Probability and Statistics

Probability
Probability - is the basic tool for constructing and
analyzing mathematical models for random Union- two sets wherein the set of all elements
phenomena. which belongs to either or both sets.
Sets
Set- is a collection of objects possessing some
common properties.
Elements of the set- objects inside a set which can
be of any kind with any specified properties. It
describes the set. Denoted by a ∈ and ∈ Intersection- two sets wherein the set of all
Example: A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} elements which belongs to both sets.
Set A has as its elements integers 1 through 6
Empty or null set- A set containing no elements
and is denoted by Ø.
Subset- If every element of a set is also an element
of another set. It is represented by c or ‫ﬤ‬
Statistics
Statistics- is the theory and method of collecting,
organizing, presenting, analyzing and interpreting
data.
Major types of statistics
 Descriptive Statistics- deals with the
If all elements of set A belongs to set B, then A is a
subset of B. In symbol we write: methods of organizing, summarizing and
presenting a mass of data so as to yield
A⊆B or B⊇A
meaningful information. It includes the
to respectively indicate that "A is contained in B" or
construction of graphs, charts, and tables,
"B contains A".
and the calculation of various descriptive
measures such as averages, measures of
Universal set- consists all elements under
variation, and percentiles.
consideration.
 Inferential Statistics- deals with making
U generalizations about a body of data where
only a part of it is examined. It includes
methods like point estimation, interval
estimation and hypothesis testing which are
all based on probability theory.
Complement Set- All set elements which belongs to
U but do not belong to A and is denoted by Ac.
Population &
Population- can Sampling
be characterized as the set of
individual persons or objects. It is the set of all
individuals or entities under consideration or study.
Sample- part of population or a sub-collection of
elements drawn from a population.
Disjoint Set- the sets contains no common element.
Types of Sampling
a. Probability Sampling – all of the elements
of the population has a chance to be chosen
Types of Probability Sampling
 Simple random sampling- is the
easiest form of probability sampling.
All the researcher needs to do is to
assure that all the members of the
population are included in the list and
then randomly select the desired
number of subjects.
 Stratified random sampling- is also
known as proportional random
sampling. This is a probability sampling
technique wherein the subjects are
initially grouped into different
classifications such as age,
socioeconomic status or gender.
 Systematic random sampling- can be
likened to an arithmetic progression
wherein the difference between any two
consecutive numbers is the same.
 Cluster random sampling- is done
when simple random sampling is almost
impossible because of the size of the
population.
b. Non-Probability Sampling- some of the
elements of the population do not have a
chance to be chosen.
 Quota Sampling- the aim is to end
up with a sample where the strata
(groups) being studied are
proportional to the population being
studied
 Convenience sampling- is simply
one where the units that are selected
for inclusion in the sample are the
easiest to access.
 Self-Selection Sampling- research
subjects volunteer to take part in the
research rather than being
approached by the researcher
directly.
Variable
Variable- A characteristic of interest measurable on
each and every individual in the universe, denoted
by any capital letter in the English alphabet.
Types of variable
 Qualitative variable- referred to as
categorical variables. Those expresses a
qualitative attribute such as hair color, eye
color, religion, favorite movie, gender, and
so on.
 Quantitative variables- are those variables
that are measured in terms of numbers.
Classification of Quantitative Variable
 Discrete- possible values are some or all of
the ordinary counting numbers. Finite set of
data.
 Continuous- quantities such as length,
weight, or temperature can in principle be
measured arbitrarily accurately. Infinite set
of data.
Level of measurement
 Nominal- the numbers in the variable are
used only to classify the data. Qualitative
type of data wherein there is no meaningful
differences between data. (e.g. Filipino,
Blue, Adobo, Female etc.,)
 Ordinal- depicts some ordered relationship
among the variable’s observation. (e.g.
Military Rank, Class Rank, Mobile
Legend’s Rank)
 Interval- it does not only classify and order
the measurement but also specify the
distance between each interval on scale are
equivalent along the scale from low interval
to high interval. (e.g. Temperature)
 Ratio- in addition of having equal interval,
can have a value of zero as well. Despite of
the similarities with interval, ratio level
shows that the divisions between the points
on the scale have an equivalent distance
between. (e.g. Height, Weight)
Graphical Representation of Data
 Bar Graph- pictorial rendition of
statistical data in which the independent
variable can attain only certain discrete
values. Vertical bar graph, values of the
independent variable are plotted along a
horizontal axis from left to right. While
horizontal bar graph, the independent
variable is plotted along a vertical axis
from the bottom up.
 Line Graph- is a graph which uses lines
to connect individual data points that
 display quantitative values over a
specified time interval. Line graphs use
data point "markers" that are connected
by straight lines to aid in visualization.
 Circle Graph- graph in the form of a
circle that is divided into sectors, with
each sector representing a part of a set of
data.
 Pictograph- a way of showing data
using images. Each image stands for a
certain number of things.
 Scatter Point Diagram- pairs of
numerical data, with one variable on
each axis, to look for a relationship
between them. If the variables are
correlated, the points will fall along a
line or curve.
Mean, Median, Mode
Mean- mathematical average of all the terms

x= (Σfi)(xi)/n
fi= frequency
xi= classmark
n= total frequency

Median- depends on whether the number of terms in

the distribution is even or odd. If the number of
terms is odd, then the median is the value of the term
in the middle while if the number of terms is even,
then the median is the average of the two terms in
the middle.

~
x = L~
x + (n/2-Cfb)/f~x) c~
x
L~x = Lower boundary of median class
Cfb= <cf of the interval below the median class
f~
x = frequency of the median class
c~
x = Class size

Mode- the value of the term that occurs the most

often.
^x = L ^x + (d1/d1+d2) c ^x
L ^x = Lower boundary of modal class
c ^x = class size
d1= difference between the frequency of modal class
and next lower class
d2= difference between the frequency of modal class
and next higher class