage, and for the'same reason, there is less likelihood of drifting snow and
rain finding access. Large slates should always be centre·nailed to give greata
rigidity. Less slatea are required and the method is therefore more economical
than head·nailing. Defective slates are more readily removed. There is
greater likelihood of rain entering the nail holes if any of the slates above them
are cracked and if the roof has a flat pitch, as there is only one thickness of slates
over the nail holes. There is a risk of the slates being strained and sometimes
cracked (which cracks may not open until later) by careless nailing owing to
th," IIpace between the middle of centre·nailed slates and the battens or boarding
below, and especially over the inter.;ection betwttn sprockets and spars (see c,
Fig. 71). Centre nailing is morC' common than head nailing.
Dbninishing Course Work.-The roof consists of randoms which are laid
in diminishing C')urses from a ma_'IOimum at the eaves to a minimum at the ridge.
The slates are sorted to give carefully graded courses, those in each course being
of the same sixc; thus a large roof may have 610 mm or longer slates at the eaves
and peggiea at the ridge. The gauge ,"aries with each coune or every second
course, but the lap is uniform thrtlllghout. A very pleasing appearance results,
r
0 and as shown at J, Fig. 70 the bond is irregular. The method of determining
the gauge is explained on p. 139 (see also E, Fig. 71).
Margin is the exposed portion of a slate and equals th ~ gauge multiplied hy
the width (see A and D, Fig. 70).
Boording or Closr Shuttr.g (see p. 69).-The wual thickness is 2S mm
(nominal); it should be tongued and grooved although shot or butt jointing is
Ukd for cheap IJpeculati\'e work. As detcribed below, the boarding should he
c.wered with felt before the slates are fixed. Boarding is sumetimes referred
to as sarking, although this term is more often applied to felting.
Statlff/! 8Qttnu or LAths.-These should be sound, sawn redwood and of
the following llizes: 38 mm by 19 mm for small slates 400 mm long and down~
wards, So mm by 19 mm for ligbt slates 460 mm long and upwards, and 50 mm
by 2S mm for heavy slates +60 mm long and upwards. They are fixed to tne
boardmg or dirtttly to the spars, to the: re:ljui,ed g-augc: apart by gtalvlln'ud
",rought iron nails which are usually +4 mm long. They are sometimes creo·
I()ted for preservation. (.vlmttr·/Jottnu as shown at D, Fig. 70 and G, Fi~.
lire also used; these are generally 50 mm by H) 'TIm, spaced at 400 mm centr('1l
,I
(or equal to the distance apan of the spars) and secured with JIl mm galvanized
wmucht iron na,ls.
TiltillJ.: Filltts 0' Sprj1lging Pitcts.-These are triangular or tapered piec" of
wood. from 75 10 150 mm wide and up to 75 mm thick, used at the eaves (~
Fig. 71) to tilt the lower COUBel of slates in order to usiat in excluding rain and
H
 SLATING
snow by ensuring dose Jointl at the laill. These are often omitted if fa1\(;\.-
boards are used (see Y, Fig. 36). They are also used at chimney st:l.cks, ctc ..
which penetrau: a roof, 10 caUM: waler to f;all a\o,ay 4U1d.ly from the ,"crltcal
surface...
Damp Proofin g.-Pro\'ision must be made 10 e'l:dude r,un and sno~ \o\hit:h
may be blo~n up bet~eell the slales alld to prcvenl Ihe entrance of ~aler hy
capillary attrat:tion. Such Indudes either (Q) c()\cnnJ{ Ihe buardin~ or lipars
",ith felt or :.imil.ar malenal, ~hu.:h is the mO!.1 USLa.t1 syslcm. or (6) lon:hing the
underside of the slates.
(a) Roofi"1! Ftlt.- ThiS is Similar to bUI thmner th,," Ihc fihrous asphalt or
bituminous felt descnbed on p, 17 and is oiJtainJhlc 111 Roo or 900 mm Wille rolls,
It is either laid upon the boardm,:: With the Joints runnin,R from ea\es 10 rid~e II(
parodlel to the ridge. or, for du:.tpcr \\Ork, the hl/,mlin,:: IS flm;lIed and Ihc lell
(called un/torohlt Itll, bceolusc uf its wughne:.s. tlllc t<l ,m nlra IJyer flf he~~i,ln
cloth bemJ{ ernhodled in the Ill'Heri.ll) I~ hlit! 1I.1nS\el:'cI ... mer .unl Ii'cd \\Ith
R.II-headed ]0 mm ,Rdh.lnl/c.i .... rnu/.:hl iron nail'> (0< dl!ut n;lib ") dlrel't II! Ih,·
'plUS. The former is sho .... n iit d. Fig. iO. and th" IJltcr JI A. Fig. -;1. Tltc
joints are I.lpped So to 75 min in e.ldl C.l'>C, .md It 5h,)uld he lapp,'d O\Ct th"
ridRe. The edgc of the felt IS dOUI-Il,lIlcd to Ihe hll.udmJ! ncr\, 7_, mill or to
each spar when laid directty over tht'm.
(h) Tr,rchml: ur l'u",11II1: or TIFrlmi. (;I)I!lilime murtar. III \Ihil'h de.tn hill!.:
o.\·hair has hcen added UI increase its <IUhC~I\" tjU.I!II .. , is applied tt! tht: UlIller·
side of tht: slate:> alon~ the uppcr cdJ,:!c of c.H;h crus,> batt'_'n; thi" I1M!cr;,,1 should
he .... dl pressed in het\lt:ell thc shllcs ;IInl thc mort;!r tillch ~pLI~'cd olT (~"c n.
Fig. ]1-1).
('(Jmparin~ the t~o methous 1-"<':\1111': .111<)\1'> Air to enlcr and l'in:ulate und.:·
Ihc slolte5 and round Ihe bJtlt:n~. ;1 r"JIIH'l' .. ht'al Il)s,>,'~ .. (the Ir.iIlSffiN.lOm of
heat dnd cold throu/o!h Ihe TIll/f). II I~ l'.:~d~ ti""d, hUI I~ morc c"pcnsiH' t!un
torching. 'i'on:hinJ,:. prt:\cnt~ \cnlibl;ull. d!HI 10 pmlonged \\tl wcalhcr II
rcu.ins moisture whll'h mn Ill.' Iranl'm;III'" to the allpn'nt h;II1I'n1\ and roof
mcmhers and set up dt"l·a~. 111 cours.: of tlln" H,:fl'nOl mJtcn.11 dl·ICrlllr.Uc:s and
drops off le:l.\in~ gaps through \\hich ram .m.! SIIO\\ may cntcr; If h"\Il'\':'
hest materia\~ :md .... orkman~hil' ,Irc JPplled. Ihis m("thml enslin's ;1 .. drop-dn' ..
root, as is t"\idcnced b\ Ihe thous.lnus of ruufs Iha: h.11l ht·u, Ikill \Iilh IIi tlllS
manner and haH; rt'm~incd .... JIt:rlll!hl and 10 RooJ om.iiti"n for a IOil).! pl"rI<KI
of yc:
Terms slJt::h as cales, fld/.:c. hip. \a\le\ and vcr),(" h,1\I' h"en J.:tillnl Oil
pp. 68 ",>.
Special Slates. ~~':'hJl (;I~CI .ban thOIo" of 1\11;111.11 J;i/(' Jlld \>h.lllt: .Ill
re'IIl'" u in order to m .. ",t'lIl1 !.:orr,,!.:t honJ and lllnform to I>hal"l''> \\h,,11 .Ill'
m'·'~ ~~':.s ;rrq.:ular. T~ey :ndudc those 11~{,1'oSan to form tlw h"ttom co,,·,
.. I 11.", " ... ~b, tI,c tvp lO'HIoe .. 1 thc rid~e. \er~es, hips Jml \.Illl'~s.
f)"lIhi, Eat,tJ ('()UTlf;" Slaf,I (see 1-"11:_ j I). :\ douhk (Olini(' flf ~ldll'S I.. 101,.1
at th. ea\'e$, ot"~r\o\' 5C • a~n would ("nter between I~,e -"u~e )inU. '1'1,,,, lirs-I I.• ~tr
135
of slales (or " doubhn~ course ") is compar.llivdy thort and e:qual in length to Ihe
gUlIgt plus lap ( .... hen centre:-nailed-see A) and gIJugt plus IIJp plus 26 mm ( .... hen
hcad-naile:d- -l>(:e (;). The: practice which is sometimes adopted, of laying the:
normal s;ud slates It:n!llh .... ise to form thiS COUTU, is not advocated IS Ihere is
OJ ri5k of some of the end Jomts coinciding with the edge jomts of Ihe COurse
alx)\e.
'l'up Rld.t:t ("/lUfU Sialts. These are aboul 50 mm longer than Ihe bottom
duuhlinJ:: C;1\elo ((mrS(: s12tcs in order to le2\-(" a soitahle marj::'in below Ihe winJ2'
of Ihc TIIJ~c tIle (!'oce A. Fi~. 71),
'-tf,!!' Slaln,-As Illt:lltil!ned on p. I]]. either a special slate called a" slate
:l!lll J h.tIf" or ,! hollf slJte is used at each allcrnate Course III order to glH' corn'ct
hondo A ~l.l\l· :l11d J half, ;,IS is implied. is une and a half times the normal
.... iuth. thlh lIS SII" .... 111 he 520 mm by .190 mOl if 520 mm by 260 mm slales ;,Irt'
il(·m.: u~,'J, ..\ \"r~l' is a \ulnt'Tahle pari of a roof. And these wide slall·S. \\hen
".u,:h I:!' !;c'-'Hl'd l\lIh al k,iSI 1.... 0 nails. 1(111: a much ~Iron,-!:er I<)h than dl) half
~1.11t·S t:a!.:h II!' II hich m;i\ hl' secured \\ Ilh one n~il olll~. J"hr ,lpplic.lILO!l IIf
t!u.:S<.: \\ ldc \<oldieS'S 11ldK.llcd at .~ ami ~. Fi~, ';"0.
III,. and lalln .Ii/lllt. L"lra \\lde ~Iates art' r~llulred for Ihe~e PI,,>Ulf)l',,
.mil eMh,,> u~u.dl~ furlllnllrlllll.1 slale and a half Ihp sl.1t~ arc sho\\n ,1\ C;.
hI!. 6j. ami \.tlle~ "bll''> ijTJ· ~1l1l!\;1r.
Open or Spaced Slating.-Hooj,> of temporar~ and .:"rlain larm hUildincs.
"t..: mi1\ hc 1'U\l'Tl,d ·.I1lh ,101 It:'> whllh arc \;lid \\Ilh a "rdt:e fr(.m .\)0; III 75 !lun
hll\ll'"n 'he sl"pl1ll! nlL!l" \\'hlbt Ihis m"'hnd re'>lIit:. in dn CtllT!nm\ 01
m.llen.ll. il ducl' nlll ~1\ l' .1 "llrop-dr~ ff>of. and I'> nl)\1 !;t:ldom used, .
Ridges. S\;ued roof~ Ji'l' tini'>hed .11 tht: nd,-!:cs with shaped pieet:s nudc
ill .IJtc. lile. '1"1It: and \to,HL
,',;/lIf. RId::,. (~,." E. h~~. il) .• r" fllr11l""j in 1\\11 PI"Cl''', ca(h fr"lIl 10 to 20 mm
thld•.10..1 up to .• b"UI .. 60 111m loni!. tlnc !s a r1.l111 rlTIJlll.':ular II IIlI;! holnl fur
'><.:fl·\I<; .mu Ih" Ifllwr I~;J 17~ ur 1,0 nHn \\Ilk \\111L! \\llh a ,01060 mOl roll
(hird~m"\llh",1 h(11l'.lIh) 11I1fkni nn -lllf tnp nlc" \s ~hl"\n. tilt, lelp eJ~c of th"
\\n.d ndl.:'l' is c·h:Hnl<.:rni JlIJ 1~ lhuul .,1) mill .Ihon: thc l'-llf"n~; Ihe pLoin \1111.::
h bedded ill lIIurt,lr un Ih" 1"1' ~'UlIr"t' "I' "late" .Inti \<ol'':lIr",1 te) Ih" \\I)O!ll "JL!l'
hy l'r.l~'> nr t'oppl"f "'nt'\\s; lil<" r,,1Icd 111IlL! is j,{'chkd tm thl' ~Iatcl> .l1Id "'" tiu-
\(,I' cdL!" "f till p1.I!Il \\in\!. III ,Iuditi"n. 1!1I :',;nt hel\\"':11 l'Jlil roll snliun I,
"n'l/td \\1111 .1 ""pper or ~nl.lll ... 1.11l· .1"\Il'1 Thl' lomb of JIll" TIde" sh'nlld
.. hnJ1.. I,!!n! .. \\il" Iht: lOp 1"lCIr"l' ,'f ,,111\'~ Thl~ fldc" I~ n"l r 1\'1/ mUl'h u'>ctl.
":,,,,'Ih un .Illlllillt of ils irulllfcfl'Il1 ,!ppCJr.II1H·
'III., Hid::,. ,In 1I1.,Jt· of .-1.1\. mould",1 tn;, \-.lril·11 of !'.!IIu , ... lind klln·hurnt
Tltl' h"lf-I ,OJ.I rilk: Id •.-l",\\r. .11 .\, 1'1';_;1 allJ tht' h,,~'-ha"k ri.1!.:t: il1ll>lrolt.-.!
II CO. he:- ';"1 ,11~d OIl ii, II!.:. -2 J:: 01 I- sl., .. lur) h~ll'n. ""'f.ldnlllu 11;/"'11
r.,,';
"I/"flIIS Ihal ,.f ,h, ,I"fl". tt~e~ ;ITt· 11.11· III ,I, !"I1r k"J.:'hs, tl'I' \\ld'h
\.!TI"~ fll'111 ~30 I" .i!Ho 1I1In .l1ld th~ d,!,1..n~'~s 1"[10111 I. ~~ lUll! . .-\ \' rld l
n.I\'llIe 0\ f\al'l'l'd "I n·h.llc:d Iflinl.'~ ~hll\\n;ll '-. i"1.L:' ;0: 111111 i~ =2 mm thlt1.. ,""
Iht' ".nlCs .hould "l('1 he 1, $ Ihm 17.:; mm~ Iho; anglc" :-.Ie~ Ilhe \\;n;,:" \'.11
 SLATING
DETAILS
SII.H(l-t OF "IDGE-
IN OHAtl "Go "G.,I
FtC1Rf: 70
to suit the pitch of the roof. As shown, the riJg~ are bedded and poilll:ed in
cement mortar which is preferahly waterprooft:d, and the In.nSH':r5e joil'lls are
formed of the ume material.
It ;1 nOI ",i.e to bed the ndR" solidi) '\lIn morUl~ 'IS ,h., h;11 b.",," Ihe ...... u,., of
wood ridf[n ~conllnll defecm'e on Kcounl of lilT bclnfl r.u'ludt:d . \,",;I~I the
flanged jo,nl II C IS effectiH: ~nd _ oftm ....:I, •• dpl"S re~ of t:hnc ptn:t', n"
unllJl;:hlly Ind the •• mple bun JQon! " pt"f~",u The hOlm Jl;:I\n ;0 "1I1irnlR:ht J'lb
If formw '"Ih I/UOd maten:"! lind np«ulh ,I II ~u· IS ..-r1rd undn eKn }OInt
,l.h"rnlt...e:). (('n'lln m.okn of nd~ Ilk I'" oblillorl"bk "'~"mlli mleTTllll &lORn> and
these pro,"idt • sound juinl Ind. ndRt' \\lIh In u ... nleT~1td outlUlC, The .p~r.
IIn~e of the ridl/II: i. ImpH"ed .f the: t'kI one or 1\\0',C<:"
IU'e 1I\1:n I allIIN lilt up" .. rd ..
;'s ~ho" n II, ,. lind J. F;jI. 70 The-wend p,ce" ,.,.., .. soltd rrded."
Ridge tiles can he obtained In se\'(~ral colours and they should therefore he
can:full), selected to h3rmoruze \\ith the: slating.
Ston~ RiJXts (see 1'1, Fi~. 70) are sa"n out of the solid. They arc from
230 to 150 mm wide, about 38 mm thick, and from 300 to 900 mm long. The
joints ar~ rebated in ~ ,,-ork (ICC sketch) and the pieces are ht:dded, jointed Ind
pointed in cement mortar. They pro\-ide an effective fini~h to a Westmorland
1]6
slated roof, and 3re commonly employed in Yorkshire and the Cotswold district
...-here compar,lIi\ely thid. slates from local stone form the covering material.
uod RiJ~s .Ire described on pp. 148 and 150. These form a suitable finish
if Welsh silltes are used, but the lead is apt to stain certain green slates.
Hips a~ finished with either half-round or V-shaped tiles, sawn stone, lead,
nr cut and mitred ..loitcs with lead soakers.
TiJ,J /lips (see 1\ and K, Fig. 70) are commonly employed, and whilst they
pro\'Kle II sound finish, the appearance is far from pleasin~, "-pccially if the roofs
are small. As st )wn at K. the tops of the jack rafters finish lc\"et with the top of
the hip rafter, the ends nf the battens are brouf!:ht oyer it and the slates ITe
rouJ!:hly mitred. A hip hook should be screwed to the back and at the foot of
the hip r..ftcr to prc\cnt the tiles from shpping (ace II). Hip tiles, like those
for ridgcs, should be: of a satisfactory colour.
Sav:-n Stont /lips 3Te formed of pic<:es of similar tection to that shown al B,
Fi~. 70; tht: dihedr,lll an~le between the win~s should conform with that of the
TOUf.
 SLATING
uad Hips are described on p. 1 SO.
Cut and Mitred Hips with Lead Soams provide the best finish to a slated
roof; the method is sound, especially for pitches not less than .;s", Ind the
appearance is effective (see 1, Fig. 70). The construction is shown in the
~ction at f and the plan at c; it is customary to provide two 100 mm wide hip
boards (which are mitred over the hip rafter) to form a good bearing for the
slates and a fixing for the soakers, against which the ends of the battens are
butt jointed; alternatively, the top edge of the hip rafter may he bevelled and
finished level with the top of the battens which mitre ag::linst the rafter. Both
methods provide a true line up the hip rafter to which the edges of the slates
are cut. Wide slates (slate and a half) an~ used and these must be carefully
cut and mitred as shown. uad soakers (see p. 143) are placed between the
slates; as shown at G{tnese soakers are square, measuring from 300 to 360 mm
across the diagonals (depending upon the size of the slates); each soaker is bent
over the upper edges of each pair of mitred slates and twice nailed 10 the hip
boards; the soakers Jap each other at each course. The mitred slates must be
securely nailed (especially in exposed positions) otherwise they are liable to be
stripped by strong winds.
Valleys.~It is customary to form" open" valleys in stated roofs. These
are covered with lead and their construction is described on p. 150 and shown at
P, Fig. 75. An alternative and suitable finish is provided by cut and mitred
slates with soakers as described above. Another very effective, but expensive,
finish is the" swept valley"; the sharp angle at the valley is blocked out by
meanli of a 250 or 300 mm hy 25 mm l:-oard which is fixed above the valley.rafter.
and this makes it possible for each course of slates in the adjacent roof surfaces
to be uninterrupted at the valley, as the slates are continued round to form a
series of curved or swept courses. The slates forming the valley are cut and
packed underneath as required. As swept valleys are more often formed on
roofs which are covered with plain tiles, a full description of this finish is given
in Chap. Ill, Vol. Ill.
Verges.-One of se~eral methods of finishing at \'erges is shown at II and E,
Fig. 70. For the reason stated on p. '35, a slate and a half should be used at
each alternate course. The slates project as shown, and in order to direct the
water from the edge and prevent it from running down the face of the gable
wall, the outer slates of each course are slightly tilted upwards. This titt is
formed by bedding a course of butt-jointed slales (called an underclQilk) on the
wall in cement mortar, and the ends of the battens are laid on this course. After
the slating has beer. completed. the open edge is well filled in with cement
mortar and neatly pointed, as shown . The undercloak may consist of a double
layer of slates.
Preparation of Roofs for Slating.- The groundworit may consist of
either(o) horizontal slating battens only, (b) boarding and felting, (c}boarding, felt
and slating bat:ens or (d) boarding, felt, counter-battens and slating ballens.
(a) Horizontal Slating or CrOff Battens (see D, Fig. 38, A, Fig. 71, and
'37
Fig. 72).-This is the most common method as it is the cheapest. It is quite
satisfactory and a drop-dry roof is assured provided either felt or torcb.ing (as
described on p. 135) is applied to prevent the access of rain, snow, wind and dust.
(b) Boarding and Felting (sec wand x, Fig. 36, and F, Fig. 71).-The boarding
(described on p. 13;) is nailed to the spars and then coveted with felt (see p.
135). This provides II drop-dry and draught proof roof, although dampness
has been caused through the penetration of water through the nail holes. Heat
is less readily transmitted Itlrough this roof than that described at (a) and there-
fore rooms which are partly in such a roof are relatively warmer in winter and
cooler in summer. (See also p. 1;1.)
(c) Boarding, Felt and Slating Battens (see c, Fig. 71).-The boarding is
fixed, felt is nailed to it, and the cross-battens are then fixed to the required
gauge to receive the slates. Although expensi-ve it is not a satisfactory method,
as any rain or snow blown up between the slates lodges on the upper edges of
th~ cross battens causing, in some cases, a rapid decay of the battens.
(d) Boarding, Felt, Counter-ballms and Slating Ballens.-This is undoubtedly
the best method and is adopted in first-class work (see D, Fig. 70 and G, Fig. 71).
After the boarding and felt have been fixed, So mm by 19 mm counter-battens
are nailed running from eaves to ridge at the same distance apart as the spars;
the slating battens are nailed to them at the gauge apart and the slates are
secured to them. Any driven rain and melted snow gaining access pass down
between the counter-battens to the free outlet at the eaves. Besides providing a
perfectly drop-dry roof, heat losses 3re reduced to a minimum and this con-
struction is therefore very suitahle for opcn roof!! !!llch as are rl'quired for
churches. public halls, etc., in addition to domestic'buildings where the expense
is not prohibiti\·e. (See also p. 141.)
Certain of the details in Fig. 71 not already referred to are described below.
Centre-nailed Slating.-This is illustrated at A and c, Fig. 71.
Detail A.-See p. 74 for the construction of the eaves and this page for the
groundwork An additional top batten is provided at the ridge so as to tilt the
ridge cOllrse, otherwise the tails of the short slates comprising the ridge course
would ride on the course below. Nou that there are THREE thicknesses of slates
at each lap. Students in examinations Jrequmtly make the mistake oj showing only
two thicknesses at the lap u:lth ont t"ickness betwten laps; this of course affords
no protection at the side joints. The double eaves course projects 38 to 50 mm
beyond the tilting tillet and the felt overlaps the edge of the gutter.
Detail C. ' The sprocketed ea\'es has been referred to on p. 74 and the
groundwork on this page. The distance between the slates at the junction
between the sprocket and spar is rather excessive; this would be reduced if
smaller slates (say ~oo mm by 200 mm) were used as the sweep would then be
more gradual.
Head-nailed Slating. E:o:amples are sho"n at F" and G, Fig. 71.
Detail F.- The prOjecting ends of the spars are cut as shown and an asbestos
gutter is fixed to them.
 s
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C,ENTA.E -NAilED NA'

"' FlCnn; 71
 SL"TlNG 139
-
The close borording and felt have betn previously de.cnbed.
PLAIN TILING DETAILS lktail G.-The Iprocketed caves i. aimilar to that detCribed on p. 14,
except that the inclination of the apars Ind sprockets art soo and 300 r~pec·
SLIGHT CAMlEl lively and the projection is only 2)0 mm; the ground ....-ork i. described on
p. 137. The space between the slates over the intCBeCtion of the spars and
lEO \'0'\ .prock-cts is wide but not 10 serious IS the defect purposely shown at c (already
referred to), as the slates. being head.nailed, are not 10 liable to be damaged
whilst being nailed; this space would be reduced if the sprockets were given
I steeper pitch, and auention is drawn to the gradual sweep of the portion of the
roof shown at K, Fig. 37, which is produced when the ideal and trad itional
pitch of the spars and sprockets of 55 0 and ]SO respectively is adopted.
Other examples of head nailing are shown in Figs. 36, 37 and 38. The
detail D in the latter figure g\'\'cs a good example of the lower courses of slates
having an inadequate fall due to the flat sprockets. Provided the window could
be kept lower, a sounder job would resu\! if the feet of the span were continued
A and a small tilting fillet used instead of the sprockets.
Diminishing Coursed Work (see J, Fig. 70 and E, Fig. 71).- As explamed
on pp. 131 and I]S, the random slates are sorted and laid in graded courses
dlmmlshing from a maximum at the eaves to a minimum at the ridge SlalCl
in each course are of the same length, but the width may vary (see I, Fig. 70).
R I 0 G E As the lap is th~ sam~ th'Olllhowl, it follows that the 'gauge decreases from the
o E T " I L
eaves upwards. The gauge for head-nailed slates is found by the rule stated
B . mean length of slate and slate above - (lap+-z6 mm), h
at E, I.t., - - - :1
h
were t e app 1-
r
cation sho ....~ a uniform lap of 63 mm (which is adequate for a pitch of So ')
and the length of the suceessive upper courses to be 460, +30, 400 and J70 mm;
r-- - FELT AS .... N the gauges of the 460 and 430 mm courses are 178 and 163 mm retpectivcly as
AlTEII.NATlVE
TO TO~("'IHG 00
4 +37 0 - (63 + :16)
,
3bl9 BATTENS shown, and that of the 400 mm course _
, li8 mm. The

c - * --100'50 SP.... gauge for centre-nailed slates, as in ordinary slating, is 13 mm mote. Whilst

" .. 100_50
-~-+-" IL'"IG JOI ST
the above example is a simple illustr:ltion, it should be pointed out that the
reduction in length is excessive and very large slates would be requi red at the
eaves of a large roof if a more gradual reduction was not made; sometimes the
COUrKS arc diminl:>hed at e,'ery second course. Westmorland slates are usually
laid with graduated courses and a \'ery attractive appear:tnce results. The slate
ridge is des.:ribcd on p. 135; 11 sawn stone ridge or a hog-back tile ridge (pro-
vided it was of a suitable colour) would be more ple~l\i"g in :lppt'~r:lnce.
Procedure in Sla ting a Roof.- The follo .... ing is the normal sequence of
operations in slaling Ihe roof of a building .... hich is assumed to be detached and
has gabled .... alls ;-
The meta l ea ..es lJUuers are fixed Immed,atel)' after the .... ood ...ork It the e&\'et
E A V E S h i' been completed . the bauens are fixed li t the gJluge apan. commencing from the
o E T A I L

FICU~E 72
'40 , ROOF COVERINGS
eava; .tacks of alate! hnml been placed .t .uibble inktv.lI up the roof by the
I,bourer, the alater proceed. to fix them, oonyncneinl .t one end of the: eaves .nd
anduIUy ",readm,lonIlPNdinaUy Ind up the roof until 1M rid~ i. re.ched; the
oppoeite .lope is coveftd in • .amilar mannn; the rid~ tilee .~ Mdded, jointed
and pointed horUontally and. 1ft true .hani1W'nt, Wifh exception of the md pieces .00
thote ,pintt c;:himney·,tKU, which .~ &iven I Ili,ht tilt upw.rd., II previously
cxpJllined. If hip. Ire required, the apcci,lIy cut hip al.tts will have b«n dresKd
to the eornect at.pe and &tze and. theN are the fint to be filled in c.dI COYrw; if
the hip' Ire to be cut and mitred, the lcad _ke ... (prepared by the plumber) .re
find by the al.ter .. the ,lllina proceed.; if hip tdes .re required, these Irt fixed
in c:orreet' .lignment, commmcin, II the CIlVft Ind neatly mitring WIth the rid~
tiln. If the ~rca are •• ahown .1 S, Fig. 70, the underdOlika Ire firmly bedded In
ament n'IO.rtlr before the batten. Ire fixed. Finally'. the luncrI Ire cleaned out Ind
the undeR.de of the roof i. torched. Of COUtle, If unteanble fell i, 10 be find ,n
liw of to~n., !hi. il done before tIK- batte:nt .,e find.
PLAIN TILING
Plain tiles are made of clay or concrete. If or clay, this is very finely ground,
moulded into slabs and subsequently dried and burnt. Like bricks, both hand-
made and machine-made tiles are produced in a wide range or colours. Hand-
made tiles have a aand-raced lurface, they have a better texture, are tougher, arc
leM liable to lamination, and are more expensi\'e than those which are machine-
made.
The size is usually 26-] mm by 165 mm by 10 to 13 mm thick (see A, Fig. 72).
They have II IIlight camber or sd (3 m radiuI) in their length which enlluret
that the tails will bed and not ride on the backs of those in the course below.
A tile has t ....-o (sometimes three) stubs or nibs which project on the bed or under-
side at the head in order that it may be hung from the batu:n, and each tile
has two holes formed at about 25 mm from the head and 38 mm from the edges.
Special tiles are also made, thus: ~aws tius (165 mm by 165 mm) and ti/~ a"d a
IuJlf (267 mm by 2.f.8 mm or wider). The latter are used at alternate courses at
verges and swept valleys.
Terms, such as bond, gauge, margin. etc., used in slating are also applied
to tiling.
Plain tiles are laid in regular bond, and the preparation of a roof to receive
the tiles is Similar ta the methods described an p. IJ7 .....ith exception of .. board-
ing and felting," as thil i. impracticable for tiling on account of the nibs.
The naill used are similar to those described on p. 133, and J8 mm long
coppn naill are used in moat good .....ork.
Unlike Ilating, every tile is not teCUred with nails unltu for roofs in expo5fil
poaitions. It is usually lpeeified that every tile in each fourth course shall be
twice nailed. The double eaves course tiles. ridge course tiles and all verge.
hip and valley tiles mUSl also be nailed.
l In MlfT\e techniC1lI collevn. plain tihn(l: ,I p~f"rr«llo 11,,"nJj: I f ' fint ~·t':Ir wubjC'C1
of. Buildm, Courw.nd h~ I bnd mt'fltion of II 'I made here. Plain :iln and other
roofing mlter,al. aff IIYrnmore exlt'flded tre.tmenl,n Chap. III. Yol. III IndUltnal
and Ii.hl .. ",.hl roof aht'etln, an d deel"n. a ... de-cnbed In Chi" VI. V,,\ 1\'
Pitch, Lap and Gauge.-As I plain tile is a relatively small unit, a large lap
is not practicable, and therefore the usual lap employed iii 6J mm. Thi.
necessitates an increase in the minimum pitch to 45°. For reasons p~viously
given, this angle should be avoided, and a pitch or So" to 55" adopted.
The gauge equal. lengt:-Ia p _ 267-~3 mm = 102 mm. As in slating,
lMre rnwt be THRO thidmeues of tiles at the lop.
Typical eaves and ridge details are shown in Fig. 72.
Eaves Detail (see c).-The spars forming the simple open eaves project
only 75 mm, and a tilting fillet is fixed to them to give the necessary tilt for the
lower courses and the doubling eaves tiles. Felt damp proofing is shown.
Ridge Detail (see 8).-The top course, like that in slating, is tilted by using
a thicker batten at the ridge; the'length of this course should be such IS to gi ...e
a 102 mm margin, and in the example it is 216 mm. Either the hog-back ridge
tile as shown, or a half-round ridge tile (as shown at A, Fig. 71) provide ..
suitable finish, and these tiles should be bedded, jointed and pointed in cement
mortar or mastic as described (or slating. This pointing material may be
coloured to conform with that of the tiles. The underside of the tiles is shown
torched, but untearable felt (fixed as described on p. 135) may be used if pre-
ferred. Lead-covered ridges should never be used for tiled roofs on account or
the colour which, as a rule, contrasts violently with that or the tiles.
Tiled verges m:1y he constructed in a similar manner to that shown for slating
at E, Fig. 70.
Hips are often finished with similar tiles to those used for ridges, but such
are unsightly. The best treatment is that provided by bonnet hip tIles; these
are curved and bond in with the adjacent tiling. Purpose-made V-shaped
hip tiles which course in with the plaintiles are al§O employed.
The best form of valley for a tiled roor is the swept' valley where each course
of tiles in the adjacent sloped surfaces is s\\ept ruund 10 a suitable curve; this
is constructed as briefly explained on p. 137. Another good form is the laced I
\'alley .... here wide tiles are used at the intersection and each course is lifted to
gIVe a lat'ed effect. The most common method adopted, especially for .peeo-
lali\'e work. consists of forming a lead valley as shown for Ilating in Fig. 75;
this is not desirable on account of ils unsatisfactory appearance, for in general,
lead work in a tiled roof should not be exposed to view as its colour clashes wilh
that or most tiles.
INTERLOCKING TIL E S
In terlocking tiles (sometimes called single-lap tiles) are the lightest type of
roof tilin~- --weighing 36.6 in comparison with 63.5 kg.'m l for plain tiles.
Hence Ihe groundwork of spars and purlins can be lighter than for plain tilirg
'Set- Chap. iII, Vol III.
$
 Till N G
and 7S mm by 50 mm spars II 450 mm c~ntres ar~ sufficient for spans up 10 Z m.
Int~rlocking tiles (see Fig. 39) are machine mad~ of concrete in vlrious sizes
and sections, the 380 mm by 230 mm type It D is typical. The tiles are troughed
as shown al A and D, have one nail hole, two nibs which engage behind the
38 mm by 19 mm bauens, and the undertide also has projecting lugs which fit
into the troughs of the tile below. They can be laid with a slrli!ight bond or
they may ha\'e a broken bond like plain tiling and slating (~.l. at A, Fig. 70).
In th~ latter e\'~nl, special left and right-hand ttles arc used for Ihe fini.sh at
the nrge.
4S mm copper nails arc used for the best work, each tile in alternate course
being nailed except where the roof is exposed and steeply pitched when all the
tiles arc nailed. All the ea\es and ridge tiles and those at Ihe valleys. hips and
verges mUlt always be nailed.
Pitch, Lap and Gaug~. Interlocking tiles arc laid with a minimum head
lap of 76 mm, they also h~!\'e an interlocking side lap of 26 mm as shown a: A.
The minimum pitch is 30' when the gauge is z80 mm and the head lap is 100 mm
as shown at E. For pitches of 3S and upwards a 304 mm gauge and 76 mm
head lap can be used.
Note that unlike plain tiles there are only "l'(} thicknesses of lile It the head
lap as indicated at c.
Eave$ Detail (see E).-The eaves project:tls mm and small sprockets arc
used to give support to the felt at this point. The truss (see pp. 77 and 78 for
dellCription) rests on a 100 mm by So mm wall plate to whith it is spiked and the
ca\'ity wall is dosed by a ZIS mm brick course and one of half bricks as beam
filling.
Ridge Detail (see E).-This is quite simply arranged as shown. the top
batten is slightly thicker to enlure that the top course sits tightly on the course
below. The ridge tile is btdd~d as d~5Cribed 3bove for plain tiling.
'4'
Verge Detail (sec A).- -This shows the use of a plain tile as an under·c1oak
and a special left·hand \o'erge tile to finish the edge. The treatment is similar
to that already described (or a slated verge.
Abutment Detail (see 8).-Thi5 occurs at a chimney stack and shows the
use of a simple lead cO\-er Rashing which must extend over at least one of the
raise:d portions of the tile. (Sec also p. tSo.)
Hips are made with third·round tiles similar to those for the ridge, the imer·
locking tiles being cuI to the line of the hip.
Valleys are formed by using purpose-made troughed valley tiles nailed to
short timbers nailed bctwttn the jack rafters and parallel to the valley rafter.
The single lap tiles arc laid to project o\er the valley liles. and after being cut to
rake to form an opcn valley about 100 mm wid~. morlar beddin~ is pointed in
along the cut edges.
Thermal Insulation of Roofs. It is important to prevent the undue
loss of heat throujo:h the roof and the Building Regulations include a clause to
this effect. The ",,",mum requirements for a pitched roof arc that it should
have slates or til~s plus felt with a 60 mm thick quilt of glass (or slag) wool
over the ceiling (or between the ceiling joists). In the case of a flat roof
havlOg boarding not less than 16 mm thick a 46 mm thick quilt must be in·
corporated within it or within the ceiling to it. Insulaung quilts are
obtainable in I m wide rolls from zs to 7S mm thick. comprising a paper
cover~d core of slag (or glass) wool. An alternative is shown 10 Fig. 39.
where the inlulation consists of loose vetTl'\lculit~ (an expanded fOITTl of
mica) 70 mm thick. Another insulating material IS 38 mm thick ~xpanded
polystyrene insulation board fixcc\ to the top of the ceiling jOists.
 C H APTER S I X
PLUMBING
S>"lIab"I:-Bn~f dr$(."nption of Ih~ manufacture of milled and east .heet kad; character;.t,,:s; "'elghl' of 'h«1 lead u~ for noou. purpota; tennl; Indudin.ll
roll., dnps. RashmRs and $08.ken. D~'IIII. of Ind"ork at gUI1~n, R"I'. ehlRlne~' shlcks, rld~. h,ps and \"Il1I .. ~·s, R,,,,n~'\aler Plf'C'S, Domrshc "aler S<'n'io.::rs, Tool •.
Lead is chicRy produced from an ore, called galena. which is a compound of
lead and sulphur. The principal sources of suppl~' are the Cnited States of
America, Spain. Australia, Canada. Gt!rman}' and :\lexico; comparatively
little of the are is now obtained from English mines,
Manufac tu re o r Lead.-Gne of S<'H'tal melhods of ,bSIr.tCllng Ihe leud i. 10 smelt
the orr In II l'urnau.. 10 remo,'e CerlJm ImpUrities; Ihe melal .. run 1010 POlS, lunsfcrred
10 lURe cnp~r pMl., remelted 10 .. hmlnal .. furch .. r ImpUrlll"'. and the s"fl ... fined met,,1
" fin~lIy l:J~t IntO blIrs CIOlied pi1(" Thne pil/s ',,:11th from J/l 10 H ka;: "ach .ond J'"
u~<,d for the mjl"uf~Clu.e of sh .. n •• plpt':t, ett
Sh""l It'lid I' u...,d for ('oH'rinR roofs, ~'"'r' ...d~, elc Th..-r... ar .. 1\\0 nlethod\ of
manuf~ctunnl/ .hNI Ind. ; ..... {,,' nlllkd or rollfl:! .h..... , I.. ad, and (6) (,," .h.... , I.."d
(.. ) ,\IIIl..d,,~ R"fltd Shut 1....",/ -ThOi' PIllS I>f I..... d ~n· m .. h«f ~nd C~II 1010 s\ahs from
I' ~ 10 2 '2 m lonlr. I '2 to I'll m ,,,de, and .. ppro,<Imat .. l" 12~ mm Ih,d:: E .. ch slab 15 paqro 10
Ih., mill. th .. bed of" hl~h "on5lSI5 of a tlCr,,·. 01 ~t ...,] rollers. and '"U~led 10 Ih\' mlddl .. ~nd
JUUU the bfii I~ d p~" of hean- rolkn; Ih .. b."d rolle .. .I." Glused 10 rOtal," Ihl: .I"b 15
p .. " ..d b .. "k" .. rds ;md f"r.'~rds bet'Hen tht I.,rlel: rollers ul1tll liS Ihld"'.... ~ I~ rrou""J
to a sh.... 1 "hleh I~ ~pprm"mlltel)' bUI um(ormly 2~ mm 'hIck. ~-610 II n.lonl( Jnd 2 10
3m '\ld.. ; Ih .. ~hee"lIr .. lUt LIlI" ~OIt~bl .. ~1l<'S, .. ~"h p,el:" I. p~s,..,d IhrOl"l(h the tinl~hon ..
mill to .eduu· It to ;, atiect of th~ r"'<lulr~d "elI/hi lind Ihl<kn".~. Jnd til1~lIy Ih" ,heel i.
rnlled InIO .. ,'nIl fo.d,sp .. l"h to th .. plumber 1\1"~1 nf th,' ~h<'etlead u'ed.II Ih.· pn""n!
IIOW <~ m .. nuf.luured bl' Ihis procC'~~
(h) ('''$1 ,')IIUI i.t,IJ ThIS I. p.odu,,'d I,,' melhnl( th,' Pl)/S .. lid pourlOR 1\ o'-.. r .. bo.·tl
of ."nd pr.. p,I,,·d 0011 .. "a~un/{ hrlKh. " h" h ,B Ir"l11 ,1-7 In .. ,6 m lunlt and I l to I 'K m
,\Ide. and Ih.· h"'l/h, of th .. {ramC' IS ah"ul 700 mOl Imm ,h" floor; In.: !>lind b."d" P(.,p~r~d.
and 1.. , ..H..d .urr."e bc-onl( ~llll"htl' bdu" the: .,dfln of ,he b."och. depc:ndmlt up"n thl'
r"<.jultrd ,h,,'km'.~ of Ihe I..."d Th .. mollen IC'tId " rournl into II !rouKh. >Cffi", .."uia. on
""'lion. "hl(h .,"'ends 10 ,he full '\Ldlh I>f ,h., Mn"h 10 "h,ch II I. hmi; .. d .. , on" .. nd;
Ih .. trouRh " rOl.lled to up Ihe I..ad on '0 ,h., ... nd b..d aotlthe ltad IS push.,J h,r.... rd b,
m .... n' of. 'Ink .. or b .. "h",h run. nil I/ulo.., .. n ,he ionR "d ..es of Ih .. fram" .. t a h""l/hl
cortelpllnJIIlR to Ih .. rC<lu<ted Ihll'ln"g uf Ih .. I....d
CII5I le .. d IS ,.,""d..."d 10 be ,he torsi fnron III ,,!vel k .. d~1I bt,mlt'oUl,:hu th..n mIlled
~h .. tl-- but II " rd~,,\' ... ly .. ~p"n.,,'" II i~ uKd fur tif"ll daM work.'
(}rnamtnl~llrJd\\Ork. such .. ~ ralO_"Hltr heads and ,,,, .. ,,ngs 10 aH·hlll."(·IU",1 ("alur .. ~.
IS pruduc .. d froOll cast Ind; Ihl' und b..d on Int eUIIIlj;( Mnl:h 1. 1.... tll"d off ~nd. muuld
of Ihl' r<'\lulred sh~pc ~nd the rt"",.,. .. "j the surfaLC' tl""nrahon IS ,mprC5!t'd on the und;
Ih .. moll .. n 1.... 0.1 " pou • ...! o .... r lhls pr.'f'.l, ..d ,urf.l:". Int upper sudan' II 1.. ".. lled off h,-
Iht' .lrIk ... lind Iht undeTSurfa« i. ornlm.. 01 .. d ","h thO' d"l:orJlIon III r.. l<tf; nch pl"C"
of Iud 1>, t"mm .. d. cut to Ihe rrqulrf'f' lenltlh, ~h~p'·.1 u re'lulTtd. and tiruoU .. jOlOnd bv
iead·bu,nlOlI or .. )Idenn~.
, Th .. rool. of Ihe \l~nche."·r CtnTral R.. t.. r.. I1,,, I.Ibr •• ~- and th .. To"'" Iiall E"'''OIioll.
\laneh .." .., (compkted 10 IOUh.' ar...0Hr..d ,,,th .... 0, ~ rm/ ,hul Ind and th .. 1('lal
"tl,hl of I... d und ",as apprm:om"tl."i\- l';'l k]l
'.'
Cha r acteristics of Lead.~This is a heAVY metal, weighing approximately
I 1374 k~ m3 ; soft, \ery malleable. tough and flexible; easily worked and
readily cut; \cr}' durable (pruvided II is not subjected to certain acids and not
in contaci \Iith Certain cements); is bluish Wey in colour with a bright metallic
lustre when freshly cut, hut this tarnishes when t!xpoScd to the air.
Lead has a hlf:h ((Hffi"""' of lin,ar 'XpanJlon (it being 0'000029 per C, or
approximate!) t\IO and a half times that of sll.'1:l) and it therefore readily expands
and contracts Ilhen subjected to considerable \ariations or tcmperalllrc, It is
because or this charactcristic ttl"t very larj(e sheets of lead must bt- a\oided
(especially if used to co\'er ,-ertical surfaces) Olnd ample provision made to
permit of thl>. mOlellu:nt. In Ihis conneetion. defects such as wrinkl1n~. bul~lng
and crdckmg \1 III he avoided if the OT~Q of tod. P'''U of shut Itod IS IIm,l,d 10
2-23 m~, ami 'I olliv trco (If tht adJaul11 sidtl of a ..ulongulaT shnt af<' fix,J.
Attention is drJv.n to 11'11' \·arious details shown in Figs. 73. 74 and i5. which
make provision for mO\'ement duc to c>;pansion and contraction,
Weights of Sheet Lead . Despi te the chan~c to metric units, le"d is
s(kcificcl by numbers accordin~ to its \leight m Ib, per square foot. Thus No. 4
lead \\ei~h~ 4-19 lb. per sq. ft, The wei~hls recommended for various purposes
are.
tl~,~, p>l"htd mof.. "od ItUlle,.,. '\0. 6, 7 Or 8 Iud
IIlps ~nd Tldl!"~ '\0. t) or 7 Iud
..'I,.,.h,lll(s '\0. 5 I... ad
So;ik"T~ '0. J or,. kid
I.ie:hter ,\ctghts th"n the ahme arc often adoptcd in cheap work. and It IS not
uncommon 10 nnd th;il for such \\ork :\'0. 5 lead is employed for flats.
The thicknc:>s and colour coJe of the various~rades arc shown 111 brackets thus:
~o. 3 (1'25 mm, .e:reen). \'0. -+ (t·R mill, blue), 'Jo. 5 (2'24 mm, red). :.Jo, 6
(2'5 mm, black), :-';0,7 (3'15 mm. white) and ~o. R (3'S5 mm, oran~e),
Terms, Tht! follOWing' terms are used in plumb1l1~
Bum"g means" workinl:; up" and is appl1ed IU the labour in dressing lead
to ""ricus shapes when formin.e: rolls. drips, cesspools, etc .• hy means of the
bossin~ stick and other lools dcscrihcd on pp. 156 157. Care must be taken to
maintain a uniform thickne5s of lead when performin~ this operation.
 SHEET LEAD
Bwmng-," IS the method which is somc=tlmes adopted to 'JC:curc the edl(e$
of lead cov'crings of projecting stone mem~rs. A groove or ,atld IS formed
in the stonework (see At Fig. 76), the edge of the lead is scraped clean ami turned
into it, and secured by molten lead \\hich is poured Into the raglet and afterwards
consolidated or cau/lted by using the caulkin~ tbol shown ;it s, Fig. 79. The
lead is poured down grooves formed in a narrow board (which n::slli OIL t:dJ.{O!
upon the cornice and i. placed against the face of tile parapet) and delivered into
the raglet; the hot Iud healS the turn-m of the covering and unites wilh il.
This method is not now commonly employed owing to the dittil.:ulty experienced
in raismg the temperature of the edge of the lead covering to that required to
effect complete unity bet ..... «;n It and the mohen I~ad, and the method adopted for
fixmg cover flashings to brickwork is often pr~f~rred, i.~., we:dges are driven in
at about 300 mm intervals and the joint is afterwards pointe:d with mastic or
cement mortar (see below and p. 148)
Sold" is an alloy'O£ lead and tin, and used by the plumber to join pic:ces of
lead and form Joints between lead pipes, elc.; this operation is called soid"mg.
Coorst or plumbing sold~r is used for uip,d JOInts (see p. 155) and consists of
2 parts lead and I part tin, fin~ sold", used for finer .....ork, is a mixture of I
part lead and 2 parts un; ordinary sold" is a mixture of lead and tin in equal
parts and is used for forming cop~.bit p"ntl (see p. 155). Coarse solder is
either heated in a meltmg or solder pot (u, Fig. 79) and poured on the joint by
means of a ladle (M, Fig. 79), or it is cast mto narro .... IIrips which are about
300 mm by 32 mOl by 0'45 kg and in this form the solder IS applied to the joint
by using the blow·lamp (..... , Fig. 79) to melt the strip.
uad Burning or Wtldmg.- ThiS is the proceu of uniting by h~at (fusing)
picco of lead in which gases (such as oxy-acetylene, oxy-coal gas, etc.) are uti-
liLcd ilnd sp«ial blow-lamps employed. It is a method which has been devel-
oped in recent years and used for certain purposes as a substitute for soldering.
Nails a1fd Nailing. -The nails used for fixing leld ..... ork to wood are of copper,
:15 to 32 mm long, with clout (flat) heads. The term clOIl nailing is applied when
the nails are at from 25 to 75 mm intervals; in opnt na/bng the nails are spaced at
from 75 to 200 mm.
Soams are thin pieces of lead (not more than So. 4 grade) which are placed
between slates. The size Ind shape varies, thus tbe lIOakers described on p. 150
(see c and M, Fig. 75) are 175 mm wide, bent at right Ingle5 with an upturn of
75 mill. and a length which vlries in accordance with the length of the slates,
whilst those described on p. 137 are square. They are either nailed to the
boarding (at their headl) or the tops are turned over the slales. Only light lead
i. ulled for soakers to prevent the tilting or riding of the slates.
Flaahing••- Theae are narrow pieces of lead which are required at the
intersection between vertical faces of wall. or framing and pitched roofs, flat.,
gutters, etc. They Ire c1at1ified into:
(I) HorUontal Coon Flashings, which are usually 1So mm wide strips h2.ving
their upper edges turned as mm into the raked-<,ut joint of the brickwork (or
'43
ragkt formed in the foIon~work) and the IOw~r ed~es lapped over and cO\'ering
the uptllT" or upstand (vertical portion) of the lower pIL"CCS of lead (see Fil!;c§.
73 and 74, and p. 148).
(2) Apron Flashings, .... hidl Jre provided at the: front of chimney-stacks,
dormers, etc., and are from :zoo to 300 mm wide; the io"cr portion is dressed
over the sbte:s and the upturn /s let 25 mm IIItO th.e raked-out jOint or t"a~lel (see
A, 5, Land 0, Fig. 75, and p. 150).
(3) SttpfHd Co.:rr Flashmgf, .... hich are from 150 to 200 mm wide and ha\c
their upper edges cut into a series of steps; thc hori:wnlal edge of each step is
turned 25 mm into the rake:d Joint. They arc fi\cd at the: sides of bnck chimneys,
gable walls, etc. (see A. B.• , (; and s, Fig. is, and pp. 150 and 1St).
(.) Raking Cot'~r Flaslllngs, which are used in lieu of (3) when the walls
.Ire of stone. The upper edge of the Rashing is let 25 mm into a raglet forme:d
parallel to the rake of the roof and this top edge is therefore not stepped (M'e
p. (5 1).
Flashings are in lengths cut across thc width of the roll and the maximum
length therefore varic8 from 2'1 to 2'7 m; they are secur~d alOng their upper
edges by lead wedgcs.
IAad Wl'dgl's :::re tapered pieces of lead of the size lnd shape as shown at 0,
Fig. 74. Tiley are made either (a) by running molt~n lead into a mould and
cutting lhe tapered sfrip into short pieces when cool (such are called casl lead
wedges) or (b) by folding pieces of scrap sheet lead and beatin~ them inlo shape.
They are used to fill flashings and are driven in belween the lum·in of the
Rashing and the upper edge of the joinl. In the ca!~ of hori20ntal and raking
cover flashings, the wedges are driven in at about 300 mm internls- HO mm
mlllCimllm (!U'I" R, n lind Q. Fig. 73); one or two are provided at each step of a
stepped Rashing (see A, Band •., Fig. 75). The raked-out joint between the wed-
ges is pointed with eitber cement mortar or maslic. The section at N, Fig. 74
!how! a wedge in po!ition.
If used to secure Rashings in stonework in lieu of burning-in (see abo~'e),
the edge of the lead is bent and turned back to completely line the raglet, and the
wedges are driven into the folded edge.
Oak "edges are sometimes u~d in cheap work. These are apt to become
loose when they shrink.
TackJ, Tingles or Clips are strips of lead used to stiffen flashings and prevent
their free edges being lifted by a strong wind. They are from 50 to 75 mm wide
and are placed at a distance apart not ellceeding 760 mm. As shown at M,
Fig. 74, each tack is filled in the Joint, and it is sufficiently long to turn over and
grip the free edge of the flashing by about 25 mm. Tacks are also required 10
ICC'Jre hollow rolls at 610 mm inter\'als (L, Fig. 74), and welts Ind ridge coverings
at 610 to 1200 mm intervals (sec B, It and s, Fig. 75), the fixed ends of the tack,
being clout-nailed to the boarding (or ridge) as shown Copper tacks, being
stiffer than lead, are used for first·c1us work (see below).
144 PLUMBING
Joints.-As already mentioned. provision must be made to allow lead to
expand and contract, and the Joints between sheets must be fOfmed 80 as to
permit of this movement. The various joints are: (I) laps, (2) roils, (3) drips
and (.) welts.
(I) Lap Jolnts. - These occur at a maximum of 2-' to 2-7 m apan (depending
upon the width of the roll) for flashings, upturns of gulters, ridges, hips, "alleys
and lead coverings of pitched roofs. .rhey arc also called posslnKs. The
amount of lap (distance that one piece co\crs the adjacent piece of lead) is usually
100 mm for cover flashings, upturns of gutters and aprons, and 150 mm for
stepped and raJu~d ftashings, ridges, hips and vancy•.
The side laps of lead covering pitched roofs are in the form of rolls or welts
(see below) and thc lower edge of each upper sheet laps Ihe lOp edge of the sheel
below illo form a horizontal joint. The "mount of lap al such horizontal Joinls
depends upon Ihe pitch; it is usually 150 mm when Ihe pitch e).ceeds 45 ,and
Ihis may be increased to 230 mm for flauer pilchcs. Ahernatin:ly, horizontal
wellS may be used instead of wide laps, bUI Ihese may detract from Ihe apP'"ar-
ance of Ihe roof.
When the slope of a roof is less than '5 ' the horizontal Joints he,\\,et:n the
sheets of lead are usually in the form of drips (see below).
(2) RDlh.- This form of joint is required on lead-covered flats, pitched roofs.
ridges, certain forms of hips and long gutters. They "Te placed at inten-Jls
varying from 460 mm to a maAimum of 760 mm for A"ts Jnd similar construc-
tion.
There are three kinds of rolls, ,.~ .• two forms of covering wood or solid
rolls and a hollow Toll.
Solid RoIls.- One form is shown at P, Fig. 7). and J. Fig. 7-4.1 The wood
roll is shaped as shown and is nailed or screwed to the boarding. One edge
of a sheet is dressed into the angle between the roll and boarding and continued
beyond the crown as shown. This is called the und"riOQIf or und~rsht'tt. Its
edge is secured with 25 mm copper nails at 25 to 150 mm apart (depending upon
the quality of the work) and the edge is rasped off. The edge of the adjacent
sheet is .....orked into the angle, passed over the underdoak and continued 25
to 50 mm on to the flat of the roof or bed of the gulter. This is known as the
oowclOQIf or owrSM~t.
The second form of solid roll is shown at K, Fig. 74. The undercloak is
dressed and secured as abo\'e descnbed, but the overdoak is brought over to
within 7 to 25 mm of the flat on the other side. This method was generally
preferred in the North of England. but now both forms of solid rolls are adopted
equally there.
There is a difference of opinion as to which of the two methods shown at
J and K is the best. In the former, water may gain access between the sheela
by capilbry aUT2&tion. Whilst this is avoided at K, this practice is not recom-
mended for exposed positions on the free edge of the overdoak, having an
inadequate gnp, may be lifted by strong Winds.
The treatment at the ends of solid rolls is referred to on p. liS.
Hollow RolI.-This type is adopted for hest work in connection with lead-
covered pitched roofs, and especially if cast lead is to be used;1 il is also suitable
for COvered surfaces, such as domes, where wood rolls could not be employed
economically. The roll is supponed by " stout" (preferably from No.8 lesd)
lead tacks or tin,il:les \\hi<.:h are 50 mm wide and 150 to 175 mm long; the~ arc
placed at 610 10m apart, and one end of ta(;h is secured to Ihe boarding by two
copper dout nails, the hoarding having been slightly recessed to recei,'e it.
Coppcr tacks, bein~ stronger than lead, are used in superior work, each end
being secured by two or"ss scre\\~. When turning a hollow roll, the edge of the
underdo",k is upturned ,·enie:ally. the tacks arc fixed and their free ends are
turned o\er the 1I1llIerdo:lk, the: ed).!e of the overdoak is upturnt:d and also turned
o\'er the underdoak, and the II hole is finally dres~d to Ihe form shown in the
illustration. 11011011 mils are nut suitable for fiJt roof~ as tht)" ;Ire liable to he
damaged if trodden nn.
Rolls ;.Ire J,I.!JIn rcfcrr<.:J to in the fullo\\ mg PJgcs.
()) /)rips or S'''PI an.' formed nn tiJts and in gUllers which exceed 2'-f m in
Width or length, ;md they "rc plJced JCrfll)S thc fall. They .Ire gencrJII~' 50 mm
and sometimes 75 mOl Jl·Cp.
Three forms uf drips .Ire shown it Q. Fig. 7), Jnd 11., T and I'. Fi,,~:. i-f. Thc
50 mm drips at Q ,md R shl)\\ the upper edJet: uf the 101ler shcet (called the ,/lid,,·
shut) dressed into the ;Ingle, contlllUcd up thc step fir drip, and dressed inltJ the
",0 mm \Iide shilklll reoate funncll Jlnng the ed).!c of the ho:nding to which It is
dose copper-nailed . The ohJcct of the rebate is 10 ",,"aid a rid.e:e in the lead.
The 101\er edJee of the upper sheel (calkd the of:tnhut) is dressed oler It. "nd
hke tht: roll at J, is continued on the Rat or hed for 25 to 50 mm. The 75 mm drip
Jt T has thl' mer,.hccl slupped short of Ihe AJt; \\aler cannot thereby gain access
hy capillary Jllrallion. but like the roll of ~lImLiar construlllOn, the free ed,ll:e of
the overthect IlIJ} be disturbed in a high gale. A ~econd method of prelenting
capillary attraction is sho\\n at t·. \\hich illuslrates J" cJpilbr}" woo,",~" formed
along the step and Into \1 hlch the IJndc~hee( is dre:;scd; II hilsl this construclion
is excellent in theory. it is very fUely adopted in prJctice.
Drips are further considered laler.
(4) 1I'~lts or SlQmS are often employed for jointmg sheets of lead cm-enng
vertical and sleeply pitched surfaces and for jointing lead and copper damp-
proof courses (see p. 18). A welt is illustrated at R, sand T. Fig. 75. Like
hollow rolls, the edges of the adjacent sheets are upturned With 50 mm II Ide lead
or copper tacks between, the tacks being fixed at from 610 to 1200 mm intervals;
after being folded as sho\\n at R. the upturns arc dressed down as closely IS
I 110110.... folll , 6J mm dl~meter, Ire emplo\-ed on Ihe roof or the l.lbrary refer",d 10
In Ihe rOOt note on p 141. ~nd Ihele ue KCUr~ by I!O mm b)' 1~ mm copper IPck. ~I
.60 mm inltn-.. I.
 PARAPET GUTTERS

COVEIUNG AT WALl.
B

Q
n-so
SECTION TH..au<iH 50

(MINIMUM FAll 12,.. 'M 1000..... )

SECTION TtW)UoGH CESSPOO\..v·OO

FIGUIU! 73
".'-
 PLUMBING
~iblc all to thc R,II. The ~pa,"(,:s bt.,t\\c\'n the folels han- tll:t:lll'mrh;l~i/Cd to
,1'10\, the ~onstrucllon mort: ck;lfly. Jnd the finished appearance of a IICII morc
d05d} rcltmbles the ~kel!.:h at T. The width of the seam ~'arit."S from 3l to 75 /lim.
Wchw Jninls arc not liuitdble for flats or low.pitched Toofs, but like hollo"
roils, they are vcr} df«II\'(' for .!eep or curved 5urfac(:s. Detail 0, Fi~. i5.
!lhows a !>CClion throul{h a \Iell which may he tmplo}'cd at rid~cs in lieu of
ISO mm laps.
The 1'001 of Int' M,m"h"lrr TOWn 11..11 bu,h.ltnll (loti: fooJn"'" on ",. 1..1) ,,_ ..
bo PIlCh, ;lnd the dlecu or ....sllead He joined at Ihelr slopmlt ooJ,!rS b\ v.dn "hich
are 70 mm "Ide. Ihe horiwnlal jO;'lla consist of 165 mm ",de laps and tht ~hecl. 3re
se.;-ured by fUming the 101" cdjtel oler the board,"!: to "hich th('y are dnM' coppt"r.
n3,kd; each board Jmmedi~tdy ~ho\'e that to "hl<'h Ihe.' upper edJ,:e uf the sheet
"31 nailed lIas remOl'ed ('I bcinjlleft lOOK (or th,. purp..",e) "nd, "rtcr na,ljn~ the
Ih~t. Ihi. board I'''' replaced lind n~,led
Gutters. -There are thr« forms of lead-t:O\·tred gutters, i.e., (0) parallel
parapt't gutters, (b) tapered parapet ~ullers Olnd (c) V-gullerll.
(a) Parallel Paraptl (}UllffS.- -As i.. implied. this gutter is situated behind a
p.arapet wall and at tht: bottom of a flal or sloping roof; it is also known as a
0.1,\ 01 r",uXh )::ultl:r. The I::uller IS of uniform widlh throughoul and mUllt he
at least 255 mm II ide to afford adequJte foot room. A lon.l:: gutter is divided into
seuions, h;\ving J. roll .11 the highest point, and drips at inlerl"al" not exceeding
2"..1- m apart; it is )i:i\en a minimum fall of U'S mm per metre. In Fig. 7] it
recei\'es the drainaJ,!c from a sloping roof. and in Fi~. i4 i~ associ;ltcd Ilith a
lead flat.
The timber details of the gutter shown in Fig. 7] are referred to on p. 78;
a part plan is shown at c and a longitudinal section is sho\\n at B; a So mm roll
IS placed at the highest point from \\hicb tbe ~utter fall!; 25 mm to a So mm drip
and the lower portion falls 25 mm 10 a cesspool.
A usspool or drip-box is a lead-lined receptacle, situated at the 10llesl end
of a gUller, from which a lead outlet pipe, suitably bent, discharges the water
into a rain-water head where it is conveyed by a rain-water pipe to a gully and
drain. Rain-water heads and pipes are described on pp. lSi ISS. The
minimum depth of a cesspool shoutJ he 150 mm. The wood framing, its sup-
port and the chamfered hole are detailed at 0, Fig. i]' The lead lining is in one
piece. two sides being turned up 300 mm against the lIalis,-a third side bein~
turned up I So mm and dressed J8 :TIm into a shallow rebate formed along Ihe
lower edge of the gUller boardin,g: to "hich It is nailed, and the fourth side is
5 to mm long, J60 mm of which is turned ..-ertically with the remainder dressed
over tht: tilting fillet and roof boarding to which it is nailed. The lining is
bossed to the required shape from a TL'Ctangular piece of le40d before it IS placed
in position, and a skilled crahsman wi!! do this without resorting to folded or
"dog-eued" angles (Re p. 148). It is boled and dressed over the chamfered
hole formed in the wood bottom, and the outlet pipe,1 havmg been formed to a
'Th" .,U (11th" p'pe TUY be drtenrmt'd by alltJ"'lnJ( 10 em' 01 p,pe,,~ to lo,g m'
of roof lud• .:e.
sw,iO-nt:d( !lend ,IS d,:scribcd on p. 148, With 115 upper end cnlar)::cd by means
of a '''110m fir turnpin (:.ce E, Fi).t. i9). is either soldered as shown or lead-burned
to gi\"t~ a firm wa-tcrtlJ:(ht joint. A galvanized wire or copper balloon or dom~ is
5Ometim" tixed inlO the top of the outlet pi~ to prevent it from being choked
by !t:aH~s., etc. :\ j;mJII lead ol'erfto\\ or warll1ng pipe should be pro\'ided as
shown to sent as a templJrary outlet for the water in the C\'ent of the pipe be-
cominJ,! choked. As t:ertain mortars act chelmcally upon and destroy lead, it is
ad\isable to CO\'cr thl' h~aJ o\'erflow pipe Ind the portion of the oUllet pipe wbich
passes through the \1 .. 11 with larred fclt (!oCe Band 0); alternativell, these pipes
molY be ~1\en " coatin~ of bituminous paint.
The lower section of the gutter is cQ"cred •• ith lead after the cesspool has
been hned. the co.-cring consistin~ of thc bed, a 125 or 150 mm upturn or upstand
J~ainst the •• all, and an upturn aj;!aim.t the pole plate whil.:h is continued over tbe
tilting rillet to about t So mm on the slope of the roof where it is open copper-
nailed to thc boarding .Ilong its cdge. ThiS lower end is dressed 100 mm down
the cesspool, dnd the LIpper end fOlm! tht undcT"!Ihf'el of the drip which has been
described on p. IH.
The nc\t section of the gutter has a similar (o\-ering; the lower end forms
the over..heet of tht drip and the upper end is dressed o\'cr the roll 10 provide
the underc10ak (see 1').
The CO\'cr Rashing is fi\ed. commcncing at the cesspool end, after the oPPO·
site half of the guller has lx:en lined in a similar manner and finished with the
upper end of Ihe top section formmg the overdoak of the roll. Enlarged details
sho\\ing the laps, tacks and wedgcs are gi\'cn at 0, p and Qi the detail al A
shows the relative heighls of the roll, drip, etc.
It will be seen that each piece of lead forming a gutter (and cesspool) is
fixed along two adjacent edges onl)'j the other two edges being free to allow the
lead 10 C\pand and contract.
S..ou: Boards should be pronded to gunl'n In order that melted Ino" may h.ve
frH pataa~ to tho: outku and to prot«t IhI' le"d lIpinst d .. mll~ by tnfflc; .... ,thout
:II
~uch boIIrd •. the snow on the j;L:uue.'r ,mp..des (hI' fib ... of watl'r a. the .now' thaws on
the undl'n,dl'. lind th" may <:au... the w~tH to rise above the lead co\'cnnjl and
penetrate the roof. A snow bo"rd may eonsl.t of two 100 mm by So mm longitudinal
bHren, extendin.'! the full lenJi:th of the lk"Ctlon. to the top of "hich arc nailed
So mm by 19 mm tnmS\'erlle l"th.1II about IJ mm apart.
Anolher example of a par:Jl1el gUller is shown in Fig. H and a further example
is shown at G, Fig. 24.
(b) Ta~,~d Po,o~t Guller (see J, K Jnd N, Fig. 7]). -The wood details of
Ihis guller are described on p. 7R (I« also "). This f!Utter, tapered on pl.an.
is divided into sectIOns by a roll and drips as described above. As s"'own on
the plan ..:, the lower ed~ of Ihe slating has to be cut p~ralle1 10 the tapered
side of the gutter. The section at N shows the width increases due to the fall
of each" bay" of the gutter and the drip. The sbape of the gutter on plan is
de\'e!oped by transferring to it from the sectlon tbe various widtbs at the lower
J NAlU£l~l1 A"fU.NTU...""J LEAD FLAT DETAILS
lv" ... '''''''' "'" '<--'''''''' (ND OF aou.
""

10'"

, !W'""""
>~O u
LEAD WEDGE

N
FIOUIll 74
I
/ and upper ends of each bay. The section 3150 sho",s the lead turned up 150 mm
PLUMBING
Jga;ns! the wall and about 230 mm up the slope. The li1tin~ fillet is fixed with
ill ~ower edge 75 mm abo\'c and parallel to the Intcrse<:\lon between the
gutter and roof boarding. The details of the cesspool, drips, foil, flashings,
etc" are similar to those already described. Another example of a tapered
guuer is sh<>y,n by broken lines in the elc\'ation in Fig. 21 and the section at
~'. Fig. 24. the section being laken throu~h the gutter immediately above the
cesspool.
(c) V-luttus. - -This type is formed along the 10\ller intersection between
two sloping roof surfaces. The groundwork may consist of bearers fixed to
the sides of the spars (at various heights to suit the fall of the guner) as sho"n
at T, Fig. 36, when the construction resembles that of a tapered gutter, or Ihe
lower ends of Ihe spars of each slope may be birdsmoulhed over a pole plate
as sho ..... n at A, Fig. 73, 10 form a parallel guuer. Long lengths of such gutters
must be divided by rolls and drips as above described.
Cast iron and other caves J::utters are described on pp. 154 155·
Flats (~e Fig. 7i). The wood construction has been described on p. 70.
It hOi:! been mcntioned thlt the minimum f~1I j<l; 1·~5 em in 100 em. To prevent
\\lIler standing when the flat has been Riven such a small fall,;1 is necessary that
precautions against warpinR should be taken and therefore narrow, well·
~e;lsoned boards only should be used and these should be laid with their length
in thc direction of the fall. The surface of the boarding should be " flogged"
(I.r., dressed o,·er with a plane or machine) to remO\'e sharp edges and irregu·
larilies which may damage the lead. Occasionally Ihe boarding is covered with
roofing felt, laid with bun joinls. and Ihis assists in ensuring a uniform surface
for the lead.
The key plan lit 5 and the sketch at It. show thc roof of a 1m all building (an
adjunct to a larger building) which is divided into six bays and a parallel guner.
The rolls have been sho ..... n purposely at maximum centres of 76z mm; this
gi\·el an economical roof if z·'3 m wide rolls are used which are cut up the centre
to gi,·e 1'07 m widths, as the minimum waste of lead thereby results.
The construction of Ihe rolls, drips, gutter and Aashings has been already
described. The detail at It shows the drip, with the overshut turned on to the
\ Aat and over the bossed end of the roll. ~ote: (I) the firTing piece which is
nailed on to the top of the joist to give the necessary fall to Ihe boarding, (z) the
o\·erdoak or overshcet of the drip is lapped 75 mm over the roll below and (3) the
end of the roll is slightly be,·elled to facililate the bossing of the lead. In forming
the bossed end, the undercloak is dressed round 10 partially cover the end, and
the o\·erc!oak is bossed to completely co\·er it and the roll below. In order to
minimize the risk of the overdoaks of rolls being lifted by the wind, they should
be dussed with theif fru edgel least exposed to the prevailing wind. Note
that at A and Q the overcloak of the drip at the gulter il not continued on to the
bed,.but il dreued jUlt dear of it at the upper end. The Q\'ercloak at the bossed
end of each roll at the gutter i. continued down the drip and secured by a small
clip or pi ...'<::c of Iud (whi(;h has been left on the undercloak when trimming It)
"hich is turned over it (sec Q).
Form.ng '~ad nalt.-The follo\\lnjl: IS Ih~ order n \\hich leadwork fot Ihe Itst
at " 'I ould ~ cx~uted Cesspool" .Ih oullet pIpe (.though the fiS:I1"1R of the latter
ma\· be dderr«l), I(Uller. lo"cr $Ide bliy '11th underd03k, lo"ct mIddle b~y, lower
I,d,· bay 'I IIh o,·er~IO/Ik, upper I,de b~)' 'I .th undercio~k. upper middle bay, .nd upp"r
IIde bay" ,th o,·ercioak. The CO\·U "ash,nl! II then fixed In !hc mortu JOlntl whIch
have b«n pre';ou~ly raked Qut for at lea.! z5 mm preferably ~fore the mort.r h .. let;
the finl lenllth of flashmR to be fixed il !hal over the upturn of the RUtter. commencing
III the c.,..pooI end. ~nd "rter oompleung those at the lides. that .Iong tho: top end i,
fixed; the H4shmSI are wedged .nd Ihe morlu jo.nll .re po.nted with cement morl.r
or 011 mastic.
Forming (I CeJJpooI. I- A p.e« of IO'ud is cut sufficientl), larlle 10 form the bue .nd
"dC-Sllnd.t " ~I OUI bych;dk-m.rllin.llthe hnes llOOIf "hlch w,lI be formed the angles
al the base and •• de. . (l"on.-f.ead mud "ftU be ,,,,,,lred rv Krvet! Willi (l1r"tilt or
&1m"'" Jh(lrp ob~ct a~ this al once "e~kenl .t$. Shallow llmovu are formed .101'111 the
1>:1 ... hnC"\! b)· plKmR the loCumg-'" luck on th<'r1l ~r.d .harply Itrik,".11 ,t with the
oo...ing m~lIet. The lead .. tumc:d with the bnnam upwnd •• nd lIently tapped
parallel to wnd . bout ~5 mm Ins.d., the ba.... I.nes; thl' 1."Sts In ",ffenmllthe blR Ind
k«pmJo: It firm. The le~d II turned over ynd the .. des are bent uflwnds on the
gromes, thO' cornel""l bemR lefl Each corner .. then IItpanotely bos5cd up by usmg
lhe manel . nd boainlE IlIck. the (ormer beinlf inSide th~ " box " (<<"pool) .1 the
boSSlnR I"d, .a applied 10 work the .uq'th'.I.... d IlraJUfllly from the bouam up\\ardl.
CITe mUlt be taken not 10 dr>lR the lead from the cornet Or C'UIe the ba.e to lift; i(
acre• ...., Ippe'l""I, " must be It once knocked out or the lead will pucku .nd .pht.
A. It II I{I"1Iduallr boaRd UP".ros • .ame of the IUperPunUS lcarl at thlt top should be
~Ut off to O'n~ble thc remainder to bou up molt' ell,ly_ Thi. process i. repeated lit all
...""Ornen and the "des ~rc ~ut off 10 the rellum:d h~Ilfht. Th~ cesspool i. holed,
dreued In posillon" requlTtxl and the WIer pipe conl"lC(:ted to ,I u .Irndy described.
Bntd"w IAtJrI p,,oet.-The (0110'1''". describes the bendlOlf of. lead pipe .uch IS
that .ho\\ n at Q, F'll. 74 The pipe " .lightly he-oiled 1I the pcMltion whefe the bend
1110 be formed; illl then bent ovltr the knee lind thll Hlltenl the pipe It the tllrool;
the long dummy (Y) (aee F'I(. 79) ,. now used '0 .pproxlmltely restore the pipe to I
Circular secllon by ,nsenmll the" 'Iraillt"ht end " (head c') Ind workln, it up Ind
do\\n unlillhe thrOilI i. Ifnldually broUllht out; the bendin, luck (c) " then .pplied
10 nch side of the p'pe lit the bend in tum, workinll hom the throat to the Mltl until
the circulu section hH been rou.llhly r~M:.'ned. The bobbin (F) Ind weight are
mlerted, the former being of the proper IIU to IU.t the pIpe and the l.tter IhJhtly
Ie.. ; • piece of rope .. au.ched to the weight Ind plsaed Ihrou,Q"h the bobbin .nd
pIpe; when the rope II lliven • Kries of sh.rp pUnl, the weiRht IEndu.lly drives the
bobb.n throulfh the bend, .nd u i! doc:. so the ,.,ttrior i. brought to • uniformly
Circular oorlt. The PIpe " sfl1l.n heated and the lime opc:ratlQlu Ire repe:ated, care
beinll t.ken In workin,Q" the bend with the bending ltock that s uniform thickne.. il
malnt.med. AI the radlu, of the bend increases, he.d D' of the dummy il uK<l to
bnng the Ihroat back 1nc: lower bend i. formed on th~ pIpe on ••imil., nIlnOlt;r.
Thlt heel hl"d dummy (1') i. useful for sh.pinr the h«l. of Ilrge p,pe:a .nd th~ hind
dummy (R) I. used for . mlll pipes. The ~"d of the pif)f" il .llghtly e.nlarre<l by
drivmlE the 'Inp.n (,) plrtly IOtO the mouth of the pIpe Fonally the pipe i. p~
f<.or IOld~rin.ll (or Iud burnin.lll it to the lead hni"1II th~ hole fanned in the bue. of
the cC"\!~poo1.
Ridges (see a, H .and J, Fig. 7s).-uad·co\·ered ridges are.uitable for Ilated
roofs, although lead is apt to discolour green slates.
The detail.t H ghow1 one method. A 50 mm wood roll i. nailed to the wood
, See p. t56 for. d..sc:ript.on Dnd Fil(. 79 for Iketch.,. of the plumbonr tool ••
LEADWORK
CHIMNEYS,

-7"'";. •..;;""'AT.~ CE'fT~S

SIiCTtON THP.OI.JGl4 '-lOGE
AT ' .' SHOWING tEAO CQOJU.INCi
t.PAI'- OF lEAD TA£KS NAILED TO
SlOn OF WOOD NOGf
HIPS MAY (OVU.fO wmt Fat.

, A M
 PLUMBING
ridge; a pair of So mm ..... id~ lead lach is nailed to the side of the ridge (kC B)
at 610 to !'l00 mm intervals; thc lead c;o\'cring consists of Slrips which aTC
from 450 to 508 mm Wide and 2'13 m lonl(; it is p3ssc:d over thc roll, well "orked
into the angles, and dressed o\"cr IhC' slates for 150 to 175 mm on each side; thc
frce ends of the tacks are then turned o\"l::r the ed/l:e5 of the lead for about 25 mm
to prev'cn! the lead from being lifted hy the wmd. The hnmantal jOints arc
generally lapped I So mm (a pair of tacks being provided at each), althoUJr;:h in
best work they may be welted as sho\.\ n ;U D.
An altcrnati\'C' method is sha .... n at J where the lacks (which pass o\er the top
of the ridge) aT!: nailed to the wood ridge hdore thc \\ood roL is fixed. The
treatment .n tht enll or Ihc nd,Rc abuuint: against Ihe chim"e)' ~tack i~ ~h')wn at
o and dCiCrihed on p. 152.
Hips. Lead may he u!>Cd at the hips in thc follo .... lng mJ.'lner. (I) wood
roll .... ith cOlHtnUOU" kat! co\·erinj:.: as 5hOI\11 for ridf.:c~, (2) CUI and mllr~'(1 slales
.... ,lh lead !\lukers, and (3) .... ood mil with kJ(1 suakers.
(I) Wood Null tu,h Cimtmll'llIi l.tod C/f"lt'tn~. This IS 1-uTIIIJr to Ih(' riJ~c
detail eM:epllng that tht: dihe .. lral anl!k i...... idcr. The ~tnp~ of lead :If(' naikd
at the head .. under the lap" ~nd Jle ~bo '>t:curcu hI tht· lead t~ds.
(2) ('lit and "'hfrrJ .'ilolrJ ruth 1"0'/ .'i"oken. TIll'rt are 1.... 0 llH:llulil .. "I
usin~ soakers, i.t., (0) ~lnl!lc-tOllrsc 'IOakcrs and (II) \Inllhle-c"ur~ soakl·n.,
(Q) This IS the arrafl~enlt:nt .... hu.:h I" ~hn\\"n ;It , .tnJ e;, Ft~, iO, alld dcsnihcJ
on p. 137. It pm\"ldc,> an e'a;elleTII finish til a sbtnl roof and 11 ,ldopIell in Ihe
Oest work,
(b) In Ihis methoJ, tht Itllf:th /If Ihr JUukt'rf If 26 1'1'" I"ngt' than 'hut ('I 'hI'
slatts; the horl7.0ntJ.l \Iidth of e.lch win.c: should ~ "lighth more tllJn tI\I' ~1.1tl·
btll," in order 10 covcr the joint, anll it tapers \() ahout ;0 rllm al thc hL,ld,
.... hich is narlrod. A soaker 1<1 plal:LJ "I ('wry Qf't"l1l/t c"u~sc. and IIlod"r(' .n
ever)' other course the 10 .... cr p... rlion (Ifl.lr,l.!tn) of c, ch ~nakn Ii e,po,>nl \0 lil'w
It is not ofttn atlopt<:d.
(J) U"OIllJ Roll te:ilh I.t:aJ '\"IflJ{f'rl, S')aker~ :lrt prm Ilk" a: elery course,
and throy Irc shlpc:d to p;ts.;. Iwer the mil and 1M,'!y,l'l'11 th(· ,lall'S :It the \linK';'.
The len~th of soaker roqual<l Ihe ~auge plu<l lap plus 21J mOl for .. mlre·nailed
slates and zfJ mOl longer for hl':ld-n.1l1nl <;!.lll"~: thl' \lLdth I~ h ~t.lll'd al (II)
above. They are l1ai1cd at Ih.., II 1.1 Thi, i, .lllnlllld melh..d lIud nile .... hiclt
is suitahle fl)r e\posed m",fs,
Valleys. Thc:<e Include (I) open \;llIn qutll·r .., (2) 'l'net ,.Ilkl' ~ltl\ers
and (3) cut and ffiltrtd slates '>ith wakl·rs.
(I) ()f't'n "aftt} (;Ilfftn (lk:e I', Ftj.!. is), I'hi .. 1<1 Kcnerall~ Cmr1fl\("J amI
prondes a lOun': hUI unanr.tClll'C InokUlr.: linish. TI,,: 1e... II" 111 2'1) m II'nJ::III~
with 150 mm laps, anti the .... idth I'> ,Iholl\ .. So mm. tWIIlK drl·,,"C,·d 'ller tilt' board-
inK and liltilllo: f.lleh ,1.'0; sho .... n; it i:-. I'1:l:ureJ hv d,~' Loppn I.:lilill~ up cadi
side alollj;.! the tdge, and the end", arc kft free, I'he dl',lr II,d,h t~t ....een the
cdgt's of thc slates ( .... hich arc l·ut to tIlt: r.lkl·) ~IHJuld 1101 1'Ie k'lI.<I 1r,.;1fl zoo mm (()
pronde adcquate foot room, J" ;\ Il!ss I\llith often reslIlh 11\ Ihe "Llle,; heinj!
dama~cd by anyont procctding up the vallty when carrying out repJ.lrs, tiC. If
the roof IS hatten~d and not boarded, it is n~cessary to fix a 250 mm .... id~ hoard
(call~d a lin' boord) on ~ach side of the intersection, and for the full extent of
the ullroy, in ordtr to receive the lead, The ends of the slating battens arc cut
to Ihe edges of the5e board'!.
(2) Surd I"olfry Gutfm (see Q), The width of the 2'13 m strips of lead are
only about 254 mOl as the c.:ut ed,l1:es of the slates are only about 25 mm aparl.
Whil51 the appearance is an impro"ement on the open \'aliey gUller, it is objected
to for the reason th,lI Lt is hhll~ to become ch"ked by lencs and rubbish which
may accumula:e :lnd choke the vallty, callsin1! .... ater to back up and pass o\'cr
lht" k,uJ.
(3) CuI o"d .\f""J Slotes mfh SnllJurs The construction some~hat
rt."St"mhlu that for cut and mitred hips \\ IIh ~ingle-courr.e soakers (dtserihed on
p. 137) in thdt wiue slales (slJte and J h.M) arc cut <lnd closely mitred and a
Ii(Mkt·r IS plal'eJ hell\ecn the slates at ed..;h ,ourse. This gi\cs a s. uisfactor)
lini~h hoth 10 n:rarJ to sol,ndness and appearance.
Lcadwork at Chimneys. Detail:> 01 tll(· requisite Icad .... ork \I) t .... o chin:ne~
stJck~ .HI' ~h(J .... n III Fil!. ,:,;. One "lack is ~h()lln intercepling ont of the slopcs
f)f a ru<lt .tnd lilt; nthn pcnelr,llt:,; lit the rid"c. Sketches of these are shol\n at
\ and" ,n II hldl 50 mill 11II(k~ arc tmplo'\"ed a~ these impro\'e the dppcarance,
fur t:conmny. Ihe hn .. k,\orJ.. hclow thc rnof IS constructed of 65 mm hricks (5ce
E, I and c:). Thc kaJ detati!o at (I) the front. (2) the SIde.. and (3) the back are
nplaillC'd hell) ....
(I) /-''''711. The leael .It the front i~ in one pitte (l'\"cpt a.s Buted helf'w);
fhi .. Ii the :lpron t1.Lshinl! (st!t' p. 143) and is sho\\n delached at I.. It is bossed
(or !cold-humed) If) thl" ~h,IPC from dimenSIon,. takt'n trum the Mack. As thl.
imern,LI all\!lu formin;.: the returns of the upwrn are helllg bolo;s.ed. the 100\er
ulmer'> of Ihe l(,oId J!TlIduaJ:~ I\ork IIJl\IJrds to dn irre.c:ular Cllr\"l~, and it is the
pl:lctin- to neath' Inm thc ends ;1'> ShOll1l whcn the bosstn~ has been completed.
The ;lpron i~ 1CI:\Ir\·J b~ It"t! wt'dll;t.'S (sec ,\ ~fld II). Ll'ad tackll are pHJI ided
a~ shnwn .11 ,\ tn securt' the free elil!c, althou~h th("~c an;: not nec~ary it the
apron I~ ~hort Jnd especialh' If thc emls :Ire lalkd down by slates J.S indi(;;,led
at II; !hl' Idl"ks m.I\· he cOfl!inut'd lerllc.llh and let into Ihe joint (as Sh'hlll)
01 !til'" IIlJ\ he "hort dill.! luileJ at their upp.:r ends to tht· (Op 1,;llIl·n.
1";Il,l.! 1c'ngth<l m;l\' cnnsi~t "fl\\O p;eCe~,I.t,,:lJl apmn Ilith a 100 mOl upturn
.1nd 1,0 mOl ,lrcSSed mcr the sL.rlcs, ;rnd '50 111m Ilide COl er Aashil1~ simil;rf II!
that ,,111)\\n at \1, hg, i4'
(z) ....·IJn. The leadwOIk al each Side of thc "tack ilia) Clln"!~t of (tI) so,l~ers
1\ itlt a nmtinullll'l slepped 1.1'1\ cr fta"hln,l1:, (II) M;lktr~ \\ Ilh f;(tpped CO\'cr ftJ,hing
in ~ing1c "leI's or (e) a s1ll~lc continu"u~ steppt.d tI;rshing.
l~) SOl/kef! (nth ("Ullf/lllmu< Str,.,...d /-'''o,·II/JlZ (~ee A, I, I; and ~)., Soakers
($CI. Jl. IH) ,m' pn'pared hI the plumher and placed in posilion b~ tht slatcr;
Ihn h;I\'e a /)~ If) 75 mill upturn Ilith ')0 In 100 mm wilith belwttn lSl,lt(·s.
!'ht'lr lell!:th l'qu'Lls the g,luge plus IJP plus 1.6 mm if Ihe slaw; ~rc he;ld·llJl\t-d
 SHEET LEAD
and 26 mm I~ if the slates ITC centre-nliled; in addition, the length (excepting
the upturned portion) is increased by 26 mm for nailing to the roof boarding
(sec rot) or for hooking over the hC20d of the .Iatc when secured to a batten (tee c).
A. shown at A, f, Nand 0, each soaker laps that above or below it by an amount
equal to that of the slates. The stepped cover flashing is formed out of a ISO
or 175 mm ..... ide strip to the shape shown at N; the as mm WIde upper horizontal
edges bcin~ let into the mortar Joinls and each is secured .....ith onc or Iwo
wedges; the size of the steps depends upon the thickness of the bricks and the
pitch of the roof, but the distance from the" water lme " (see F) to the lower
edge should not be less than 50 mm (at f and s, thIS is shown to be 6.J mm).
A rUing co..-ct fl.ashin~ (see p. I.U) is adopled for slone chimney·slacks as
the absence of horizor.lal Joints at from So to 75 mm apart preclude the use of
stepped cover Aashings.
The above continuous Aashings are not so liable as those described !:lelo\\"
(6) to be dislodged by the wind.
(b) SoaJurJ u'llh S!tp~d FlasJr.mt 1" Smtlt SI,ps (kC Band (").-The SOlkcr!l
are as described abovc. The (;O,er Aashmg is nude of scrap pieces of lead to
the Ihapc shown at c to gi,"e a 50 to 7S mm lap; it is because of this lap that this
method is preferred to (0) abo'·e. as water does not readily find access het"een
--..:
the cut bac.b and the wall; each Itep illttured with one or two wedge. and
the JOints lI.htch r«eive the tum·ins of the Iteps should be well pointed as
before descnbed. Sometimes the pieces are shaped with vertical front edges
and not cut back as shown. Thell(' are not so attractive in appearance as those
shown.
(c) Single Ctmll,nunu Slcp~d Floshing.-Soakers are flOt used, and in lieu
of them the Iteppcd flashing is continued and dressed ISO mm over the slates.
In appearance, therefore, the 10Yl"f:r portion resembles the aprOn at L, whilst
the upP.tr portion is similar to the flashing at N. This method is not as sound
as either (0) or (6), as water may be blown between the slates and wings of the
flashing or It may enter by capillary atlraction, and it does not look well. Its
use IS on the decrease, except where pantiles or similar interlncking tiles are
used as a roof covering (see H, Fig. 39).
(J) BucR.-The lead work here consist$ of a gutter and cover flashing. As
shown at "1', the angle at the Inters«lion is blocked hy a triangular piece of .....ood
which is shaped and gl'cn a sligh fall In both directions from the centre (see
o and the broken hne at c). A tIlting fillet should also be pro'ided (altt"ouRh
(hill is often omitted) and this shollid be tapered as indicated at 0 and I\: in order
10 preHnl tht' shlles lInmcdiately above the ends of the ~uller from ridin~.

PROTECTION OF CO~NICES
20_ THIC" AS'H,',lT
/<I-I:> LEAD n~'

----"
on,
B1 H CONTINUOUS
Goaov,

~
AlPHAlT
CONCUTf H,',T .,...
WElT

t ..
'.EAD
. "'
u.Gl£T
D ETA
L 'E'l
ETA L D
A o F
LEA D ASPHALT
LEAD D 0 T COYEMD CORNICE
COYE"'ED CO~ICE A T 'A'
E5£ _I 103 11
1 0.1
SCALE FOil A l D
•• ~(Al( 'OIll)ETAllS ~
 PLUMBING
The sketch at K shows the piece of lead which has been bossed (or lead~burned)
to the required !Iha~ before fixing. The I So mm wide cover flashing is shown
at E and the ends arc returned (see It. and F).
FlnUh at Rid:, (II«: B). The end piece of lead ridge covering is turned
So mm up the wall and the central piece of cover flashing-called a saddk-pieu-
is turned over the ridge to (orm a cap.
Genenal.-A roof is made watertight at the: intersection between its slope
and brickwork or stonework (as at J and M, Fig. 36) by using an apron flashing
with cover flashinJi:. Similarly, any of the three types of flashings (a), (6) and
(c) is used to exclude water at the intersection between roofs and gable walls
(such as that shown in Fig. 21). In inferior work, cnrtnrt mortor filldl are
used instead of leadwork at such intersections; these are triangular fillets
formed on the slates and against the brickwork or stonework; this is a very
unsound substitute, as sooner or later the fillets crack (and sometimes fan away),
causing the roof to leak.
Protection of Slone Cornices and String Courses.-It is especially
necessary to protc!.:t the upper projecting courses of stonework against the
action of rain-water which is converted to diluted acid in polluted atmospheres.
The twO materials generally used for this purpose are (a) lead and (b) asphalt.
(a) A lead-covered cornice is shown at A ~nd c, Fig. 76, NO.5 or 6 lead being
used. A raglet, about 13 mm wide and 20 mm deep, iii cut along the face of the
stone parapet to T(."(:ei\e the edgc of the upturn which is secured either by
burning-in or \\edges (see p. 143). If the parapet is of brickwork, the upturn
is secured by wrdJiCcs in thc usual way. Exceptionally wide cornices should
have free upturns which are protected by cover flashings. The lower edge
of t~le lead is doubled and dressed over thc fillet or nosing to project ahout 7 mm
to allo .... ,\ater to drip clear of the moulded stonework (similar 10 that at B).
The Irans'"erse joints between pieces of the lead (which are 2'13 to 2'74 m long)
:lTe welts similar to that shown at 0, FiR. 75. /"ad dols (also knol\n as douels.
rints or butlmu) arc used to secure the co\'enn~ ;'golinst thc action of the wind;
do,etailed square or circular holes are formed in the cornice at about 900 mm
lCf'lreS (sec e); Ihc lead afler bein~ hossed is holed. mth the edge of each hole
turned up slightly, and a met,11 dot mould (sec B', Fi~. i9) is then lIsed to form
tht dOl by pouring molten \cad through the small hole ill the mould (see A and c);
sHmetlmes the" cup" of the muuld ;5 !'<;mi~ph"ricallo form dots hilling cun'ed
IOrs. These dots may be formed hy Ie.ld b\lming: (see p. '43); thc edge of Ihe
le.. d at the hole is turned dOlln sliRhtly and the hole in thc cornice is filled with
molten lead from a strip of lead held over it and rt"du!,;cd 10 a molten !';undillon by
the flame of the lead burner; the molten lead is finished flush \\ith the co"erin~,
and the dOl is made inconspicuolls by li~hdy hammerinJ:: it and clean in!!: II nff.
(6) Asphalt is often used in modern cnnstruction as a w,-erin!!: material.
In the example sho .... n at D 01 small channel is formed at the hack and the lOp
surface of the eOfOlce IS ~il-en a slia:ht fall tow.lTds It; the channel falls sli\.!hll~
to ....ards one end and deli"ers into J ratn-water pipe. A 25 mm deep dOletail
groove is formed along the full length of the cornice and about 75 mm from the
front edge (I« B) and a 25 mm Iquare eaglet il made alon& the bottom of the
paeapet (or each stone is formed with a rebated joint before being fixed). The
No. S or 6 lead flashing i. bossed as lhown It B and the hot asphalt is applied,
fini.hed lmooth to a thickness of 20 mm, well tucked into both grooves and
rounded off at the outer edge.
RAIN-WATER GOODS
Rain-water goods include eavn gutters '(or .pouts) and eain·water pipes
(or down-pipes). They are made of cast iron, lead, asbestos-cement, enamelled
iron, galvanized steel, aluminium or plastic materials.
Details of cast iron gutters and pipes are Ihown in Fig. 77 and an application
Is shown in the perspective sketch.
EAVES GUTTERS
Ea"cs gutters are provided with a loclut (or Jauctt or JUmgt) which receives
the spigot end of the adjacent length. These are genel'lllly " outside" sockets
(see A, II, 0 and v). although" inside" sockets are also provided (see v). As
shown lit 8, the matimum length is 1·8 m, t:tdudi"g the flange which is from
38 to So mm .... ide; shorter lengths c~n be obtained, and where necessary pipes
arc reduced in lenJ::th by means of the saw. They are made of various shaped
Stttions, i.t., half-round, deep half-round, agee, etc. A deep half-round gutter
is shown in section at E and in oblique projection at A, Band D; this is a very
good form, ~ing simple and of satisfactory appearancr, and it can readily be
painted hoth inside and out and so presened; it is sometimes provided with a
bead alonR its outer edge similar to Ihat shown in tnc middle section at H.
Other moulded forms are sho.... n at II; the disadvantage of these is the backs are
inaccessible for painting if and after they have been fixed to the wood fascia
hoards. They are moulded in numerous stock sizes, thus the half-round gutter
i~ obtainJ.ble in sizes \";I.rying from 100 mm by 50 mm to 300 mm by 150 mm.
~ote that these sizes arc r.Ttrrna{ sizes (see E and II). The thickness is 6'4 mm
(" e1(tra heal)' ,2:radc 'l S·z mm (" heavy ~rade "), i·8 mm (" medium grade ")
and 3'2 mm (" ordinary" or "liJ!:ht eastinj.!s "); the latter is used for cheap
work. the medium J!:r;lde is used for a\'cra,2:c J!:ood work, and the two heavier
castinKs ne only spc!.:ifit!d for special work.
Special Fittings. These include e"ternal and internal angles (see A),
stop ends for ~kets (c). stop ends for spigots, outlets with nonles or drops
cast Of. (D) and union dips (c.). the latter beillg used to connect two Spl,2:ot
ends.
Supports. Eal-es gutters arc suppClTted by wrought iron hrackets, generally
twn he-nJ!: rC(luired per I·R I'll length. That sho.... n at \I, Fi~. 77, is twice screwed
or nailed to the hacks of spars (sce llso" and v, Fig. 36, A and D, Fig. 38, dnd
>', Fi/!.71). The one at 0, Fig. 77, is IIlIce scre ....ed to lhe sides of spars (suitable
r
 N W A T E R p p E 5

p
J SiNGLE
.""""
PIECE IlAIN-WAn" HEAD

5(UW~OIOOO
25:1< 6 1iI.I .... 1\

5TANcw.o
C.I. SHOE

w
DlOOl.,50=-j ./

U SPI"-E
,I

FIGl!RE 77
r,
'54 PLUMBING
for the type of eaves thown at x, Fig. 36). The t .....o sho..... n at N, Fig. 77. are
scre.....ed 10 wood fascias and are ailed" fascia brackets" (see Q, Fig. 36, and
c. Fig. ;I), and that ahown at Q, Fig. 77. is suitable for fixing direct to stone '1A-alls
where the pointed end of the bar is driven into the bed jOint and the c:urn~d
bracket is adjusted to the required height by means of the nut and back or
\nck·nut which are screwed [0 the rod fi'(cd to the bracket.
Jointll . . ;\ ~ction through an outside Joint is shown at v, Fig. 77. The
jointing m:r.leriai is red lead mastic or putt)' (powdered red lead mixed with
lin!lttd oil) and is applied to the inside: of the socket after the gutter is placed in
position on the brackets; the spigot end of the adjacent pipe is placed inlo the
socket, the wrought iron 6 or 8 mm di.l. K,dtt' bolt is inserted and the nut is
tightened until the hcad is flush with the inside of the f.\:uHcr; this squec7.es out
Iny cxcess of mastic which is wiped off.
Whilst the above is the commonest form of Joint, some ~\Itters are specified
to ha\'c inside sot.kets; the<;c arc necessar)' if the I;:xterior of the gutler is not
to be Interrupted by the lOCkets, as is sometimes advisahle for moulded gutters.
An inside joint is also indicated in section at y
Trough Gutten. - These are large cast iron or galvanized steel gutters
\\ hlch are used, especially for factories, :lnd simi!'lr buildings. instead of lead
parapet and V-gutters.
DOWN PIPES
The size of down-pipts ,·aries from 50 to 300 mm illi"nol diameter, those:
:;.peclfied for house:;. being gencrally 60 or 75 mm. and are in 1·8 m lengths
Indwlng the sochts (sec J). Short lengths are also obtainahle. The thickness
is similar to that of eavcS gutters.
Special Fittings. These include swan-neck hends, rain-water heads,
off:>.:t bends, shoes, .md .. ingle. double and Y-branches.
_,'f,wlI-nulr Bind (s.f:C 1- and pcnopc:(,:ti\·e sketch). --This is necessary to connect
the nozzle-piece or outlet (see 0) of a f.\:utter which is fixed to an O\crhanging
cavcs and the top JenRth of.t duwn-pipe.
Rar'l-u:attr Htad (or Hop",r IItQd ) (sec pl. These are obtainable in many
sto..:k SilCS and designs; they arc used to recei,·c water from p<lrapet gullers
{see 8 and ("", Fig. 73), and as ornamental features they are ""ed at the top of
down-pipe stacks 10 ret;ci\"c water delivered from swan-necks.
Offut BUlds (!tee )( and sketch). -These are similar to swan-necks and are
rct.:(uired to nc~otiate plinths, etc. Double offset bends, called poss·ot:tr OIJSttl,
arc obta1ll3blc to clear strins:: cou~.
Obtuse hends. lon~ bends, quarter-curved bends, etc., are also availahle (or
!p<:cial purpllses.
Shotl. -These art: fixcd to the lower ends of rain-watu pIpes and discharge
OHr ~ul1iel-traps connected to drains (sec penpecti,·e "ketch). That sho .... n
Sit \\" is the standard type and is Ioaris(actory for fall-pipes .... hich discharge rain-
•
water only. A nuisance may be caused by the water splashing over the gulliet;
such is prevented i( ollti-splash sho" (sec v) are used, the projecting plate (sec
s«:tion) breaking up the flow. Boots are similar to shoes but have legs up to
300 mm long.
Sinclt, /)OWll and Y·Brandttl arc used (or connecting two or three branch
pipes to a common down-pipe; a single branch is sho .... n at o.
The above bends and shoes may be obtained with or without lugs cast on
(sec below). Cast iron pipes are also made of rectangular and square sections
in sizes varying from 75 mm by 50 mm to 100 mm by 2.00 mm. Holderbats
(see later) are made to match.
Supports. Rain-water pipes are supported hy means of (o) spikes which
arc driven through tars or l"Cl, or (b) by holduboll.
(a) Down-pipes can be obtamed with or without lugs cast on. Those with
lugs cast on (see K) are used for ordinary work. All cast iron pipes should be
fixed at a d,stance of 50 mm from rhe fact of the .... all to allow the backs of the
prpes to be painted, otherwise the mctal will corrode and rain- .... ater .... ill escape
through the holes or crach .... hlch eventually form to caU!le disfigurement and
dampness, The pipes are mamtained at this distance by rhe use of either cast·
iron bobb1ns (see T) or hard'-'>ood hobbins; two of these are required at cach
lug and the pij>CS arc secured by dri\·in~ stout spIkes (see l") through the holes
in the ears and bobhllls into wood plu~s whn;:h hale been fixed in the wall (see
K and x).
(b) One form of holderbat is shown at s. These are cast iron supports
which arc suitable fur fixing into Joints of brick ....ork; Similar supports for
fixing to stonework ha\·e dovetailed lugs (shown by broken lines) which arc let
into holes formed to recei\"e them, 3nd secured by molten lead ..... hich is caulked.
The lugs project 50 mm from the wall. Each length of pIpe is secured by slipping
the triangular pocket which is cast on the lower bead of the socket o\"er the
triangular pin ..... hich is cast on the holderhat. This pro\·ides a neat and effective
support and is used In good work.
Alternatively, rain· .....ater pipes without ears (as shown at 1) may be fixed by
dips (see R); the wrou~ht iron band or dip is secured by a screw and nut to a
pair of lugs after it is passed round the socket of the pipe.
Joints. Down-pipes arc often fixed with dry joints (no JOinting material
being used), and the lengths of the pipes are made rigid by lead or wrought iron
wedges which are driven down between the spigots and sockets. Wood wedges
should not be used :as they arc apt to expand ,lIld split the sockets.
The section at L shows a Joint with red Icad pUlly; a shon piece of yam
gasket (rope) is wrapped two or three times round the spigot and tightly packed
to prevent any mastic from entering the body of the pipe, and the putty is neatly
finished off with a fillet
• The .uhlecl of dnln"II"~. ",h,,~h Includu SOIl· pip", 1. lualed ,n Clurp_ II, Vol. II.
Th~ IppJII:lhon of '"t~rnal ....illnd WI~I~ plpe"'ork. om"p,pe Ind lingl~ .Ink I) Item.
CfC_ II d~I•.-rlbed In Ch"p_ II, Vol. II and In geuter delill 10 Chlp_ X, Vol. IV .
 DOMESTIC WATER SERVICES
The joints between heavy cut iron pipet; (such as soil_pipesl) may consist
of (.) moltr.n lead. (h) lead wool and (c) lead wool and molten let1d. Two of
these joints au shown at z, Fig. n.
(4) Molten pig lead i. run between the spigot and socket, and then caulked
to consolidate the material; a piece of yam gasket is tightly packed before the
joint is made (lee right of section).
(6) Lead wool (fine ItJ'2J\ds of lead, twisted to form a ro~) is packed into
the joint and well caulked. This forms an excellent joint and the material is
convenient to handle.
(e) The lower haJf of the joint is caulked with lead wool to within 38 mm
from the top and the remaining space i. filled with molten pig lead which is
subsequently caulked (see z).
Plutic Rain-water Good••- These are made of polyvinyl chloride (p.v.c.)
and are used widely in domestic work. The gutters are in half·round or
rectangular sections and are jointed by push fit gutter brackets to leave a gap
of 3 mm between lengths to allow for expansion.
Asbeatos-cement Rain-water Goodl.- These are strong, durable and
light and need not be painted. The jointing material IS a special composition
provided by the manufacturers.
Enamelled Iron Rain-water Gooda.- These are enamelled both inside
and out and therefore painting is eliminated. These pipes are obtainable in
eight standard colours (black, brown, green, etc.). A bituminous compound is
the jointing material.
DOMESTIC WATER SERVICESl
The water for domestic services i. carried in pipes of copper, lead, galvanized
steel and polythene (this latter for cold services only). The use of lead pipes has
diminished greatly in recent years, they are in any case unsuitable for drinking
water which is soft because of the danger of lead poisoning. Lead is still some-
times u~ for conver!!inn ilnd alterlltlon work for wilste pipes where its elise
of manipulation is an advan~age. Galvanized steel is cheaper than copper
and is used more on the larger industrial schemes, it is also adopted in some hard-
water areas for it can withstand the hammering needed to remove the scale
deposits which occur in such districts. Polythene is cheaper still and is !King
increasingly used for cold water distribution; tubes of this material have the best
resistance to bursting, this can happen to pipes on thawing out after being frozen.
Most internal pl~mbing work is carried out wilh the light·gauge copper tube
conforming to B.S. 659, it is a convenient material, obtainable in long leng!!ls
and having a good resistance to corrosion.
Lead Pipe.-The various joints formed between lead pipes include the
wiped, taft, block and Siaem joints. The following is a description of the first
two:-
I ThHe In COfIsidered in gTnter detlll m Chap. X, Vol. IV.
155
Wiped Joi",t (see A',Fig. 77).-This is generally considered to be the nrongest
joint for Iud pip" and i, therefore employed in first-claSs work and especially
for water pipes which have to withstand high pressures. Solder (see p. 1.3) con·
sisting of z parts by weight of pig lead and I part pure tin is the jointing material.
The joint i. mlde IS followl: The end of each pipe il prepared .. shown In the
hllf-section, tNt of the upper pipe (when it is in I vertical pocition) being r ..ped.
down on the ouuide to lelve • shlrp edge, and the end of the lower pipe beinlf
diglrf/)' filed on the ouuide Ind then opened by hammering I tan-pin (E, Fia. 79)
Into il. Each end il painted with loil (I blaek powder Conlllllnl of Ilmpbtack, .iR
Ind whitma, well mixed with hot wlter) for at lellt 75 mm. depending upon the .iu
of the jOint.' When thil i. dry, e1Ich end i• ..:nped. with the lhave hook (G, Fig. 79)
for I distlnce of J8 mm or more (Iccording to Ihe length of the joint) so .. to present
I c1C1n bright .urflce whIch i. Hscntial for the thorouih .dhtllon of the solder.
The Ippelnn<:e of the finished joint is improved If prior to .h.ving, I ring is carefully
chllk-mlrked round Ind .t the proper dlltance from the end of the pipe. A, solder
will not Idhere to soil (hence the rClson for" soiling ") ;t fo11o ...... thlt if the ring II
carefully marked, the edge of the solder (sec I.ter) will be shlrp Ind uniform. The
Inside of the lower opened end should liso be shlved. Immediately.fter.mlving,
Iile bright ends Ire smeared with grease or 1.110.... to pre"enl them re.tlrrushing Ind
10 ICI II I flux (10 .SSIIl fUSion between the solder and lead). The pipes Ire now reldy
for soldering either by pou~,"g or splnhing it on from Ihe ladle (M, F,g. 79) or by
uSing the blowllmp (A', F'I. 79) Ind I strip of solder (ace p. 14J). The former
method is only adopted In certain districts for jomts made on the bench Ind the litter
for joml$ m.de on the job. When Ihe .. Ildl~" method i, Idopted, the IOlder IS
melted in the pot (u, Fig. 79) to Ihe required tcmpeTiture (denoted when the IOlder
ignlles I piece of paper), and .f,eT the p;pn have been accuTitely adjusted the .older
is poured from the ladle on to the the prepared ends until the tcmpeTifUre of Ihe pIpes
., th~ end. II approxImately thlt of the solder; the latter II thcn WIped round Ihe
Jomt wilh • wlpmg doth (z, Fig. 79). the lurflce of" hich has been tfreased to prevenl
the solder adhenng 10 II: additionll solder is spluhed on Ind quickly worked wllh
!h~ doth untol the desired ,hlpe is obtained. "hen Ihe jomt " left undl5!ur~ Ind
allowed to cool. When the" blowlamp .. method is Idopted, the prepared ~ndl of
the pipes Ire filled together Ind heated by the flame of the limp: solder is applied
by meltini one end of I Strip, and i. graduilly brought 10 the required shipe by the
u~ of the cloth; the joml II then lefl to cool. The thicknts.5 of the sotder al the
....·idest part of the jOint need not exc«d one and I hl]f urnes the pIpe IIl1cJr"tJl.
Toft or Coppu·bit Joint (see B', Fig. 77).-This is used where the pipes are
not required to withstand much pressure, as for~verflow and gas pipes.
The preparation of the end. of the pipn is SImIlar to that for wlped.jomll, ncrpt
Ihlt the lower pIpe is opened wider, Ihe amoum of ,hl""'JI II reduced and the soil
II often omitted. A lillie powdered resin " apploed to the scraped surfaces afler
the ends are filled together. and Ihis ICts IS I Au): for the" ord,,,ary" solder (con-
liu",g of equal parts of lead .nd lin) "hich is in the fonn of I thm narrow strip.
The solder II melted by the heated copper-bit (1'1'. F,g. 79) UnUIIUfficlt:m i, run to
fill the splice b~t"ecn the two pipes . . . .hown. Alternatl"ely, the solder may be
melted by tho!: Iype of blowlamp .JIUSlrlled at A'. Fig. 79.
Copper Tube.-This has been mentioned above. The two most common
joints are the (;3pillary and the compression types.
Cop,liQry joint (see A, Fig. 78).-The application shown here is at a bend
where a brass alloy elbow is used; tees, reducing pieces and straight couplings,
etc., are also obtainable and they are all made on the same principle.
The fitllngs incorporate recessed rings conllm;nl thc correct amount of solder for
mlklnllthe joint After the end. of the copper lUbe h.ve been cut sqUire, they Ind
·sfj PLUMBING
the . . . . 01 th. 6ttinp an; deIncd IDd broqht toldhn. A blowllmp is then applied
to the au" to melt the.oldu whteh fiJI. die -.mWar ~ between the,.m beinc'
joined. Tb. joint is tbu. CMily nude raultin. in • nal, comPKl fittinl.
C,.".mor. joiltt.-Onc type o( this is the ff11f1-1fUlIIipvllJtitJt fitting.
It cor.Qu of an cxtemaIlythrndedb..Mllloy rouplina with internal ahoulden
roof apace or just below the fim Roor ceiling. E" N1fII~, a 1 S mm dia. bnnch
is taken off it to IUPply the kitchen aink. The remaining IS mm dia. cold
pipet ue fed from the ciatem, i.~., those to the bath, wuh baain and w.e.
The hot water circuit abawn is the direct ""u.
1 which ia auitable for mo.t

Ktiftt _ hou.ea where hardne. depoeiu do not develop in the pipet. The cylinder it
rin, ctaat.nc:c.~ to the eopper Nbe. A nut lInd,n umeakd b~ c:omp~
are iNidi 0'Ia' the end of the Nbe which i, then plKM ineid~ the eouplin, to fit
...... d,e.houkkr. 'The rin, _b .pintt the mouth of the couplin,. and by
wanned by water from the back boiler which is placed behind the kitchen fire.
A 22 or 28 mm dia. flow pipe from the top of the boiler deliven hot water
tichtaUttc the n\lt, the riD• • JDIId,e to triP the tube and to provide I w.tntilhtjoint.
to near to the top of the cylinder. A return pipe of the pme aize supplies water
from the bue of the cylinder to the bue of the boiler. Theat two pipes are the
DOMESTIC WATER. SERVICES main circulation pipes for hot water and are known u the primary Rowand
return. Hot water to the varioua .pplian~ ia fed from a branch off the expan~
aion pipe which riaea from the top of the cylinder; thia pipe: acts .. a vent to
eliminate air locka in the aystem and tenninates over the cold water cistern.

---COLD WAH" TOOLS

--HOT
",AU V • SlO' VALVE The following ia. brief dCKription of lOme of the tools uaed by the plumber,
AllO)' WAS~ lOme of which have been referred to, and are iIIuatrated in Fig. 79.
fl,OW 'A liN Drtun-, BflJI" or.Sa, (A).-Uted ror dreuinl Rat POrUont or lead.
&mi. Stil:/t (a).-Uted principally ror .... orkinlle.d ruund rolla, etc.
SOlDt" Stui,.,i" Stlclr (J).-U.ed ror ronning uprurm of ftuhtng, worlUng lead inlO ,nglel
"-+-tf;+ otl HCi or rolla, etc.
&ui,., MaJid (o).-Used for liriking lhe,hove 100J'lnd ror workil1llnd Into comen
direct.
CA"LLAkY " eMu Wid" ( K).-Of varlou, IhI~ .nd IIzn; 11.0 ailed drifts; employed Cor
working .nllea of roll., drija, etc. on gutten where 'PIIOt il mtricted; driven by Ihe
FIT T , N (j
~~ MIlIUI. I "mllir 100110 tM boninR millet.
Fall CO"I" ~T WAUot , 2101128 21011.28 Drip Platt (L).-h inserled belween two lheeu of lead to prevent movemml of the
lUeE JOINTS (YLtNOU. I .. nu".. HOW lower Iheet where the lOp .h«:1 i. bemg worked; eumplet, ovcrdOllb of roll. and drips.
I ,,,r " t B.mdi". Stulr (c).-UItd for bendil1l plpel.
Bo6bfll,.-S,:tet Crom 15 to 115 mm; used in conjunclion With the melll 1«;'101 or
I-
~~ IS /olf_ for bendin, pipet.
lOUtoio",,,y WAlL
B .0ILU.
l.Dty nv",,,,,. (v), /taNl tIw....y (It) and Ioul dUIIIIII,. (p) Ire used Cor bendmg pIpes.
Ta"IJi" IN nu..,. .. (.).-SIU1l £rom:l5 to 115 nun dismeter st the held; used for
v DIt.AIN COC openmg tnd, of PIpes (lee p. lIs).
MaJtdnl (T).-Used fOf' 'Imi Ir purpose .. bobb,n. for removmg bu1rc- in long pipet..
SJrm.~ Hoolu or Scrapcn (e Ind ").-Used 10 -.have the end. of pipes prior to .oldcrmg.
Rtup (limilar 10 th.1 thawn '14), Fil. 67).-Used for filing end. of pipes to be .oldered.

...,"
WAH ..

.1--
FIGURE ,8
Cold and Hot Water Dittribution (8« Fig. 78).-For the average houle
• t S mm o.d. lupply pipe is adequate and this is connected to the water main
and brought into the house at a depth where it .....ill be unaffected by frost (460
to 610 mm). It muat be. fitted with a atop valve just outside the boundary of
the pumisea and another one at ground floor level inside the houae. The aupply
pipe riaeI preferably on an inaide wall to the cold Wlter ciatem aitualed in the
Bfofdalllp (A').-Thl' i. one of mlny deaign. in which either petrol , panffin or benzohne
.. used; capaclly for genenl l i l t YlIrin from 0 ' ) to I' a htm; used for healing wider. etc .
( _ p. 155)·
So/dm", tw Plullltn", /rOil (Q).-Used for heat;n; wider (e5pccially when ;omllng Ilrge
pIpes); lar~ly repl.~ by the blowllntp.
Cop/Hr BII (N).-Ueed for fonning wldertd joml' (see p. ISS) . Devdopmetu. of
this bit are the g •• heaud .nd electric wldering iron •.
Holelod BII {v).-Uled for I .imil.r purpose .. the copper b,t, .nd for I.pped jom!"
Md,.", or Soldtr p,t (u).-Sozea .... ry from 100 to lOO mm diameter; used 10 mtlt
wider.
LDdf, (M).-UItd to apply Ihe ""der obtained from the meltmg pot (~ p .• SS).
WI/JI,. Clotlt (1).-11 pad ofsevcnl folded I.yten of moletlr.m In YlInOU.IIZellnd used
Cor wlpmg ;Otntl (.ee p. ISS).
c_Un", TooI(I).-Uteci for aullr..nglnd and .. mldeoC CIIlat«1 (ltCpp 14l.nd ISS ).
I 5« Chip X, Vol. IV for the Indlrecl Iynan.
 TOOLS '57
l
o L s F1MUU

:--::::::::==::4
S TIC ~ c
»0

D K
o s S I NG A l l

NOS.
"A • H
C HAS
Wf D G E
m
o
•
• •l •
0 I E L
A T A HD
U M M 'I

o ~ I L T

u
700
B LOW l
• 0

FICUR!' 79

Dol Mould {JI').-Used for fonmng I~ad dOli (~p. ,sat
Drmn1l1 Knift {w).-UMd for cUlung Iheel-lead; I chl/1pmg Inu/t, hiving" Ilron,!!!!r
lind paralltl blade, II usrd ror cumng IC1Id .. II ,. 51 ..... k .... llh Ihe hammu .
Bolt (x).-UKd fOf OpeniOR holrs .n the IIdrs of P'p<'~ 10 rt:«"'C bn"ch plpt'l.
Other equipment includes: Hammer•• pliers. screwdrivera. screw-wrench
(for turning nUIS, etc.). spanners, soil pot (conlainjog soil required for wiped
juints), ullt:-Illctrc rule, ~uarc, scribing platt: (for des<:ribing ordea on pipes,
CIC.), copper tube benders and a complete outfit fnr lead-burning.
 CHAPTER. SEVEN
MilD STEEL SECT ION S, BOl TS AND RIVETS '
\Iu.o ~teel (complylllK with B.S ..B60) is a very important building material used
c:xtensi,ely 111 structural engim:er1l1g. \\cldable ~Iructural sted te H.S. 4360 IS
used te a lesser e~tcnl for the same purpose. It is manufactured from iron ore
(mined or quarried in certain parts of this country. S.... \·dcn, Spain. etc.) which is
subjected to a ~'er~ high tempcratur~ in the blast furnace to produce pig iron, this
is con"eTted into ~ted in the smelting furnace, re-heated and finally rolled to the
required sectiom ~uch as plate!", anjfles, tees, channel,;, ~ams, etc. (see Chap. II,
\'01. IY).
Structural steds arc dl' ided i1110 11\0 ll1;lin ~roups accord in!: to the manufac-
turin~ process. ,i/. ( I) hot rolbl sections Jnd (2) those obta1l1«1 by cold rolling.
The former comprise the heavier sedilln". St(.'Ci components are used in fi\c
"dYS :-(a) as hearn!> <lnd lintels for memhers which suffer hending stresses. (b)
as columns \lhich reliol"t comprt:'ssion and hendmg stres.:>cs. (e) as ties \\here the
stre!>SCI are u:nsik. (d) in roof tnllSCS and lattio.:e girders "here the forces arc:
compressi"e and tcn!oile. ,lIId (t) for the reinforct:ment in ~inforced conuell:.
Characteristics ofSteei. It is ebstic, ductile (capable of bein.t! dra"n into
"ire). malleable (em be beaten OUI). welJ:lhle ,lIld can he t('mpered 10 Jilr~renl
degrees of hardne~s. The ma"\imurn carhon conl('nl of mild stttl is 0'z5 per
cellt .. and its breakin~ ~trength in compres'Iion and tcm~ion i~ i]O to 510:\ mOll.
S"mc of tht' nf;ous st:lml.lfll seclion:; inlo which mild steel are rollt·J arc
IlIlIstrated m Figs. go and 1\1
HOT R.OLLED SECTIONS
Flo/ Hms (A, Fig. Ro). OOl,linable in si;l.cs \"arying from J mm by 12 mm to
2 m hy Z5 mm or more, Ihe 'Iider sections being known as plat" (see E.', Fig. 81);
purposes for which flals.are uS('d han: hceo indicated in prel·jous chapters (such
:b bars supporting linlds. floor joists. "traps. etc.). and they are still used (but
not!iO c\lensl\d) u formerl,·) for tenslOll members in Sled roof Irusses. Plates
.Ire used for conoec1ions in sud roof'S. hase plates and caps of steel f'illars. dC.
'Th.s " somellm~1 Included In M hn"~~;lr cOur..., ''1 iJu,ldlnlf CunslruulUn I"
f'lnl,h~Tlzt· stud.,ntl '''Ih the princIpal mcmbe ... u...,d In .trucUlr~1 dcl.llh "h.ch un,
'ncluded m ,ubK'IUttli yur, of ,he cuur.., Sleellind re,nforced ronerelt: IIfl,1<;lUrU >Ire
dl'SCrlbcd In \'01. IV
,,8
Squart Bars (8, Fig. 8o).-Sixes vary from 5 to 305 mm length of side; not
much used for buildin.e: purposes.
RQund or Circlliar Barr or Rods (c, Fig. 8o).-Diameter5 vary from 6 mm to
300 mm; the smaller ones arc used in Ihe construction of reinforced concrete
Roor5, pill;us. foundatIOns, lin!eis, etc., and the larger (x, Fig. 81) for columns.
A1Ig/~s (D and E, Fig. 80 and ... to c, Fig. 81). Those WIth equal arms, arc
callt:d rqual (m.r:/tf, and thc others arc known as u1If'qllal a1lglts. The~ are "f'CCi.
fied according 10 Ihe overall dimt'nsions, thickncss and weight per m~ re;
thus in Fig. 80, 0 is a 50 mm by So mm by 6 mm b)" 4 ·.. 7 kgim British Standard
Equal Angle (abbrevialed to .. B S.E.A."), and h is a 75 mill by 50 mm by 6 mm
by S·65 kgm British Standard l'ncqual Angle (abbreviated to .. B.S.U.A");
the sizes of the equal angles var)" from 20 mm by 20 mm by ] mm by 0·88 kg/m
to zoo mm by 200 mm by 24 mm by 71 I kg m and unequal angles from 30 mm
byzomm by] mm by I 12 kg mto 200mm by Isomm by 18mm bYi7'1 kJ!,m.
Angles art' wlddy used in structural ('ngincenng, Including all member5 of J
stccl roof truss.
Tee Bars or Tus. These consist of a tJ:tb and aflunxt and are of four kinds:
tees cut frum till' ers.;.11 lle.lIll~ and l niH:rsal Culumns (SI:e hchl\\). rulkd ICC
baN with short M<llks (,\ehs) aod rolled tcc oars II ith 10nR sUlks. Tec! are
commonly u!'>Cd 11\ ~Ittl roof trusses.
1'ttS nlllrom ("itYnallklilns. In Iht:St; Ihe \leb is parallel and the flan,,:
m ... y be parallel or ha\e a:2 5z·laper. They range in Sll.t: from 102 mm \lcep hy
IJJ mm \lido:: by 1.1 kg III W iS9 10m hy lOS 10m hy l a6 k~.
1't'tst:ul/ro/ft ('"i'una/ (olu",tu ha\"e outh web :lIld flan~e parallel. They vary
in size from 76 mm deep by I Sl mm \\idt: hy IZ k~.:1ll to 191 mm by ]9S mm ny
IIR kg.
Rul/"d slut Ir,. bars mIlt l/lllrl sta/lts have Range and .... en 'I jlh a ~ tarer.
They range in Sl;l.e from ]8'1 mm hy 3R'1 mm hy i kg 10 152'i mm hy 152'" mm
hy 36 kg. (:\n e"\ample of one is gi"en at ~. Fig. Ro.)
Rol/td I1ttl 1ft burs fdth lo,,/( slullts ha\"e a parallel .... en "ith a ~D 13pt'red
flange. The~' \ar)" from 7ft'2 mm deep hy Z5'" mm widc hv ]'''5 kg to z54-
mm by 127 mm hy ]5'4z k~.
ChQlm,,1J (G, Fig. 80 and E. Fig. 81). The Ranges are thicker than thc web;
the sixes "ary fmm 76 mm by J8 mm by 6'69 kg to 432 mm by 102 mm by
 MILD STEEL SECTIONS
65'-+8 kg B.S.C. (British Standard Chann~I); the weh is of uniform Ihickne~s
and the flanges are tapered from the root to the toe. They may be used as
girders, pillars, roof purl in!!, etc. Th<;se can be built up for hea\'ier loads as at
K, Fig. ~ I.
ll"Q,"'. There are six main kinds of heam British St::mdard lln;vcrsal
Beams (B.S.U.J1's), rolled steel Joists (R.S.J.'s) known also as British Standard
Beams (B.S.8.'1), beams with £Ian!,!:!! plates, castellattd beams, plate girders and
lauice girders.
The Brll;th Standard l -1fI't~rsQI Beam is the most widely \lsed type of beam.
It is 3nilahk In many !liles from 203 mm deep by 133 mm wide by 2S kg /m
to 920 mm hy 420 mm by 387 kg. An example of the former is dr:awn at II,
Fig. 80; sec also I, Fig. 81. The .... eb is of uniform thickness and the flanges
may be parallel or have a 2 ~ 52' taper as shown at H, Fig. So. The web joins the
flan~e'! wilh a small radius curve at the roots;1 the toes of the flanges are square
to facilitate welding. These beams arc extensi\'ely used in the cnnstruction of
I ~lany nudcnll II Cumlnatlons shu" earelenly drlwn k"CIIOnl of Mlm •. common
'59
jloors, lintels, etc. and have largely rt:placed the next type of beam mentioned
which was once the m~t popular type.
Roll~d SUtl JOIst, six sizes of this are made from 76 mm deep by 51 mm wide
h~ 6'7 kg/m 10 203 mm by 102 mm by 25'3 kg. The web is of uniform thickness
;11,,1 tnl' Rangl''! n:lVt a S· tapt'r; tnfO wen join' the flanges with a small radiUI>
curve and the extremities of tht: flanges have a small radius a[ the toe. An
example is shown at II, Fig. 81.
Plotu ~Q1fIS are made by riveting or welding flange plates to the flanges of
the above two types of beam, see L, Fig. 81. They may also be made by similarly
aUOIching flange plates to channels as at K, Fig. 8,. Plated beams are used for
heavy loads or where thick walls have to be supported.
Costellottd ~oms (see 0, Fig. 81) are formed by cutting .I steel beam in a
zig.zag line along the web and welding the two parts together to i:\creue the
depth. This is used for long lightly loaded beams where the stres~ are greater
in the Ranges than in tnt web. Hcnce the web area is reduced and the resistance
to deAection is increased.

crro.~ MInI! "ebs Itl1cker Ih'n flam~es and Ihe lau"r ellh". laperlnl! 10 ~ POint or pmvtd«l
Platt Girdtrs are u$ed to carry loads beyond the capacity of Universal Beams.
"'Ilh bulbous Ion. They are of two kinds. Th~ one at 1', Fig. 81 has AanJi:e plates riveted to a

S TEE L FLAT. SQUA~l ~OUND {. TEE BA"i ANCilES. CHANNELS. BEAMS, BOLTS G "IVETSI

AF'°::3i • QUA L
ANGLE
~ L ~ T • ~ ~ T
,,~ 50.50" -4'41'"

EO TO' fL ... ,.,Gf

E
8 " •
" 10 Tt-M.EAOS
U'" 2$

SQU~~E
••• ,-:~_r-b·"-jl ~ H WE

""
"'l1.:1+:.-,t+---f-
....

F
...
t"~

fLA-NGlS tAA"Y IE ,M,l,UU aOOT

HEX ....
"
O~ ..... Vl A Z" SZ' TAI'f." lOTTO" HMtGf.

.-
T E f • ~ '"
~OUNO a,,~ U's_u,'",,,,
• i I"ITISK STAH"A~O U'IVl~lAl IEAM
~" 20S'" '" I l I _ . lS ".
FICURE 80
 T Y p C A L s T E E L s E C T o N S

D
fLI'tTS t ~OD~ TU&U L A"
s

I
o u

x
o x y

v w Z

D 0 J'
~ L..-
'----. J'
0
II
 MILD STEEL SECTIONS
\\eb pL.nc hy iI"Rles; this is nOl om\ !;(I cnffimun as thl' nne .11 I' II hert; the
plates .m: "tided lo~tthcr 10 form J mOTl' !';cunowic.11 ~(;Iioll. Ollt; 'lPC of
this bc;trll is the Autufab h(,(1111 pruJU(l:J 111 sl.lIld.lnl SII.C~ up tn :z III Jeep
by 560 Irln v.idc and 2i III lonJ.:. Thi~ IS .11,1ilahlc III Illild sted or hiJ.:h )'icld
$tress Sled .md is fOlmed by JUlumJI.L 111.'ll,;,,," \\ddil1).: wJ.:cthcr of the thn:e
plates.
LIltliu Glrdrrs, Dcuil!! at Q. It and ~, Fil-:. ill, .In: of differenl types (If
Jauice J.:irdcr. the".,; .Ire used I,here pLitt: girllcl"lt \\ouIJ l'H;:comc c\ccssilcly
heavy ol-er !ar.'!c "p.ln\<. They are oflen "los.xi,lleu "ilh :\orth-liJ.:ht mof trusses
for cOI-cring rdrJ.:c RooT drcas (~C Fig. 15. \"01. I\) The c'Jmplc at Q requires
gus;;et plates ,It the cl)llnt:clinns, bm these can he "mined when welding is
adoptcd. The J.:irdl.:r .It It \\()Uld ht.- suitahle for light loads. The welded tubular
one at s m;lkC! a neat pleasing design: thc tube is J sound, economical load
carrying member, for II has ).:ood stiffness in relation to the small amount of
metal. Prior to the U!:IC of weldin).;,1 tht: juinting~ of luhes was a clumsy husiness;
the practice of welding and Ihe emplu)lllent of IUhes is increasi~.
ColumlU. The most Wldcl} used columns Jrc the l'ni\'ersal Columns which
range from I S2 mm hy 152 mOl by 2] kJ.: III .. i5 mm by ,,24 mm by 634 kg.
They ha\e parollrl flanJ.:es. The he3m memhers at it to I .• Fi,.;. 81, can also be
used as columns, as un the sections at the hOllom left-hand side of the same
Fi~ure. The one:1l I I .. a ho\-seUmn m."I .. nf Iwo ch:lnnell welded to!-:'ethcr,
angles can be similarly used. That OIl II is.1 n.:ctanJ.:ular hollow section (R.H.S.),
this is obtainable III ~i~es from 5o-R hy .l5'i hy 2·6... mm thick by 2·8 kg to 3°4.8
by 203'2 mm by 12'5 mm thick by I .l·S kg 'rhe R,II.S. has a greater resistance
to bending than the tuhe olcr whieh it al:«) has the adl'antage of hal'ing flat
sides to simplify .... elding Slluare hollow st.'ellon" (:U 1.5.) arc also made in a
similar range.
When stanchion si/t's h:l\e to he kept IlI.1 minimum, the solid rouod section
at x can be used. Beams art' connQ.:le"-' to IhlS by " cap plate which is shrunk
or wclded on. The U::K' of lubes at , h;u alre;Idy lleen mentioned, they can be
adopted for columns. or ~irden (':', Fi\.':. gil Jnd I'ary illli2e from 26'9 mm o\erJU
dia. by 3'2 mm thick 10 86J'6 mm n.d. by II mm thick.
The other columns at z to I"~ arc built up ffom the sections gi\'en to form stiif
columns. The one at A has four angh.'S 10 which internal ring battens are
welded, the a0Ftle size depends, of CIIUrse. on the load. For example, four
5°.8 mm by 50'8 mm by 6'4 mm an,gles made into a 1 S2 mm square will c;lrry
single-storey domcstlc lipan roof loadings. The ones at B' and t.:' will carry
heavy loads, the tormer sho\\s slllg1c loIClllR but double lacing in a criss-cross
pattern is also used .
Bolts, NMts and lI'arnns 0. Fig. 80).-Theac are used for sewring members
, !Xc Chap II. Vol IV
1 The "",Ihods of JOlOllng lubular "orlr. are Ihrtt 10 number In lhe ~umple aha... n.
lhe lUI)., mel, Ire m...:h,ned to fit 10gflher and tMll ... elded. Secondly, Ihe lUI)., end. ar~
fbllened, CUI 10 aIllpoe and ... dded Where the Or more tuba are connected al one potnt.
lhey Ire C:1Ot and welded 10 a sleel ball or nne 10 'III h>c:h • di.phra.", plale II 'III'ekl«l
,6,
comprisinJ: wood and steel roof truSK"S ami similar framed structures, built-up
wood lintels, steel heams, CIC. When the bolts ;lre used 10 fasten wood members
(as in trusses-see I, I-ig. 39). washers must he introduced between Ihe timber
.11Il1111t: heaJs and nulS to prcventlhe lalter frum hein~ forced into the timber as
till' nUIS arc hein,!!; tightened by a spanner. A bolt consists of d shank and htad.
alld, .IS shown. the proportions of the head and nut <lrC related to the diameter of
the shank. The end of the shank is in the form of a scrcw having a/Huh
(disunce hetwt"Cn Ihrtads) which \-3ries according to the diamcter of ,thc holt
(which is that of the shank); thus a 6 mm diameter holt has 16 threads per
20 mm, 2i mm bohs have 6, and a 20 mm holt as shown has 8 threads pet
20 mm. The depth of the thread varies; in the e,>;ample II isappro,>;imately t'6 mm.
nolts nlry in size from 6 mm to 150 mm diameter, but rarely is 38 mm exceeded
in buildin,g construction. Jnd 20 mm bolts arc of len employed for fixin~ steel·
work; the length (which is that of the shank) Jlso \·aries. The thicknees and
diameter of a washer depend upon the si~e of the Lolt; that shown at J is 3'2 mm
thick and the external diamett'r i$ either 4"3 or 70 mm. Uolts. nuts and washers
arc made of mild steel. I\TOught irflll and brass, the former heing used for steel·
""ork. The head and nUl shown at J arc hexagonal on pldn, and this is the type
in general asc; S<.juJre-he3Jed holts (see T, Fig. 33) and nuts are oIlso made but
tht'SC arc 1lU\\ rarely usc:J in building and structuntl e:tginecring_
Rn'rls Jrc made of alcel llnJ u" used at the connee[tons of llcel beams,
pillars, roof memhers, cte.; the 20 mm dia. size is the most common.
The Srtop-It~ad~d rtt-tl sholln at I. is the usual type employed; it is also known
JS a ClI.p-htodtd " ·Vtl. :"iOle the proportion of the hcad in relation to the shank;
the sh3nks (which Jrc sli).:htly tJpered) I';lry in diameter from 9 mm to H mm.
The shank before fi\lllJ.: (" rivctillfi: ") e\lends to the icn).:th indicated by broken
Jines and this length depends upon the diameter of the rilet, the method of
riH:ting (machine or hand) and the amount of K"P (the O\eran thickness of
the plates, angles, etc. "'hich are connected t~clher). The second head is
formed durin~ ri\'ctin~. the heated end of the shank hetnK forced into a cup
shape.
Court/nS/mk Riedl (M) afC employed when the bottom head is required to
finish Rusb with the underside of the lower member being ril'eted, e.g., at the
connection between the foot of a principal rafter of a steel roof tfUSS and the
plate \\ hich is supgorted by the wall and which should ha\'e a le\'e! hearing.
Note that rivets are seldom used now in steel building framn having been
replaced by welding-see Vol. 4,
COLD ROLLED SECTIONS
These ha\-e been increasingly used since the 1939 war; because of their
lighter .....eight. the load carrying capacity is not to great 2. the hot rolled sectiolll.
Even so. they are a useful adjunct to the builder'. range of material. and have
successfully been adopted for IChool and house con.truction. They Ife ideally
,62 MILD STEEL SECTIONS
suiled for prefabricated structures where the light weight leads to rapid sile
erection. The thickness of metal varies accordinR to requirements. a common
thickness being of mm. The shapes into which the metal can be pressed or rolled
are almost unlimited and the sections haye a wide range of uses from beams and
columns 10 skirtings, door frames, gutlc~, etc. Joinlin~ is best done by shop
welding, bolts being needed for site connections. Cold rolled sections should
be well protected from corrosion by galvanizin~ or similar effective process.
Some typical sections are shown in Fig. 81,
Btaml.-Dctails f, G and Mare self-explanalOry and the range of sizes is
given, the stronger type of channel is provided with lips, this is known as the
lipptd or box channel. Thl:rc is also the outward lipped channel (or top-hat,
see F') made in sizes from 38 mm by 38 mm hy 1'2 mm to 100 mm hy 100 mm by
-fmm.
The buill-up beam at T is of two sections spot-welded together, it is used in
lieu of and at the same' centres as timber floor joists. The hollow flanges allow
for the insertion of wood fillets for nailing the floor boards. The one at T' is
used for the same purpose, it comprises a l-seclion and 1\\0 Jngles, The kinks
in the web trap thc nails used for fastening down the bnarding- and so timber
fillets are not needed.
The lattice girder al u has a top boom of 1\\'0 lipped channels i5 mm aparl and
a bottom boom of two angles. The intermediate memhers are lipped channels
welded into the spaces. A similar example to this is shown in Fig. 17, \'01. IV.
Columns.-These are shown at F' and G', the former being made of 1\\'0 plain
and two outward lipped channels welded togelher, diaphragm plates may be
welded inside the cavity at intervals. The one al G' is made witr. two cold rolled
and one hot rolled channels welded together. Stanchions of this sort at 2'5 m
centres have been used'to carry floor beams 6 m long which support a precast
beam floor and a similar roof load above. The box channels e.\tend two storevs
to the roof and the B.S.C. is stopped off beneath the first-floor beam. •
Cold rolled sections can be formed into practically any shape for special
purposes, some exampl~s are gi\'en at J' where' there is a skining, " panelling
trim, a mullion CO\'er pressing, etc.
 HOMEWORK PROGRAMME
THE nalure and amount of homework in Building Construction let each week arc influenced by • number of con.iderations. such u the character of the
course, length of each c1us period, number of periods per leHion. type and special requirements of students, treatment of subject in class, etc.
The following homework schedule i, based upon the author', experience in teaching the subj«t to architectural students preparing for degrees in Building.
R.UtA. examinations and those attending National Diploma and Certificate courses, and whilst it is clur that the programme cannol have general application, it is
hoped that it will .uve as a useful guide. It is assumed that each sheet will be commenced in dau and completed as homework.
Whilst it may be considered Ihal the programme unduly emphasizes the seclion de\'oted 10 Brickwork, il should be pointed out that there is now a general
tendency to concentrate upon bonding, etc., in thc first year in order that subsequent years of a course may be free for the greater development of other seaions
including those concerned with new materials and forms of construction. The programme may with advantage be modified. especially for architectural students.
10 include less brid: bonding and more details of the units of construction.
It is likely that the drawing sheets will be of Az s~ze. Care should be taken to ensure a well-balanced set of drawinK', and a suggested lay-out of a sheet
is gi\'en in Fig. 58. As indicated. each sheet should be given a suitable title, Ihe printing of which by the studenl afforda practice in plain lettering. The details
should be drawn to a large scale, and whnn,;tr possible thue should be to full SI:U; Ihisapplies particularly to joinery details.
As the length of session varies in different colleges, the I1omework programme provides (or the maximum number of sheets, numbering from twenty· four
10 twenty-eight. which mW)' be produced per session.

T
Shnt Sumb.:.

Subj"Cl or Dr..... lnll

Draw, to a scale of I ; 10. alternate plans of stopped
ends II, J, Ii. and L, and part elev.uions at G,
Fig. 3.
Draw, 10 a ~cale of I [0, alternate plans of stopped
ends E, F, G and J, and part ele\'ation 0, Fig. 4.
3 3, 3 3 Draw, to a scale of I : 10, altern:lle plans of right-
Draw, to a scale of I . 10- {O) plans and elevations
of piers ~, L, 0 and Q, Fig. 7, and (b) alternlle
plans of rebated Jambs E, H, Land 0, Fig. 8.
6 I>',.'A, to a scale of I 10, complete details of piers
in Fig. 7
7 Dra'A, to a scille of I: 10, complete details of re-

• , • ,
angled Junctions, A, B, t', D and ~, Fig. S.
Draw, to a scale of 1 10, alternate plans of right-
angled quoins A, B. D and E, and sketch G, Fig. 6.
Draw (a) to a scale of I 10, eleution and plan of
bat~J Jambs In Fig. 8.
6 7 7 8 (.) J)ra'A. 10 a scale of I 10, &Celions through
foundations A to D, Fig. 10, and sections through
oundat ions s.imilar 10 A sUita.ble for 215 mm and

jJ
5 5 5
'Aindo'A A, Fi.e;, ss; and (b) full size details G. J +p mm walls; (b) sketch, approximately to I : 20
and Ii. of ca\it} walling and Joinery. scal~, umbenng 10 Irenches 10 Fig. 40.

1
"J
16.j HOMEWORK PROGRAMME

Sh«t Num~r

Number of Leclurn Subjro.-I of Dr..... '"Ill SubJecl of 01"11" inl

pcr Snsion

·s •• '7 .. ••
7 8 8 9 Sketch: (D) offset A,
Fig. II; (6) lintels A,

N, R, Fig. 17.
corbels and cap 0, R,
L, M
Band c, Fig. 12; (e)
threshold 0, Fi~. 16; (d) copings a, J and plinths '. '5 ,6 '7 Draw: (a). 20 scale e1evalion of collar roof E,
Fig. 37, omilling hip', angle ties and jack rafters;
(h) I : 10 scale eaves de:tails Y, Fig. 36, and L, Fig.
37, showing boarding in lieu of batte:ns.
8 • 9 10 Onw, to I : 10 scale, Ihe arches in Fig. 15; thiek- '5 ,6 '7 ,8 Draw I : 20 scale: put elention E and plan F of built-
!leSS of joints between voussoirs need not be up truss, Fig. )9, and I : 20 scale isome:tric eavc:s
shown. (Leave space for sections c and K, Fig. del ail.

• 10 10 II
41); I « Sheet No. 16 (or 17 or 18 or 19).
Dl"llw. to I : 20 scale, portions of rubble work Ii and
B, Fig. 20, and F, C and II, Fig. 22. Include
,6 '7 ,8
'. To I : 10 scale, add centering for arche:s A, I, F. G, J
and K, Fig. 41, to Sheet No.8 (or 9 or Io--sc:e
adjacc:nt), and sketch M and N, Fig. "I.
,

'0
"
quoins, Jambs, part plan A8 and section <.:0, Fig.
22; the mullions and tr .. nsome need not be shown.
Draw: (1I) I : 20 devauon of arch N "lth panion of
walling and section at ~ includmg cornice, parapet
and coping. Fig. 2 .. ; (6) I ' 5 S(;aic sections o£
cornice A, Fig. 26, Siring course n, FiR. 26, "indo\\
Sill I, FiJI:. 25. and copmgs A IInu t·, FiJI:. 27.
12 Draw. 10 I : 20 scale. ptan. sccllons .mu part de:\a-
" tion of fapdc sho"n in hg. 24·
13 I Dn." 10 1 5 Sl.:ale. s«tions lhrou~h cornice" and
string course 0, Fif(. 26, \\inJow sill .... MI plinths
Q and li, Fij(. 25. wpmgs " ,IOd t·, Fig. 27 anu
cornice 0, Fig. 7~t
12 I) Dr"" (0) I 20 scale h... lf of pl.m" "m.l St:Cllons B
" Ii
.mu (. of floor, I·I~. 32, (Il) I 10 M:ale s«lion:; J
and ,t, Fig. 32, \\ith aitcrnati\e skt"pt:r wall detail
at c, FiJ!:. 10; (r) sketch,,:; of JOints (;, ,. and p.
Fig. )2, (d) full-size sccllon tmough JOint R,
Fig'34'
13 1.4 '5 J)raw; (0) I 20 scale part P\;'IOS of Roors P, Fig. )),
" and A, Fig. 3.. , shuwlII~ trimming of hearths;
(6) I 10 SCAle seCllon •. Fig. 34. int:luding
'7 ,8
'. '0 Ora": (a) I: 10 scale A, I, C and 0 of framed,
ledged, braced and batte:ne:d door, Fig. H; (h)
one-fifth fuU-sLte details L, 10'1 (e1c:nlion and sec-
tion), N (elevation) and 0 (elevation and plan).
,8 '9 Ora.... : (a} I : 10 scale ", II and c of two-panelled
" door, Fig. So; (h) full-size details H, J and K,
Fig. so--architra\'e and panel mouldings 10 be:
selected from Figs .•6, 48, 50, 52 and 63.
'0 Or:.w: (0) I 10 scale ". B and c (or 0, E and F) of
steel windo ..... Fig. 62; (h) full-size delails G,
H, K, I.. and 0, Q and N.
Ora.... : (a) I : 10 scale A, 8 and c of cased frame:
" 'J
window, Fig. 58; (h) half full-size details K, I., fool
and 1'1.
" n 'J •• Draw I . 5 scale: ....ood and slating ea\'e:s and ridge:
details A and eaves details F and G, Fig. 71.
Cast-iron guller to be: shown \0 e:ach case;
incorporate a swan-ne:ck bend F. Fig. 77. Alter-
natively, dra" one-fifth full-size plain tilin~
details, Fig. 72, and interlock,".': tile details,
Fi~. 39.
'1 •• '5 Ora"' (a) flill-size: de:tails J, R, " and s, [·il(. 74,

'.
adjacent hrillgin,::: joist \\itn cle\·"t;"n of slrlllling
and SCCllullslmihir to ""; (r)tluartcr full-sizc dct .• il! '1
of lusk Icnon I and huusedJoints M ;lnd N, Fig. 34.
'J 16 Draw (0) I . 20 scale t:le:ulions of R.II roof A. lean-
to roof II and do>-(': couple roof I, Fig. )6; (Il)
I . 10 sdlle delJil" Q. M. S, G, I', X Jnd z.
l'>latinp: dewl,..
(h) one-fifth full-size details" and o. FiJ!'. 7).
'5 ,6 Dra.... (a) I : 5 scalc :!>tclions f, F and G. Fig. is i
(h) sketch, appro"\lmalely to I . 10 scale, ". L. \1
and :\"i (I") dra" 1 10 sl:Jle de1J.ils II. I' and Q.
Fig. 75.

-
Omit

-
'. -
Dra\\ full-size stc:el sections I), F, G and H. hC". ~c ,
sketches () Jnd A', Fig. 81.
-
If t .. cnly-t:ight lectures p"r _jun. ;rl<.:luJ" ".ther (u) shl'l'1 IIpon Iinmestic w,Ih:r services, Fig. 78, or (h) one: on stairs, Fig. 65.
 INDEX
A lJillh atune, H, )11 Bond-conld Brrulh Columbian PlOe, SQ, 64
IJaIl , ... 10,12, 'J.
1;(, IIQUUC I~mhs. I) SUlldinl( Rl"gulltion.-
Abutment, 21 Ulltlena, ~6, hy, 114-116, lit!. ~o. 1H, 1)5 srtlppcd cnus, 7 bAlustrade, 124
A~rCIC'lc., 1; lI.ulks, 55 stretch"'lI, 4. 7 Hoor jt>iSl., 60. 6S
Air bm:h, 00-6. Ik.urd joint, JI Bonue .... , 40 rnundlttonl, J /I
Albumum, H Ik.us, mm", III , 112, 11.~-117 BonumI/:. l-I.~. "o-H hnnhl, 61, tiS. 67
Anldt buds, '07, 1112 \lul.'r, liS Boss"'g, 1,,2 .111" concrcte. ,II
lInfn, 39 lle.mlillm ll.77. ql m.lIcl. ISh sUlre.kl, UJ. 124
Cle. 7J Ikanll, 11.'..1, 51'!. r.W-Ih2 5trC~, 142. 156 therm.1 insulat,on, ], 58, q.I
An)(lel. stttl, '!II, 107. ISK. '5<,1, ,60 Uearn1l. l/:ulIl'r, 70. 7b, 14H I1oI\lnl/:. ~II lOo,ndoWI.IOJ
Annual ron~, SS, ~Ii, ~IJ, .~'"
Apc.oJl JIO"", 52
Iku. J. JH, l'J lJo" sa"; 126 ButtT"S$e•• I]
lmnlS, 3. 22, ::Z]. 2,. • .10, 11 ..1'1. ,.0, ~7 Brace ~n,J bill, 1211 CIPP'n~. 1'1
Au.de.211 m"ulus. ;4 "rael"ll. S2, SII. 90 Bnck"ork,I_]1
Arch". '"eu bncJc, 1:4 lkuumJ,(, 17,21.411,60, M4, '04 H..d .... I, I::ZS
cl ...,hcaln>n,1;2 l~'·nurnj.( 1c~u P'PI"I. 146, 148 Btlck archei, 2'_2". Ho-II::z, 'J.', lOS, 11('
construction, J'1-2.4. Ho.I:I:. .II"~. '4!1,IS6 con~trucllon, 24 c
Rat, :12-2.4, -I9.1k1-111, 'B. lOS. ,,(, Iklrl. 2H, '2~ C<)P"'I(I.26-21'!
JlIUj(N, 2)-24 He. dlru b,lt". 4. I J f')oI,nt!'. IS. Ifr. '7
i.,k. 24 clOI':rs, 4 Irntcll. 20_:U Cllclum sulph •• ., pluters. J2-]1. 67-68
p"rpok-mlLl" bnck, 2:1, 24 hllUn.cheu JOlm. 65. H phnthl,211 C.lllpers. 125
rough rellt\'lnl(. 24 houS('u Joint, 65 5,Ib, 24-::z6. 104 l'Ymbcr, 22-2)
5ellfTlent.I, "f. 49 rdr"l'djurnt, 112
IIr.ch. W
rhresh"lus. 2fr C.mh,um,55
Kflllcircul.r, "4, 49 Bnc~11\ n', crJfI, J C~p,IIIr,' gTOOU'S. 107. '+4
soldier, 20 HlruAllourhj<lInl, 72, 73, 74 IIndd.yers' lools, 211 C.rpo:ntr,-. H-b
stone, )9...6-49 811Uffil'n,17 IIncks. "r.
60-61 dl"fimllOn, S8. II]
term_, 2.1-:1'1 Black onon ... 47 .""J, '££, 24 C....m.,m r~3'''''':'~, 'U7, IIOJ
Arch,II'1IH:I,120 Bloc~-rn-cou •.., munnr,', 42 haU.4, '0. 12, 'l. 2(> Sll~. '07
Arri., I, J. S Bloc~rnR coorst', ~2 hollnns..·, 4, 12. 2t> Cl$l"menlS. l0 4- 10<,I
K«ne', c:rmenl, j:l. 107. I:t.J Slo"l.mp. '''), IH, 156 ch.raeten",cl,I-2 el'IO~. f ..med. QII
ArtlficI.1 RllOnlnl(, ~_~'s6 Slul' StUloro.blll.r bnc~ I) p_c. III closers, 4-1._ pll,n. 'no y.II. """,, 101
Ashlar, 40, .U-S2 Doardlnl/:, roor. 114. I J7 coprn". 26-211 .~.,I.,ton. OJ7. 911
Alphah, '7. 69. 70, 1~2 ilouds Roo.. 57, 5'1,61-67 Udl~lI, 1_2 elul~IOIf,~. 14], ISS
Auached plt'rI, 12-1]. III Boulrr, J8 UOI(I.,",4 1001. 156
Auger, 118 Hobbrns, 1~8 . 1504. 156 racing, I. J ell CliO moulu. 48, ~o
Axe, 1:18 ilolrction moulu, 'I). <)6 han<.l_maUI". I, .10 Cillty ".11. J, 4, IJ. 106. 1.111
And-brick an::h«, 24 8olstrt. ::z8 jOlnt'n" IInu porntrn". )0. ] 1 e.,lhn", JOIS[I. 72
8ohs. blTnl. 86, 88. I 'Q mOlnufll(:tuR'. 1.2 CI",lrn"", 67-bII. 74
Rush. 87, <)6 p,ers.ll·'l e.,II •• B

• llfO.ugh! 'fOn. 20, 7J. 77, 161

Bond. drfinrlmn, )
dOli" tooth, 40
pllOth,211
pU'ned, I. )0
purpose-midI'. 4. ~I, n, l4
Cemrnt,2
fill.,IS, 152
HO.[lOg coat, J I. "4
doublr Arml.h, 7, 8, Q, II, 12, I J rubht·rs. ::z::z. '24 If.oul. 2, 20. 45, 47. 5J
EnRlrsh. 4. 6. 7, K, Q, f l . r::z und_facrd. l'
Band. and IfUdgoeon hooks, 90 monar,::Z, 12. 17. 18,26, ]1. 45. 47, SJ
hudm¥".4 san<.l-hme. I \\'ll"rproorrrJ, )T, IJS
Banker muon, ]6 JUnCll0nS, 9. 10
Ba~facrd Itnon, 90
'I~CS, ) nelt erment. n
Pll"rI. 12-IJ spo:ei.I.4 21. n. ~J, 2 .. plul(. SJ
Bllfk, 55
s.rs, atl!C'l, "21, I ~R
quo",., 4. 10, II
R'bAl~ j.mt-. I], 14
spIn, 4
Il"rml, J-4
• Cl"nt.,rrnlj:. 24. 8o-b
Cha,n, dOIfS. 54
Bue~. 3S. J6
Bastard luck POLnllnl, 3'
Imlt1c FInnish, 7. 8
IlIIIIli, Ill. 1]4
\\clltht.2 I...... ,s. 54
_lr .. -COlt, I Chaml. ush. 109. IIJ
,0,
166 IN DEX
Ctumn~I •• 11«1, IS8, '59. 16~ Cord. n .. h. 109, 113. liS Defecu on umber--contd E
ChIpped gram, ,58 Corn'CH. )6. )9, 50-5:1, IB knots, ,57, 59
ChIsel drafted marillnl, 39 prot«tlon of. 15:1 thnnkong. 58, 84-86, 91,120 Ea,,", defuution, 61)
Chisels, 0118, )8, 39. 126 Corona, 5' .welhng, 58, 98 doted, 69, 74-n, 138
C,rcular uw, 10), 1:18-129 Corrulfattd saw edge £astenel"l, 125 tWitted gnlln, 57 courx. alatina:. 135
carborundum, )6 Counter.banen•• 1]6, 1)7,1)8 upseta'i' Jilin«. 140
diamond, J6 Couple roofs. 72-74 wane,S Hu.h, 60}
Circumferential .hrinklt!C'. s8 COUrlel, ),4 w"p, 58, 59 gulten., lSI
Clamp, 10118 Cover t1tshmgt, 14)-146, 148. 150-152 wet tot, 58 joll'U, 159
C""r. I ('radlin!!' illC'«. 67 Derbythire Itone, 35, 36 open,. 61), 74, 138, 139
Clay-holn, 39 Cnmped ;oml, 53 intached plen, 12, 13, 17 ,proc:keted, 69, 74-76, 137-139
Cln.I, ,8 Cnmpln,ll doo,., 101, 10) Olmmi,hlnR couraed work, 131, 134, 13!, Electnc power toola, 1:18'1]0
Close couple roof, 72 floor boards. fI).(q 'J9 Elm, 59
Close-pIcked ..... Ihng, 4:1 C.,.mps. 52, 6]-64. 102. 1211 DOIiIiI"lCSS, 57 Endose"" 55
CloSord mon,ce and I~on jomt, 8) Crt1Ismll:, Ille, :18 Dop. n.
Door chain, 91, 96
EacutWcn, 88
Ex.O(lt:ftS, 55
Closers, "'1) Creosol", S6, 60
Coa.::h KrewI, u.s CroA-Cut sa,,'. us locks and IUchn, 86-90, 96, tOO Expanded metal, 6']
eoan.!: rrlm, 57 Cro"n,21 atop, 100 fuc:tenaion hin.,es, 107, 101}
Cold chiHI. 128 Cuban mahotrany. 59 Doon, 83-103 ExtradOl, :II, 49
Collar roof., 7011-, .. Cuppmg, s8 da"Ifiatlon. 8..
ColumbIan pme, ~9 Cup .hakes. 57 flu.h,9 1
Comp.u"I, 12 5 Cup., 106, 124-125 framed, ledaed and bauened, 90 F
Comp.,. saw, 1:16 Cunmlf Iron, 126 ledlltd, braced and battened, 90-91
Compo. a l...u, '0) hangmll, 116, 90, 91. 96.100 race, 3, ]8
Compound "'alb, 47 Cyma rt'CU mould, 50, S I ledp:ed and battened, 8.-88 Face-bedded .cone, 39
Compresaion Itre", 19. 6~ re,'ena mould, 50, S I braced and battened, 88-90 Fa$CII board, 61), 70, 74, 77
Concrete, a, IS-I7, 61, 6.. , 67. 68 CJ11lal!um, 50, 5' manufacture, 86, 90, 100-10] Fatteners, corrupted 1111«11 uw edre, us
IR/E,ell'"es, :I panelled,9 1 -103 Fender wall., 18, 6,
blocks, H prepanllon, 86, 90 F.brou. asphalt fdt, 17. 68, 61), 135. 137
D proportion, 8" FII"re,s6
Hoo",,6 ..
foundaltOnl, IS-I, ai:tel, II" Finlltr pbte. 100
hurt/ •• , 61, 62, 66, 6, lJamp proof courtet, 16-18,28 Dot mould, 157 Fireplace hHrth., 61, 65. 66
hntel" 19, Z I, 24. 48, ,6, 106, I IS ..phalt, 17 Double, boarded floors, 6. F.rmer clute!, 1:16
matnx, 1 blue Staffordshire brick, ,8 elves course, 135, 1.0 Fi.rrinp, 70
rmx,"s. :a copper, ,8 Flenush bond, 7, 10, 12, I) room&, 73
no-fine., 3J fibrous asphalt felt, '7 roar., 72-77 Fi:.ed ..~, 107·'01}
proportiOning, 18
reinforced, 19. :11, 24 ... 8, ,6, ,06, 11,5.
lead, 18
plallic, 18
slates, 18
tenons, 8 .. , 90
Douglal fir, 59
Dovelail saw, 126
Flaahinp, 'pl"OD., 143, ISO
horizontal COVeT, 143,
raking cover, 143, 151
.,6,
1+8
lal. 124
',Ie, 18,6, Uead",ood,57 Dovetailed h.h'ed joint, 7:1 atepped covtr, 143. ISO-IS'
ContinUous vertIcil jo;nlll, ] • .t. 7. 10, Driecu In It......" 39 houted joint. 65, 74 Flat root's, 10, l..,s
U clay-holes, 39 tenon jrunt, I 12 Flint w.llinll:, +4'4~
Convenlon. tImber, ,56 mottle, 39 Dowelled joinfl, 5:, 53, 83, 84 Floor, oo.rd •• 57, 58, 61-64
Copinga, 26-28, 51, 52 sarw,t_holes, 39 Dowel., 49. 5:1, 53. 83.a.. JOOl". 58, 60, 61, 603.67
FlooTl, double, 58, 6.4
apex-$tone, ~2 shakes, 39 Down-Plf>Ko 154-155
briclr.-on-edgc, 26, 28 ahclly t.J'$, 39 Drqon beam, 69. 74 e!eaning off, 64
brick-on-end, 18 IInailcrttp, 19 Orap, 38-39 concrete, 6.4, 68
bulinOK', 26 Defe.:It in timber, 57-58, 60, 61, n Draught be,d, III protcc:tion, 64
fnther-edlr', 5:1 bo¥nnll. 58 Draw pinned .101 mortice and unon joint, .ingle, 58·6']
knHier,5:1 dupped grain, 58 8, tnmminll, 61, 65, 67
parallel, 51 arcumferenual ahnnka ..., 58 Orcsacr, 142-143. 156 tnple, 58
rakinlf, 51 coarse gnln" 57 Onll., ponable electric, U9 wood-coven-d concrete, 64
saddle-back, :18, 5:1 cup thakes. 57 Drip plate, 156 Folding wedges, 6], 80-82
segmtntal, ~:I cupping, 58 Onps, lead, 14a, 143, 146, l..,s Forked tenon joint, II a
aemicircu.lar,26 deadwood, 57 Orwrineu, ~7 Foundationt, 15-17, 40, 45
sprinlr'r "one, 5:1 doatmest, 57 Dry TOt, 57-58, 00, 61, 77 brick foottnp, 16-17
Copper dunp proof course, 18 druxmn8, 57 Dummy, h.nd, 148, 156 conc:Tete, IS-I,
tuba,ISS-15 6 dry rot, 57-58, 60. 61, 77 heel. 148, 156 and rootings, 16
Corbel" 18.19.61, 67 foxineu, 57 10nR', 148, 156 1I0ne, 40, 4'
bracket•• 61 hurt . hu.es, 57 Ouramen, 55 Frame IIW, 36, 126

-
 INDEX
Framf'd, k-d!<:t:d and rn.ucncd door, 90 Ha",k,28 joints iJrulro.'f}rJ/. and "'aJonTl~nld Joinu. pll.lmiJing-
It:dged, braced and battcned door, 90-9' HeadH, 3, 7, '0, ,1I~19 , 40 jogglt:, 20, 51, 52 caflilluv, 1~~-1~6
Frames, door, 8J Headin" bond, 4 k..}'ed, JI compreSSion, 156
beddln~, 13,8 .. ,107 joint, 63 mlUOnry, 52-53 copper bl!, '4J, 156
",mdo\\, 10J-IIS. 119 ,:.to H ..ad-nall .. d &lIl1n", 76, 13 •• 137-l.1ii mason's m.t"" .. 9 down_pipe, .• 54-I 55
Frankrd jolnl, 104 H ..arl shakcs, 57 plugged, 5J drip., '+4-
Frenchm.n, "II HUllng,45 projt'Cling, 30, 3 I eave. gUller, I p
Fne~e, 51 Hearlhs,67 rebaled,5 2 laps, '4-4
Froll, 3, JO Heartwood, 55 rt'Ccs.ed, 30 rolls, 14-4
Herrinl/-bone Sirutun!l:, 67,7° rusl,cal..,J, 5" welts, 1+4--146
Hinges, bun, 90, 96, 100, 107 saddl.. , 5' wiped, ISS
G eXlensiOn, 107 .truck, 30 joins, floor, 58, 60, 61, 63, 65-67
sk.. w butt, 100 o\'erhand, )0 .;zes, 5B, 60
Gable wan, 4" llrap.90 tongued and grooved, 52 lrimming, 65
Galleted joints, ,,0 T, 86, 88, 90 vee, 31, 52 jumt)CB,41
Gauge-stick. 131, 133 Hips, 69, 73-7", '36-137 Jo.nlll· mrJ>i'nlr.l' andjoirury---
Gauge, Cllttlng, uS 511llinll, 135 barcfact'd lenon, QO
marklll~, uS tibng, '36 be\el rebaled, II ~ K
mortlKe, '02., 125 Holderbats, ISol bt'\'elled haunched, 65, 7 ..
p.nel, 102., 125 Holdful, 128 houscd, b5 Keen..'. c .. ment arri., )2, '07, I2J
roo, 2.B, JO Hollow bed jOlnl, 53 ImdsmoUlh, 72, 73 Kenl;sh rag, 42
slick. 11' Hom .. w"rk prognmm .. , ,6], 164 butt, 6, Key brick Or stone, 21
Gcn"nl jmner, .03 shecl, 101} doled m<)TlIC" and lenon, 8J Keyedjoinl, )1
Gimlet, 12.8 Hori~ontll .lidmg Juhes, 119 cogKed, 60, 62, 73 Kiln, '
Glass, 106 HornB, 65, 113-84, '04, 112 double lenon, 8.. , 90 Knlpped flcmg, 4.~
pane., proportion, 106 Hou.d jOints, 60, 65, I I I , '23 dOH'ta,led, hah"d, 7:.t Kneder, 52
plpering, 102, u8 housed, 65, 7J KnOll, 57, 59
Gla~ing blrs, 104~I06, IU, 119 tenon, 112
beads, 104, .06 dm.'dled, 84, 90, 94, 100
Glue, 83,84, 102, 112 19m,ow: rocks, 35 draw_pinned slot mortic .. and tenon, 84
Gluing, 102, 112 fishing, 73 L
Imposl,22
Goug~, }8, 39, 126 forked tenon, 112
Inhands, ·n, 115
Gnmte,35 Indenls,4 franked, 104 Lac..d. vllIey, I 40
Grindstone, '28 Inner linings, 10I}-112, II) hIIlf-llpped, 60, 73 Llcing courses, +4
Ground floor, 58-64 Inlers..Cl10n, brick, 10 halv ..d, 104, 112, " .. Ladle, 'SS, 156
Grounds 98, no IntradO$, ::tl, 49 haunched mon,c .. Ind tenon, 8), 90, 98, Laggings, 82
Grout. 2, 20, 45, 47, 53 lronm()flgery. See" Hard .... ar.. " 104,112 Lak .. Oislrici masonry, IB, 40. 45
Gud~on hooks, 90 h...ding,63 Lancashire Silles, '3', '32
Gutters, 70, 77-78,142, '46-148, 152-154 houled, 60, 65, III, 123 Lap, 4, '34, '37, '38, '39, '40
Gypsum plaste... , 32-33 J mitred, 64, 93, 120 Larrying,45
mitred and rebtil ..d, 122 Latch~, 86-90, 96
H jllck arches, 24 mOrlicc-d Ind lenont'd, 8}, 90. 94, 102 Llths, 67,1)4
raftera, 69, 73, 74 nOlched, 60, 65, 72, 74 uld Ipron, '4), 'So
Half-bata, 4, 5 jambs, rebated, brick, 13 oblique lenon, 73 burning, '4], '52
Hslf-llpped joint., 60, 62 square bnck, 7, I) pinn.. d, 74, 8J chlractenstics, 142
HII .. t'd joints, 108 Joggkjoint, 20, 47, 5'-52 ploughed and longued, 63, III covered corniCH, 51, 15::t
HanuneT'!l, ::t8, 38-39, 128. 129 joggled arches, 49 rehlued, 61, 63 damp proof COUBf', 18
Hind board, 28 Joiners' tools, laS-I)o rebtited, longued Ind grooved, 6J dowels, 104, 152
Hand-dreued II<on .. , 36, 38. 41, 45 jOinery, 8)-1)0 scarfing, 73 drips, 1+1-
Hlngers, 7:.t, 74
I-kndscrl'W, 128
Hardwlre, door, 86-90, 91, <,J6
windo ...., ICry, 112-119
tit'finilion, 83
Jointer, 211, 30, J I
Jointing, )0-3', 36, 94
joint.; briCInooTJ/. a"d maJmrry----
.]
scribed, 9),104,112,122
splayed, rebatt'd, tongued and grooved,

aqulre, butt, pllin Or .hot, 6,,63

Rashings, 142, I,,), 150-151
Ran, 70, , ..8
gUHn., 77,146-148, '52-154. ISS
hips, 136, ISO
Hlrdwood mlrgin, 64 bed,), 22, a3, 24, JO, )1, 39, 41, 47 hauled,65 manufacture, '43
Hardwcxxb, 58, 59 bun, 10, 52 .tub tenon, 91, 102 pipes, 14J, 146, 148, ISS
Hatch .. t hil, 156 continuoul vertical, 3. 4, 7. 10, 12 tongued and grooved, tl3, 66, 86, 122 pltch,69
Hlu...:::h l .H, 65, 87 crampt'<!, 53 grooved and belded, 116 plug, 5)
Haunched mortllX Ind lenon jolnl, 83, 90,
'02, '04, 112
dowell..d, 53
ftlUh, 30
grooved and V-jointed, 74, 86
IU.1t tenon, 6$
ridga, 1)6,
rollB, ......
.48.15::t
HIUnchinl, 114 hollow bt'd, 53 twin If'flon, 100 uddle_piect', '5a
r
168 IN DE X
LucI-contd. Mahopny, 59, 1)6 Nidi, 124, '3), 1)4, ')s, 1)7, 140, 143 Pinel., "It, 91, 93, 101
MUcn, 1)6, IJ7. '4l1, 143. ISO-IS' M.Uet, u8 alummium alloy, 133 "Ised and chamfered, 93
ta., I,U. ISO Mandril,156 chrome-iron, 133 and fial, 9]
vallcy*. 137, ISO M.ple, 59, 64 cornpollilon, I]] lunk and fielded, 9], 96
'A'eciga. I,U. 151 Mlrxua, chIsel drarted, 39 copper, 133, 14) lunk and moulded, 93
"'''elihu, '42 M.riu", ....1, 125 cut clasp. 124 lunk,9]
'Atlll,I+4-146 Masonry, 35-54 Roor bradl. 124 Plnliles, 68, 69
"fIool, 155 MIIIOftI' milre, 49 plVUlitcd ... Muahl '"'"' 13] Plrapet., 51, sa, 77, .46-148
LHn-to roof, 70-71 tools, 28, )8, 39, 119 jomers' brads, 124 fUllen, 52, 77,141)-148, 154
I...edau. 84-90 Mutlc, 04, 84,109. '48. 154 lead, 13] Pltina chisel, 126
Leiter pl.te, 96 Match boardmg, 86 needle pomll, 124 Plnma bettdl, 109-111
Levellen, 41-42 M.nix, 2 panel pins, 93, 124 IlIp', 109-111
Lewi_.H Medulla, 55 Ipikes, 124 Pebble-dl,h, 34
Lier botItd, '50 Medullary ray •• 55-51), 59 wi~, 64, 114 Peii'es, 131, 1)4
Liflina 'pplianeet, 54 Meetll'\i ra,l •• 111-112 wrought, u-4 Pencil-rounded, 93
Lime, a Me1tina pot. 156 :tmc, 13] Ptnnubility, 17
h)'dnted, )1. Metamorphic rockl, 15 Nuural ~d, ]9 Perpends, 4, 30, 133
hydnuiic, J I Mica. 39 seasoning, 55 PIC1U~ "ill, 120, U2
lTLIif\ul.n, JI Mild .Ieel.nlles, 21, 158 Night latch, 96,101 Plen, 12-13, 18,44
mann, 2, lI), JI, 47, '15 beaml, 58, 158 Norrolk la,,,h, 85, M, ~, fn"ndlt;onK, 16, 17
black,47 bolli, 73. 78, 161 Notched joint, 60, 6S, 71, '4 Piluten, 12
w.terproo(ed, J I chlnnel., 158, 16, Pincer" I as
putty, 23. JI, Ja, 53 chlracterillic., 158 Pinned, jomu, 14, 83
LimutoM., 35. )6, 42 cold rolled, 158, 161 o P,lCh, 69. Ill, 139, 141, 161
B.th. lS, )8 columnl,161-11)2 pine, 59, 64, 104, 112
Kendll,45 flat ban, 21, 61,158 Oak, S9, 61, 64, 8).1)6, 104, IU P,tc:hinll tool, ]8
Ponland, 35-36, 39. 49, 53 manuracture, 158 Oblique tenon housed joiJ\l', 7), 84 Pllh, S5
Line and P"UI, 28, ]0 nutl,161 Offsets, 16, 18,61 Pit lind, I
LinUlI', door, 96-98. 101 nvell, 161 Ogee mould, 51, 93, '09 PIVoted ...hes, I'S-119
....'ndow, 109-11:1 round bt.n, 21, 68,1511 Oil can, u8 Pllin 1t!II'\i, 68, 69. 70,139-141
Lmte.l., brick, 19-;u, 107 sqUire bin, 158 Itone, 128 Planes, l16-u8
concr-ete:, 19. :II, 115 .tnps, 73 Open slalmg, 135 bead, 126
'Ione, 20, %1 lee bt.n, 158 valley rutten, 1So block, 116
wood, 19-20,99 W1IUlen, 161 Outbandl, 49 bullnose, 121)-11,
Lodr, monioe, 88-1}O. 1}6. 100 Mitre blocll:, 10). 128 Outer linings, 109, f II comJHI", 126
rim, 86, 18--90. 96. 100 box, 128 Overhead struck joint , )o holfG,", and round, 116
de.<!, 86, 88 joint, 49. 64, 74, 9l, 120 Oversalling CO!,Ir.$, 19 Jack, 10:1, la6, 127, 129
ni,tlll.tch,96, 101 ~ut.re, 125 Ovolo mould, 51, 1)6,104 meell IITIOOlh, 126
templet, 128 plough, 102, 126, 127
Mitred closer, 4 panable eleetric, 129
M and rebated joint, 122 p rebtlte, 126, I a7
Moisture conknt, 56, 59 router, 116
MKhlne-drea&ed .tone, )6-)8 Mortlr, See "Cement Mortlr" and Pld,ltone, 12,73,78 .r.oulder, 118
M~na, brick, I " Lime Mortlr " Pld """,126 trnOOthil'\i, 101, 116, 127
cin:ular Ilw, 36, 10), 1:18-1:19 fillets, 1,2 Padlock, 86, 87 .pokeshave, 116, 127
Cllrborundwn, )6 jointina and pointiDIJ, 30-)1, 47, 52-54 PllIeu, 14, 96 toothina, 126
diamond,36 Mortite chitel, 10l, 126 Pinel mouldin.., 9)-94 tonauinl' and grooving, 126
fJWne laW, 36 , lock, 88-90, 1)6, 100 bolection, 9), 1,16, 101 tryinK, 102, 116, 117
Itnem joiner, 103 Mullet, 102 pllnted,93 Pllnks,55
morh,,",. 10) Mullions, 4), 49, 104, no solid or IIUck, ~I, 9], 99 Pllnted mouldl, 93
panel planer, 10J Muntin., 91, 100, loa-103 St.jUlre,93 Pluterina, 31-34, 67-68
planin( and matchilll. 61 lunk,93 Plutic: wood, 12:1
and mouldlna:. J6 planing and thickne..inIJ machine, 10] Plate lock, 88
pDewnltic draain, and carvin, plant, )8 ..w, 101, las Plinth b1oeb, I aD
rubbi", bed, 36 Panellet4 doors, 91-105 Plinths, brick, II, 18
lind paperina. 103, 128 N flush,9' "one, 36, 49-51
.I.te boline, 133 four, 91, 1OD-102 Pl~na, 70, 14, 91, III
IPlndle moulder. 103 Nail punch, 64, 118 manufacture 0(, 100-103 chllel, s.. 126
au.rf..ee planer, 10) Nailm, 800r board., 63, 64 linale, 93-91 Plumb-bob, 1:18
tlU~, 10) d..- and open, '41 two, 9:1, 911-,00 Plwnben'tooJ.., 1,6-.S?
 INDEX 16<)
l
Ribe.82 Sap, 38, 55 St.~td_
Plumbin,. r..,a-I57
teI!Da, 142-146 Ridre'COU.IW. tl.atinc, 135 Sapwood, 55. S9 prepqwobon, 133. 137
Plumblna-up, 30 tiline,I35-1)6 SathasJepu.l.l~,I09, 111, II] quanym,.I]I,
Plumb-Nit, :a8, 30, S4 ~ 61), 71. 1]5-136, 140. 141 balance. 109, 115 ,\\Aeen, 131
Plywood, 91 ~ft tlwi. . . 56 catches, 117 1UCI,13 1 - 131
Pocket c:hitel, 126 Rim. dft,d lock, 88 cluina, '09, 113 uUy, t3.
Poekeu, III latch, 88 dati. 117 terma, 11J-134
Pointina: I).
buurd bid, 3 I
IB, )0, JI, a.., 140. '43 Iodr;. 86. 88-90, 96, 100
nisht latch, 96, 101
cord, t09, "3, 115
eydeu,123
weiaht,70
SLatirll, 131-141
rule, 28 Rirll. arch, 21 £utener, 111-113 Sleeper Will., 18, 60.61
tuclr., ]1 Ripper, I ] ) handle, 113 Slip, 1
Pole plate, ,8 Rip tlW, Ip2, 125 lif1, 113 atone, u8
Patina boarda, 79. 80 Rite. 21, 69,12) pivOtl,115- 116 Slurry, •
PoUed facina, 45 Riten, 41,123 weight., log, 113, 115 Snap betden, 7

Poroaity, I,
Polygonal _lling, 42 Rivera, 161
RoKh bed, 3S, )6
Sashes, lo)-no
Saws, 18, 36, 10l, 103, U5-n6, Il8-119
Snecka, 4.
Snow boards, 146
Portable power tool., 128-U9
Portland cement, :&
Rod., Ktting out, 101
Iteel, 21. 67. 68, Is8
RolIl,lnd, 144-148
5cabbling hammer, )8
Scantlinp, 56, 106, III
Scontion., 47
.1.
Soaken, 1)6, 1)7. 14', 14J, 150-151
Soffit, 69
heI~n, 69, 76
.tone, lS, 36, 39. 47. 49. Sl
Priming. 8. ROOD, clauificalion, 69 Scllper, 101, u8, 156 boardl, 69, 74, 76
Principal nflen, 77 close couple, 71 Screed,64 lining, log
Pulley Itiles, 10I}-1I9 collar, 71 Screwdriven, 1l8, 1l9, 157 Softwoods, 55, 58
Pull~, 101}, III, II] couple, 72 Screw" 106, Ill, 114-115 Solder, 14], ISS, IS6
Purl;"" 60). 7], 77 coverinR, 68, 70, 111-148 Screw-wrench, 157 pot, 15S, 156
Putty, 106, no, IS .. double, 71-77 Scribing, 7., 9), 94, 104, 111 Soldering iron, I S6
lime, 2). ]1, ]2, 53 lean-to, 71 pllte, 157 Soldier IIches, 10
fbt, 70, 142-148 Scutch, l8 Solid mould., 91-9]. 99
Q lean_to, 70-71 Seasoning umber, 55-56 Itrulling, 67
lingle, 69-71, 73 Secrel nliltnR, 6), 6. Spills, 40, 4S
QUfonies, 35. 36 lema, 68-69 Sedimentary roch, 3S Span, 21, 68-69
OUf.rry-dreued atone, 38, 40, 44-47 tnpie,77 Self-faced Iione, 38, .S Spandril, 11
Quarrying Iione, 35. )6 Itus.;.,d t~fl~r, bo), 77 Selling-in IIICk, I S6 Spin, 68, 70-77
Quarry "p,)8 trUISC'S, 69, 77 Selling 01,11 doon, 101 Spindle moulding machine, 103
tiles, 25 Rough picked wallmg, 41-"" Shlkes, 39, 57 Spirit levd, ;18, Ill!"
QuanerinlJl. 56 reliel'mg archu, 14 Shale, I Splay bricks, 4
Queen dONn, 4-IJ Rougha..t, 3] Sha\'e hooks, 155, 156 Split brick coune, ;10
Quirked bead, 1%3, 116 Rouler piane, 126, 117 Shell.tretl, 19, 11, 65 Spring wooe, 55
Quoiru, 4. 7. 10, "0, 'U. 47 Rubben, 11, 14 Shettlng, 79 Springer 1I0ne, 11, 51
Rubbll'lg bed, ]6 Shett lead, 141 Springers, II
R Rubble work, ]8, 40-47 Shetudizing, 107 Sprockell, 69, 74-77, 1)7-139
Rulet, 18, uS, 157 Shmgl«, 6g Spruce, 59,61,81
Racking blCk, 4 Runnen, 71, 74 Shrinkage, ss-s8, 93, 110 Squared rubble, )8, 40, 41-41
Raften, common, 68-77 Rustu:aled joinll, 51 Sills, z4-16, 49, I~ , 106, log-III, 118 Squares, 18, 38, 101, u5, 157
hip, 6<}. 73-7<4- Silver, 54 SlIff held, 109
jack, 68, 6Q, 75 s Silv~r grain, 56 SlIin, 11)-124
prlncipal,77 Sizeuick,I3 1 SlIncliffe stone, 35, 16
vIlley, 60}, 73. '49 Saddle-joint, 51 Sizes, finished, 61, 94 Siaple,86
R,il., 90-112 Saddle-piece, lead, 15;1 nomll'lll,61 Steel. See" Mild Steel"
Rain-wlter good_, '52-IS': Sand, l, ] 1, JJ, 47 Skewback,ll Slept, brick, 16
Random rubble, )8, 40, 4., 45 Sand-hole., 39 Skinmgs, 110, 111 concrete, ;16
,111H, 1)1, Ill. 1)6, 139 Sand_papering, 10) , 118, 119 Sllb tawing, S6 Slone, 16, 49,11)
R.I.p', uS, 156 machine, 103 Slaking lime, 1, )1 timber, 11)
Receu, 11 ponable electric tander, Il9 Sllte damp proof coune, 18 Stiles, 1jIO-119
Redwood , SQ. 60, 61, I~, In Sindsionell, ]5, 36, 47 holing mlchine, 1)1 , 13) Siock lock, 88
Reinforced brick lintel, ;10-;11 Bradford, ]5 Slalen' lools, 131 , 131 Slone IIchel, )9, 46-.9
concrete, 4,1;1,19, ;II, 70, 106, 110 Huddenfidd,35 SIIIe., 18, 35, 1)1-141 COPIl'lP, Sl
hntd., 19, ;II, 106. 110 Lanclllhire, )5 chinclerilllCl, I) I, 1]1 cornices, ]9, 46, 5", SI-Sl
Rendering, 33-34 Stancliffe, 3S, )6 C(lnvenion, 131 fOOlmgs,4°
Re-poinling. ) I Woollon, 33, 47 formation, III frine, 46, 50, S I
Revni., I) York.hire, ]] pilCh, 69, 1))-1)4 lintdl, 19, ll, 49
 INDEX
'70
SIO~ntd. St~rche~, ]. 7. 10, 19 Timber--c:ontd, w
mulhont, 41, 4J. 49 Stmchln. bond, 6, 7 1OUn:es, S9
pads, 12,73 Strilune: plate. 96 .-peafialuon, S9 WalUlp. 79.80
JHll"SpeU, 5:1 Strine: couran,]9. 46, 50. 51.15:1 stacking, 55 Wall piece, 70
plinth., )6, 49-51, 5:1 Structu~. wood. 55 Ilnlet"re, SS pl.tel, 60-6:1, 6oJ. ", 13B, ')9
qunry, 35, )6 Stru1S.77 uses. S9 WaU., bnck. )-)1
riOl", IH. 1]& 5to..lllng. floor. 67 wetght, 59 cav,ty, ., 7. IJ-'5
~tep-. :a6, 49. 12) Stub tenon, loa ..... indo ..... IOJ-I'9 compound. 47
'!lInt courses, 46, S I Stuck moulding. 9'. 9J. 99 ToolI, bnclliayen', 28 toNlruction, JO, 54
thrnhold., 26 Suffolk lalC:h. 86, 88 carpenten' and jomcn·. IIS-IJO 110m, 40-54
t .... ntomH, 4',49 Summer ..... ood. 55 canridge .",!IIed, 130 Wine, sB
"'indow ,il1l, 45. 49, 105 S .... ept valley, 1]7. '40 electrie, liB-II. W'rping, S6. 58
Ston". tlu.,nc.lion, J7 mlsons', 28. 3 . J9. tl9 W.te-T bar or we-the. bit l6 • • 9. ¢, 101-
defect., 39 I'la~.~ren. 1.1 W.ler services. IS5-156
T plumbcn.', 'S6-'S7 Watcrproofed monaro ]1
rlee·~ded. 39
formlnl( truo: flce, )8 slaten', ']1-133 W.tenhol.4S-47
Tangential ...... Ing. 56 Toolhlng,4 Weathcr bo.rd. C}6
""ural ~, )9
l',cpa.a"on, 33-39 Tanpln .• -t8. ISS. '5" Torchina. I J§ Weathermg. 25, 49
",If·faced, )8,-45 Teak. 59, 64,10"" Ila Tnmmel, laS Wedges ..... ood. 65, 67. 113. 102, III, '4]
snapping, )8 Tee-ban. 158 rod, 24, 82 lead, '4). 145, 151
.phnmg. ]8 Template, la Transomes. "3, 49, 104 \Veigh,-, Clst .ron. '09-1". 112., I']-I'S
,\HfKe finolh". ]6-)8 Templet, a4 T.-.nsverse sepu. 55 W('ldlnl, 143. 'So, 'Sa. 156
Temporary IImbenn". 79-82. Tnverse, '3' ",'('Ish 11'ln, IJI. IJ2.. 13~
b.t~, )8
boaued, J8 ~tenng, 8o-Sa Trem:h IImberin«. 79-10 \Vcllt,lead. 1#-1.6, 149
trenches, 79-80 Trimminll Roan, 6" 65 Western red ced.r, 59
dralll!N, )8 Wct rOl, S8
furrowed, )1 Tenonln' machine, 10] roofs. 74
hlmmu-drt5Kd, )8, 39. 4' Tenon U"', 10:1, laS, 12.7 Tnple Roan. S8 Whi·i>td,3S
Tenon.. S« Jorn .. "Carpentry and roofs, bc). 77 Wh.,e9000d, 59. 61
picked. )8 Wmdfilling,77
p1am work, )8 JOinery .. Trough lfUue". '54
Tens"," IHeM. 19. II, 6S Truss. bUlh-up. 77 Winding stn]H. 102
punched, ]8
Thllich. 68, 70, 1]1 Tru,..cd nl ... r n .. ,t. "'1.77 Wmdo ..... boards, 106, 10']
qu.try-d~. )8, "O-H
Thermal m,ul~lIon. 1. H. 58, 'l~, 141 Tuck I"'mlmll, 3' frames. IOJ- •• 6, 119-UO
rel,culatC'd,39 nshl"l. 10J-1:I0
f'OCk-rlc~. ]8 1'h,~Io.rn."""nl( machm", 10) Turnmll p,eces. 24, 80-8:1
ThR'Vwld •• a6, 49. <J6 T""st~ lI ... m. S7
si\1 •. brick, 24-a6. 104. 105
rub~, J6
Throannlt, 26, 49 1I0ne, 49, 104. 105, 110
Kibbled, J8
ttra'llht-cut, J8, 4', .. :a Throughs. 40. 42, 4~ u ..... ood. '04, ,0S. 106. II', 11:1-1'9
Thumb latch. 85, 17 W,ndo ....s.IOJ-laO
H~rmll:ul.ted. ]9 }It,.
Tile c~.. mfl, 28 t:pper Roors. 65-67 cased (... me and sliding $Uhes, 109-115
Slone .... Ilmg .•~hllr, 39. 40, ,n-H
block·m-coune, 42 Tiles, as. 26. 68. hoi, 70. 107. 1)9-141 t.:p&ets. S7 eucmenu, '04-109
Tlhng. '35, 14°_141 L5C1I, Itmber. S9 fi:lcd, lOS. 107-109
cI.n.fiCllt;on,40 metIIl. IIl}-120
miscellaneous, Ami, 4:1-",6 Til''"fl MlclI, 134. 1]6-1J8
Lake Di.w~1 mU<)nry. 18, 40, 45-.7 T,mber, dUsltic"uon. ~8. 59 pivoted, "5-1'9
COnVCrIlOn, ~S-57 Yorkahlfe light, 119
pol)'l(Onll. 4a-·u v
undom rubble, )8, 40 dcfects, 57-S", 6,.
84-86, 98 W,pedjomt. ISS
Wipinll" cloth. 155, I S6
built·IO-COUT'$eS, 40, H doorl,8]-loJ
fdhnll". ~s \'alleys, {,q. 74, '35, 1]7, 140, 150 Woollon 1I0ne, 35, 47
uncouned, )8, 40, .p
tulol>l" ... ork, l6, )8, 4o-i'I IIro .... lh. S~ V.,., iomt. 31, p.
tquartod rubble, ]8, ,*0, 41, 4:1 hanJ""",b, ~~, ~II, ~9 Veneers, 91 y
J'''''<, ~II, (>0 Venillatmit folrate, 60, 6:1
bUIll_to_courses, ",0, ",:I
pn-,,,cr'lllhn, ~6 \'entilallon, 800n, 60, (12, 77 York 1I0ne, 33, II)
~uhu ooui'H'd, 40, 42
roofl,611·81 Vents. J9 Yorkshire hll:h, 119
unoournd, 40. 4'
Stone ",orll,nl machines. 3b _sonlnll, B-S6 VerJ(e, 52. (''I
lIal"l. finl~hed or d~ or "", or 1111lnlt, '35 •• ]6, 1)7
Stool •. '" mdo ..... abo .9
..... rouj[hT. 61, Q4, 105, IQQ. I I I IIhnl!:, 143 z
Stop~ ends ••• 7, 8 \·"rt;r.al shdiTlI( sa~hes, '09-117
Su~",y-rod. 28. ]0 n"mlnal or Iluff. 6,. 8]. 114. 106. I I '
!'Of.woods, B. s8. w VouSlOi~. 11-24, ",9
Stra.!fht edge. <14. 28, JO, ]8, uS