GENERAL BIOLOGY II -FINALS

3. Sex Linked Traits

I. Non-Mendelian Genetics  Y linked traits
o Rare- few genes
A. Co-dominance and Incomplete o Not well understood (infertility)
Dominance o Passed from FATHER
Incomplete Dominance  X linked Traits
- Neither allele is dominant over the other o Can be recessive or dominant
- Mixture or blending (hetero)
Ex. a.) Four o’clock flowers
 CRITERIA
Red (R) and White (W) → Pink (RW)
- Occurs more often in males
- Affected male – daughter- ½ grandsons
b.) Andalusian Chickens
- NEVER from father to son
Black (B) and White (W) → Blue (BW)
- Affected Female = Affected Father + Affected/
Carrier Mother
Codominance
- Two equally dominant alleles are expressed at the
X-LINKED TRAITS AND DISORDERS
same time
- More common in males than in females because of
- Both phenotypes are visible (hetero)
the number of X chromosomes
Ex. a.) Shorthorn Cattle
- Usually from MOTHERS because mothers can pass
Red (RR) and White (WW) → RW (Roan)
genes to daughters and sons but fathers can only pass
genes to daughters and not to their sons
b.) Speckled Chickens
Black (BB) and White (WW) → BW (B & W speckled
Examples:
feathers)
1.) Colorblindness
- Decreased ability to see or distinguish between
c.) Rhodedendron
certain colors (red-green, blue-yellow)
Red (RR) and White (WW) → RW (R & W)
2.) Hemophilia
- Bleeding disorder that prevents the blood from
d.) Appaloosa Horses
clotting properly
Gray (GG) and Whiter (WW) → Appaloosa (GW)
3.) Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy
- Rapidly increasing muscle weakness and loss of
e.) Sickle Cell Anemia
muscle tissue
Normal (RR) and Sickle cell (SS) → Carrier (RS)
III. Pedigree Analysis
B. Multiple Alleles
- A chart of the genetic history of family over several
- More than two alleles for a trait exist in a population
generations
- Two alleles possible for a given gene
- Used by scientists or genetic counselors to find out
about one’s history thus making this chat for analysis
Ex. a.) Lab mouse fur colors (black, agouti, yellow)
- Show a pattern of inheritance in a family for a
specific trait (phenotype)
b.) Rabbit fur colors (Full-agouti, chinchilla, albino,
Himalayan)
C- agouti
Cch- Chinchilla
Ch- Himalayan Female Male
c- albino
C> Cch > Ch > c

c.) Blood Type (A, B & O)

 Polygenic Traits
- Traits produced by multiple genes
Ex. skin color

II. Sex-linked traits and Chromosomes

A. Sex-linked Traits and Chromosomes
1. Sex Limited
- Traits visible only within one sex
- Encoded by autosomal genes that are expressed in
only one sex
Ex. Barred coloring in chickens are only visible in
roosters

Cock Feathering and Hen Feathering in domestic

chickens

2. Sex Influenced Traits

- Autosomal traits influenced by sex
*If a male has one recessive allele, he will show the trait but it
would take two recessive alleles for females to show a specific
trait.

Ex. Presence of beard in some goats


 Generations are numbered with Roman Numerals
 Oldest offspring are on the left
DOMINANT OR RECESSIVE
 Dominant- one parent must have the disorder
 Recessive- neither parent have the disorder/ may be
heterozygous
Autosomal Dominant: Polydactyly and Huntington’s Disease
(progressive nerve degeneration)
- Dominant because it occurred in three consecutive
generations
- Males and Females are affected roughly with the
same probability
Autosomal Recessive: Cystic Fibrosis and Tay-Sach’s Disease
- Males and females are equally likely to be affected
- Usually found in siblings
- Parents of affected children may be related
*Albinism- absence of pigment in the skin, hair and the iris of
the eyes
Autosomal and X-linked
- Most of the males- X-linked
- 50/50 probability- autosomal
! HOW IS THE TRAIT MOST LIKELY INHERITED?
IV. Plant Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction- natural “cloning”
- Involves only one parent
- Does not involve seeds or fusion of gametes. Instead,
part of the plant’s stem, roots, or leaves become a
new plant
- Produce clones/ genetically identical off springs to
the parent
- Faster than sexual reproduction
A. VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
- Can happen naturally or can be done by artificial
growers
1. Modified Stems
a. Runners- horizontal stem which grows or
runs over the soil surface; strawberries
b. Stem tubers- tips of these underground
stems become swollen with stored food
(starch); swollen tips are called tubers;
potatoes
2. Modified Roots
a. Root Tubers- fibrous roots which swell with
stored food; tubers break off and turn into a
new plant; dahlias
b. Tap Roots (not reproductive organs)-
carrot and turnips; storage in biennial plants
3. Modified Leaves
a. Plantlets- some plants produce small plants
on the side of their leaves and when they
reach a certain size, they fall off and
eventually become a new plant; cacti
4. Modified Buds
a. Bulbs- underground bud; new plant will
grow from lateral bud; onion, daffodil and
tulip
ARTIFICIAL VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
 Cutting- use part of the plant to reproduce; spider
plant
 Layering- stem is bent over and covered with soil;
raspberry
 Grafting- stem or bud of one plant is joined
permanently with another; seedless fruit tree
Sexual Reproduction requires fusion of male cells in the
pollen grain with female cells in the ovule
Flowers-Angiosperms
*
V. Sexual Reproduction in Animals (phone)
SKELETAL SYSTEM: ALL ABOUT OUR BONES
 Bones in our body are living tissue. They have their
own blood vessels and are made of living cells,
which help them to grow and to repair themselves.
As well, proteins, minerals and vitamins make up the
bone.
 We are born with about 300 soft bones. During
childhood and adolescence, the cartilage grows and is
slowly replaced by hard bone. Some of these bones
later fuse together, so that the adult skeleton has 206
bones.
MAJOR FUNCTIONS
 Provide framework that gives shape and form to man
and animals
 Protect the soft body parts such as the skull (to the
brain), rib cage (to the internal organs like the lungs,
heart, etc.) and pelvic girdle (pelvic organs), making
them less vulnerable to injury
 Serve as a storage area for minerals such as calcium
and phosphorus
 Perform hemopoiesis or the formation of red blood
cell through the bone marrow
 Supports the body against the force of gravity
 Provide movement since they serve as points of
attachment for skeletal muscles.
TYPES OF BONES
1. Flat Bones Protect Internal Organs
There are flat bones in the skull (occipital, parietal, frontal,
nasal, lacrimal, and vomer), the thoracic cage (sternum and
ribs), and the pelvis (ilium, ischium, and pubis). The function
of flat bones is to protect internal organs such as the brain,
heart, and pelvic organs. Flat bones are somewhat flattened,
and can provide protection, like a shield; flat bones can also
provide large areas of attachment for muscles.
2. Long Bones Support Weight and Facilitate
Movement
The long bones, longer than they are wide, include the femur
(the longest bone in the body) as well as relatively small bones
in the fingers. Long bones function to support the weight of
the body and facilitate movement. Long bones are mostly
located in the appendicular skeleton and include bones in the
lower limbs (the tibia, fibula, femur, metatarsals, and
phalanges) and bones in the upper limbs (the humerus, radius,
ulna, metacarpals, and phalanges).
3. Short Bones are Cube Shaped
Short bones are about as long as they are wide. Located in the Type of Involuntar
Involuntary Voluntary
wrist and ankle joints, short bones provide stability and some Control y
movement. The carpals in the wrist (scaphoid, lunate, Walls of biceps brachii,
triquetral, hamate, pisiform, capitate, trapezoid, and blood vessels, triceps brachii
trapezium) and the tarsals in the ankles (calcaneus, talus, walls of anconeus,
navicular, cuboid, lateral cuneiform, intermediate cuneiform, stomach, pronator teres,
and medial cuneiform) are examples of short bones. ureters, flexor carpi
Example intestines, in radialis, Heart
4. Irregular Bones Have Complex Shapes s the aorta gastrocnemius muscles
Irregular bones vary in shape and structure and therefore do (tunica media , soleus,
not fit into any other category (flat, short, long, or sesamoid). layer), iris of gluteus
They often have a fairly complex shape, which helps protect the eye, maximus
internal organs. For example, the vertebrae, irregular bones of gastrointestina
the vertebral column, protect the spinal cord. The irregular l tract
bones of the pelvis (pubis, ilium, and ischium) protect organs Interesting Facts:
in the pelvic cavity. 1. It takes 17 muscles to smile and 43 to frown. 
5. Sesamoid Bones Reinforce Tendons 2. The strongest muscle in the human body is the
tongue. 
Sesamoid bones are bones embedded in tendons. These small, 3. The hardest bone in the human body is the jawbone. 
round bones are commonly found in the tendons of the hands, 4. You use 200 muscles to take one step. 
knees, and feet. Sesamoid bones function to protect tendons 5. The tooth is the only part of the human body that
from stress and wear. The patella, commonly referred to as the can’t repair itself. 
kneecap, is an example of a sesamoid bone. 6. The largest muscle in the body is the gluteus
THE HUMAN MUSCULAR SYSTEM maximus.
 The muscular system is responsible for the movement 7. The smallest bones and muscles in the body are in the
of the human body. Attached to the bones of the ear.
skeletal system are about 700 named muscles that 8. The hardest working muscle is the heart.
make up roughly half of a person’s body weight. 9. Some of the busiest muscles are those controlling eye
Each of these muscles is a discrete organ constructed movement.
of skeletal muscle tissue, blood vessels, tendons, and 10. The toe bones are the most fragile bones in the body.
nerves. Muscle tissue is also found inside of the
heart, digestive organs, and blood vessels. IMMUNE SYSTEM- Protects the body from harmful
 There are three types of musculature in our body: influences from the environment and is essential for survival.
smooth, striated and cardiac muscles. Particularly the Main Functions:
striated musculature, also named skeletal musculature  Neutralize harmful substances and pathogens
is of great importance.  Recognize and remove danger
 As our skin represents the biggest organ of our body  Fight against the body’s changed cells
concerning its surface, our muscular system is
unmatched when it comes to mass. Depending on age Parts:
and gender, it accounts for approximately 30-50% of A. CELLS and PROTEINS
your individual bodyweight. T-cell
 According to their functions, muscles can differ in -thymus
form, color and their characteristics and can therefore -send chemical instructions
be categorized. In the following, we will present the - kills infected cells directly
first level of classification: smooth/ visceral, skeletal, -helper
and cardiac muscle.
MAJOR FUNCTIONS: B-cell
 Body movement - Bone marrow
 Maintenance of posture - Produce antibodies
 Respiration (muscles of thorax are responsible for
movement necessary for respiration)  Macrophage
 Production of body heat (heat is a by-product of Type of phagocyte, which is a cell responsible for detecting,
contact) engulfing and destroying pathogens and apoptotic cells.
 Constriction of organs and vessels  Neutrophil
TYPES OF MUSCLES Type of white blood cells in most mammals. They form an
1. SMOOTH MUSCLES essential part of the innate immune system.
Smooth muscle are the simplest muscle cells. They are under  Dendritic cell
the control of the autonomic nervous system, contracting Their main function is to process antigen material and present
continuously in a steady and slow manner. Smooth muscles it on the cell surface to the T cells of the immune system.
are elongated and spindle-shaped. They act as messengers between the innate and adaptive
immune systems.
2. SKELETAL MUSCLES  Antibodies
Skeletal muscles move the bones performing voluntary Immunoglobulin-produced mainly by plasma cells that is used
actions, like walking and running, as well as breathing. by the immune system to neutralize pathogens such as
Skeletal muscles are large and striated. pathogenic bacteria and viruses.

3. CARDIAC MUSCLES B. ORGANS

Cardiac muscles are found in the heart where the cells form Tonsils - Pair of soft tissue masses located at pharynx trap
long rows of fibers. They move involuntarily just like the germs which we may breathe in.
smooth muscles. Lymphatic tissue of the gut - Contains lymphocytes,
Criteria Smooth Skeletal Cardiac macrophages and other cells that participate in immune
response
Walls of
Walls of gut, Attached to Thymus - Trains and develop T-cells or T-lymphocytes
Location hearts
blood vessels skeleton (WBC).
(only)
Bone marrow - Generate blood cells
Skin - First line of defense; protection, regulation and
sensation
Lymph nodes - Major sites of B and T lymphocytes and other
white blood cells
Spleen - filter for blood; recycling red blood cells; platelets
and white blood cells are stored here.
Appendix - acts as a storehouse for good bacteria
FACTS
1.) Vaccines play an important role in educating your
immune system.
2.) Every day, we encounter billions of germs, but
they’re not all bad.
3.) Allergies are the result of your immune system
reacting to a false alarm.
4.) Your immune system can attack itself.
5.) Fever and inflammation are good signs
6.) Laughter helps your immune system
7.) Germs keep you healthy
8.) Around 4,000-11,000 White Blood cells are
present in a microliter of a blood
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 The digestive system is a group of organs working
together to convert food into energy and basic
nutrients to feed the entire body.
 Food passes through a long tube inside the body
known as the alimentary canal or the gastrointestinal
tract (GI tract). The alimentary canal is made up of
the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small
intestines, and large intestines. In addition to the
alimentary canal, there are several important
accessory organs that help your body to digest food
WHAT IS DIGESTION
Food and drink must be changed into smaller molecules of
nutrients to be absorbed into the blood and carried to cells
throughout the body. Digestion is the process by which food
and liquid are broken down into smaller parts so that the body
can use them to build and nourish cells, and to provide energy.
HOW DOES IT WORK?
 The mixing of food.
 The movement of food through the digestive tract.
 A chemical breakdown of large molecules of food
into smaller molecules.
Digestion begins in the mouth, where food and liquids are
taken in, and is completed in the small intestine.
What is included in the digestive system?
The digestive system is made up of the digestive tract and
other organs that aid in digestion.
The digestive tract is a series of hollow organs joined in a
long, twisting tube from the mouth to the anus, consisting of
the following:
 Mouth
 Esophagus
 Stomach
 Small intestine
 Large intestine (includes the colon and rectum)
 Anus
Organs that help with digestion, but are not part of the
digestive tract, include the following:
 Tongue
 Glands in the mouth that make saliva
 Pancreas
 Liver
 Gallbladder
Parts of other organ systems, such as nerves and blood, also
play a major role in the digestive process.
The treatment of food in the digestive system involves the
following seven processes:
1. Ingestion is the process of eating.
2. Propulsion is the movement of food along the
digestive tract. The major means of propulsion is
peristalsis, a series of alternating contractions and
relaxations of smooth muscle that lines the walls of
the digestive organs and that forces food to move
forward.
3. Secretion of digestive enzymes and other substances
liquefies, adjusts the pH of, and chemically breaks
down the food.
4. Mechanical digestion is the process of physically
breaking down food into smaller pieces. This process
begins with the chewing of food and continues with
the muscular churning of the stomach. Additional
churning occurs in the small intestine through
muscular constriction of the intestinal wall. This
process, called segmentation, is similar to peristalsis,
except that the rhythmic timing of the muscle
constrictions forces the food backward and forward
rather than forward only.
5. Chemical digestion is the process of chemically
breaking down food into simpler molecules. The
process is carried out by enzymes in the stomach and
small intestines.
6. Absorption is the movement of molecules (by passive
diffusion or active transport) from the digestive tract
to adjacent blood and lymphatic vessels. Absorption
is the entrance of the digested food (now called
nutrients) into the body.
7. Defecation is the process of eliminating undigested
material through the anus.
PARTS OF THE DIGESTVE SYSTEM
MOUTH
The mouth is the beginning of the digestive tract. In fact,
digestion starts here as soon as you take the first bite of a
meal. Chewing breaks the food into pieces that are more easily
digested, while saliva mixes with food to begin the process of
breaking it down into a form your body can absorb and use.
THROAT
Also called the pharynx, the throat is the next destination for
food you've eaten. From here, food travels to the esophagus or
swallowing tube.
Esophagus
The esophagus is a muscular tube extending from the pharynx
to the stomach. By means of a series of contractions, called
peristalsis, the esophagus delivers food to the stomach. Just
before the connection to the stomach there is a "zone of high
pressure," called the lower esophageal sphincter; this is a
"valve" meant to keep food from passing backwards into the
esophagus.
Stomach
The stomach is a sac-like organ with strong muscular walls. In
addition to holding the food, it's also a mixer and grinder. The
stomach secretes acid and powerful enzymes that continue the
process of breaking down the food. When it leaves the
stomach, food is the consistency of a liquid or paste. From
there the food moves to the small intestine.
Small Intestine
Made up of three segments, the duodenum, jejunum, and
ileum, the small intestine is a long tube loosely coiled in
the abdomen (spread out, it would be more than 20 feet long).
The small intestine continues the process of breaking down
food by using enzymes released by the pancreas and bile from
the liver. Bile is a compound that aids in the digestion of fat
and eliminates waste products from the blood. Peristalsis
(contractions) is also at work in this organ, moving food
through and mixing it up with digestive secretions. The
duodenum is largely responsible for continuing the process of
breaking down food, with the jejunum and ileum being mainly
responsible for the absorption of nutrients into the
bloodstream.
Three organs play a pivotal role in helping the stomach and
small intestine digest food:
Colon (Large Intestine)
The colon is a 5- to 6-foot-long muscular tube that connects
the cecum (the first part of the large intestine to the rectum
(the last part of the large intestine). It is made up of the cecum,
the ascending (right) colon, the transverse (across) colon, the
descending (left) colon, and the sigmoid colon (so-called for
its "S" shape; the Greek letter for S is called the sigma), which
connects to the rectum.
Rectum
The rectum (Latin for "straight") is an 8-inch chamber that
connects the colon to the anus. It is the rectum's job to receive
stool from the colon, to let you know there is stool to be
evacuated, and to hold the stool until evacuation happens.
When anything (gas or stool) comes into the rectum, sensors
send a message to the brain. The brainthen decides if the rectal
contents can be released or not. If they can, the sphincters
(muscles) relax and the rectum contracts, expelling its
contents. If the contents cannot be expelled, the sphincters
contract and the rectum accommodates, so that the sensation
temporarily goes away.
Anus
The anus is the last part of the digestive tract. It consists of the
pelvic floor muscles and the two anal sphincters (internal and
external muscles). The lining of the upper anus is specialized
to detect rectal contents. It lets us know whether the contents
are liquid, gas, or solid. The pelvic floor muscle creates an
angle between the rectum and the anus that stops stool from
coming out when it is not supposed to. The anal sphincters
provide fine control of stool. The internal sphincter keeps us
from going to the bathroom when we are asleep, or otherwise
unaware of the presence of stool. When we get an urge to go
to the bathroom, we rely on our external sphincter to keep the
stool in until we can get to the toilet.
Excretory system
 The excretory system is the system of an organism's
body that performs the function of excretion, the
bodily process of discharging wastes.
 The Excretory system is responsible for the
elimination of wastes produced by homeostasis.
Parts of the Excretory System and its Functions
 Kidneys-  it filter blood and form urine.
-Each kidney has more than a million nephrons,
which are the structural and functional units of the kidney.
Each nephron is like a tiny filtering plant.
-  it maintain homeostasis by controlling the amount
of water, ions, and other substances in the blood.
 Urinary Bladder- is a sac-like structure with
muscular walls that holdS urine until it is expelled
from the body during micturition.
 Liver-  is the main detoxifying organ of the body,
especially for nitrogenous wastes. The cells of the
liver play host to biochemical processes that create
ammonia from amino acids.
 Ureter-  duct that transmits urine from the kidney to
the bladder. There normally is one ureter for each
kidney. Each ureter is a narrow tube that is about 12
inches (30 cm) long.
 Urethra- duct that transmits urine from
the bladder to the exterior of the body
during urination
Excretion Is Not Elimination
The excretory system is very important to your body and only
has a few parts. In a similar way to removing solid waste from
your body, you must also get rid of fluids. You know the
results of the excretory system as urine. 
Urine is the result of the excretory system balancing the
amount of water and salts in your body. We said the system is
small. Your kidneys are the core organs involved in the
excretory system. Related body parts include the ureters,
bladder, and urethra. Once the urine passes through your
urethra,
What Does This System Do?
What do those kidneys do? The regulation process of body
fluids and salt levels is also called osmoregulation. The
kidneys act as a filter. Eventually all of the blood in your body
passes through the kidneys and they are able to do their
filtering magic. The kidneys pull harmful molecules out of
your bloodstream and leave the ones that are good for you. 
The kidneys are also key players in the hydration (water)
levels for your body. Let's say you are in the desert and you
haven't been drinking much water. Chemical signals are sent
to your kidneys to reabsorb as much water as possible. The
result is less urine creation and your body loses less water. A
normal day has you creating about one and a half liters of
fluid. 
Nasty Diseases
While there are many diseases of the excretory system, even
more problems can be created by a malfunctioning set of
kidneys. Blood pressure is closely tied to the amount of fluid
in your body. If a kidney does not work and filterproperly,
blood pressure can increase to dangerous levels. If that weren't
bad enough, urea would accumulate in your tissues and would
slowly poison the cells of your body. 
Excretory System Functions
Ammonia Excretion:
Ammonia, a waste product of metabolic activities in the body,
is extremely soluble in water and it is also highly toxic to the
tissues. Actually, the presence of ammonia causes an increase
in pH of the body fluids and interferes with mechanisms for
the transportation of ions. At the same time, the high
concentration of ammonia may also affect synaptic
transmission and the blood supply to the brain.[7]
Removal of Urea:
Mammals, including humans, excrete urea as the
principal form of nitrogenous waste. So, they are called the
ureotelic animals. Urea is less toxic and less soluble in water
than ammonia. Similarly, in the form of urea, more nitrogen is
excreted with less water. The removal of 1 g of nitrogen (in
the form of urea) needs only 0.05 l of water. In other words,
just 10% of water needed for ammonia excretion is enough for
urea excretion.
Urea, a less toxic nitrogenous waste, is derived from
ammonia. It is the liver which detoxifies ammonia by
combining it with carbon dioxide (another waste product of
metabolism) to produce urea.
On the other hand, the excretion of urea takes place
through either the kidneys or the skin.
Disposing of Uric Acid:
Humans are not urecotelic (excreting uric acid as the major
nitrogenous waste), but uric acid is produced in the body. It is
produced as a result of the nucleotide breakdown in the liver.
The excretion of uric acid is accomplished by the kidneys.
Getting Rid of Excess Water: 
You drink water or other fluids as you feel thirsty. The thirst is
induced by the body for the intake of the required amount of
water. The intake of water also takes place through food.
Meanwhile, it is also produced by cellular processes during
the breakdown of glucose. An excess of water is harmful for
the body. So, the excess of it should be excreted out of the
body.
Maintenance of Homeostasis:  to release waste products and pick up
Homeostasis is the ability of the body to maintain a
nearly constant and stable internal environment despite
changes in the external environment.
It took millions of years for the sophisticated
homeostatic mechanisms to evolve. Whileremoving different
metabolic wastes and excess substances, the excretory system
is actually striving to maintain a balanced internal
environment in the body. So, it plays an important role in the
maintenance of homeostasis.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
 Main Function
- The circulatory system is responsible for flow of
blood, nutrients, oxygen and other gases, and as
well as hormones to and from cells throughout
the body.
- There are also three types of circulatory
processes occurring simultaneously in the body
and these are:
1. Systemic Circulation  carries blood
around the body
2. Pulmonary Circulation  carries blood
to the lungs
3. Coronary Circulation  provides the
heart with its own supply of blood
 Parts
1. Heart
- Located in the center of the chest
with its apex toward the left and the
size is close to the human fist and it
also weighs 8 to 10 ounces
- It is a muscular pump with four
chambers and an equal number of
valves. The two chambers at the top
of the heart are known as the atria
(right atria and left atria) and the two
bottom chambers are called ventricles
(right ventricle and left ventricle)
- Atria receives blood from the body
and the ventricles pumps blood back
to the body
- Atrioventricular valves separates the
atria from the ventricles. The 2 valves
are: tricuspid valve found on the right
and the mitral valve on the left.
- Has an electrical system that
originates and transmits cardiac
impulses that causes the heart to beat.
2. Capillaries
- Very small (5-10 micrometers in
width)
- Smallest of all blood vessels and it
forms the connection between veins
and arteries throughout the body
- Capillaries form capillary beds (vast
expanse of very small vessels
forming a network throughout the
muscle) that is specially designed to
allow the movement of substances,
mainly gases (oxygen and carbon
dioxide) into and out of the capillary
- Responsible for the gaseous exchange
3. Arteries
- Blood vessels that carry oxygenated
blood away from the heart with the
exception of the pulmonary artery
that carries deoxygenated blood
- The pulmonary artery carries blood
that has travelled around the body and
back to heart where it will be pumped
via the pulmonary artery to the lungs
more oxygen.
- Aorta is the largest of all blood
vessels and this transports blood
away from the left ventricle where it
branches into smaller arteries and as
they divide further, they will be
named as arterioles
- Smaller arteries and arterioles contain
more smooth muscle in order to
control the changing pressure of
blood flow and this change in
pressure is a direct effect of the
pumping of the heart.
- Consists of three layers:
a) Tunica Adventitia – strong
outer
b) Tunica Media – middle layer
and this layer is thicker in
arteries than in veins.
c) Tunica Intima – Inner layer
that is in contact with blood
flowing through the artery.
4. Veins
- Blood vessels which carry
deoxygenated blood back to the heart
with the exception of pulmonary vein
that carries oxygenated blood from
the lungs back to the heart for it to be
ready to be pumped throughout the
body
- Consists of three layers:
a) Tunica Adventitia – strong
outer
b) Tunica Media – middle layer
and this layer is thinner in
veins
c) Tunica Intima – Inner layer
that is in contact with blood
flowing through the veins.
Veins also contain valves
which prevent the back flow of
blood and aid venous return.
- Two largest veins in the body:
Superior Vena Cava is where the
blood goes if it is returning from
tissues and organs above the heart
and Inferior Vena Cava if the blood is
returning form tissues and organs
above the heart. The Inferior Vena
Cava is also larger than the Superior
Vena Cava.
5. Blood
- Function:
a) Transportation – carries other
substances around the body
including gasses (oxygen and
carbon dioxide), waste
products, hormones, enzymes
and nutrients
b) Maintaining homeostasis –
altering the blood flow to the
skin can help reduce the body
temperature and also the
transportation of enzymes can
be used to maintain our
internal environments
c) Immunity and defense – white
blood cells fight infection and
platelets help in repairing
damage and clot the blood
- Composition:
 a) Plasma – transport blood cells
throughout the body including
nutrients, waste products,
antibodies, clotting proteins,
hormones, proteins that help
maintain the body’s fluid
balance and others.
b) Red Blood Cells or
Erythrocytes – RBC’s carry
oxygen and it also contains a
protein called hemoglobin that
combines with oxygen to form
oxyhemoglobin. Each red
blood cell has a life span of
120 days before the spleen
breaks it down and there are
approximately 4.5 to 5 million
red cells per microliter of
blood
c) White Blood Cells or
Leucocytes – WBC’s main
function is to help fight disease
and infection. The type of
white blood cell responsible to
maintain protection against
infection is called neutrophil.
The other major type is called
lymphocytes that help regulate
the function of other immune
cells and attack various
infected cells and tumors (T
lymphocytes) and B
lymphocytes make antibodies.
They typically have a lifespan
of few days only.
d) Platelets of Thrombocytes -
Platelets are disc shapes cell
fragments and they help in the
blood clotting or coagulation
process.
Respiratory System
-The human respiratory system is a series of organs
responsible for taking in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide.
The primary organs of the respiratory system are lungs, which
carry out this exchange of gases as we breathe.
Parts and Functions
1. Nose and Nasal Cavity -they form the main external
opening for the respiratory system and are the first section of
the body’s airway—the respiratory tract through which air
moves. The nose is a structure of the face made of cartilage,
bone, muscle, and skin that supports and protects the anterior
portion of the nasal cavity. The function of the nasal cavity is
to warm, moisturize, and filter air entering the body before it
reaches the lungs.
2. Mouth - is the secondary external opening for the
respiratory tract. Most normal breathing takes place through
the nasal cavity, but the oral cavity can be used to supplement
or replace the nasal cavity’s functions when needed. Because
the pathway of air entering the body from the mouth is shorter
than the pathway for air entering from the nose, the mouth
does not warm and moisturize the air entering the lungs as
well as the nose performs this function.
3. Pharynx/ Throat - is a muscular funnel that extends from the
posterior end of the nasal cavity to the superior end of the
esophagus and larynx.
a. Nasopharynx - Superior region of the pharynx
b. Oropharynx - middle
c. Laryngopharynx - air is diverted into the opening
of the larynx by the epiglottis.
4. Larynx/Voice box - is a short section of the airway that
connects the laryngopharynx and the trachea.
a. Epiglottis - is a flap of elastic cartilage that acts as
a switch between the trachea and the
esophagus and also it moves to cover the trachea to
ensure that food enters the esophagus and to prevent
choking.
b. Thyroid Cartilage - often referred to as the Adam’s
apple as it is most commonly enlarged and visible in adult
males.
c. Thyroid - holds open the anterior end of the larynx
and protects the vocal folds.
5. Trachea - is a 5-inch long tube made of C-shaped hyaline
cartilage rings lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar
epithelium. The trachea connects the larynx to the bronchi and
allows air to pass through the neck and into the thorax. The
main function of the trachea is to provide a clear airway for air
to enter and exit the lungs.
6. Bronchi and Bronchioles
a. Primary Bronchi - Splits air to the left and right
lung
b. Secondary Bronchi - Carry air into the lobes of the
lungs—2 in the left lung and 3 in the right lung.
c. Tertiary Bronchi - split into many smaller
bronchioles that spread throughout the lungs.
d. Bronchioles - Each bronchiole further splits into
many smaller branches less than a millimeter in
diameter called terminal bronchioles. Finally, the millions of
tiny terminal bronchioles conduct air to the alveoli of the
lungs.
7. Lungs - are a pair of large, spongy organs found in the
thorax lateral to the heart and superior to the diaphragm. Each
lung is surrounded by a pleural membrane that provides the
lung with space to expand as well as a negative pressure space
relative to the body’s exterior.
a. Alveoli - Tiny sacs in the lungs
8. Muscles of Respiration - The principal muscle of respiration
in the human body is the diaphragm, a thin sheet of skeletal
muscle that forms the floor of the thorax. Between the ribs are
many small intercostal muscles that assist the diaphragm with
expanding and compressing the lungs.
Trivia
1. Between the ribs are many small intercostal muscles that
assist the diaphragm with expanding and compressing the
lungs.
2. Hairs in the nose help to clean the air we breathe as well as
warming it.
3. The surface area of the lungs is roughly the same size as a
tennis court.
4. The capillaries in the lungs would extend 1,600 kilometres
if placed end to end.
5. We lose half a litre of water a day through breathing. This is
the water vapour we see when we breathe onto glass.
6. The breathing rate is faster in children and women than in
men.

Why is Respiratory System important?
-Oxygen is the most important for keeping us alive
because body cells need it for energy and growth. Without
oxygen, the body's cells would die.
- The lungs and respiratory system allow oxygen in
the air to be taken into the body, while also enabling the body
to get rid of carbon dioxide in the air breathed out.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
- The nervous system is a complex network of nerves
and cells that carry network of nerves and cells that
carry messages to and from the brain and Spinal cord
to various parts of the body. The nervous system
includes both THE CENTRAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM and THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM.
 Divisions of the Nervous System
1.The Central Nervous System- it is made up of the BRAIN
and the SPINAL CORD
FUNCTIONS:
 Responsible for integrating sensory information and
responding accordingly
 It also controls simple musculoskeletal reflexes
without input from the brain.
2. THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM- Made up of
nerve fibers that branch off from the spinal cord and extend to
all parts of the body, including the neck and the arms, torso,
legs, skeletal muscles and internal organs.
FUNCTION:
 to connect the CNS to the limbs and organs,
essentially serving as a relay between the brain and
spinal cord and the rest of the body.
 3 main functions of the nervous system
1. Sensory Function- nervous system uses its millions
of sensory receptors to monitor changes occurring
both inside and outside of the body. Those changes
are called STIMULI and the gathered information is
called SENSORY INPUT.
2. Integrative Function- the nervous system process
and interprets the sensory input and makes decisions
about what should be done at each moment- a process
called integration
3. Motor Function- the nervous system then sends
information to muscles, glands and organs (effectors)
so they can respond correctly, such as muscular
contraction or glandular secretion.
ORGANS
1. BRAIN- a soft, wrinkled organ that weighs
about 3 pounds. Located inside the cranial
cavity, where the bones of the skull surround and
protect it.
FUNCTION: It is the seat of higher mental
functions such as consciousness, memory,
planning, and voluntary actions such as the
maintenance of respiration, heart rate, blood
pressure and digestion.
2. SPINAL CORD- A long thin mass of bundled
neurons that carries information through the
vertebral cavity of the spine beginning at the
medulla oblongataof the brain on its superior
end and continuing inferiorly to the lumbar
region of the spine
FUNCTION: the spinal cord separates into a
bundle of individual nerves called the cauda
equina (due to its resemblance to a horse’s tail)
that continues inferiorly to the sacrum and
coccyx. The white matter of the spinal cord
functions as the main conduit of nerve signals to
the body from the brain. The grey matter of the
spinal cord integrates reflexes to stimuli.
3. NEURONS- Neurons (also known as neurones,
nerve cells and nerve fibers) are electrically
excitable cells in the nervous system.
FUNCTION:  processes and transmits
information. In vertebrate animals,
neurons are the core components of the brain,
spinal cord and peripheral nerves.
Parts of the Brain:
1. Cerebrum: is the largest part of the brain and is
composed of right and left hemispheres. It performs
higher functions like interpreting touch, vision and
hearing, as well as speech, reasoning, emotions,
learning, and fine control of movement.
2. Cerebellum: is located under the cerebrum. Its
function is to coordinate muscle movements,
maintain posture, and balance.
3. Brainstem: acts as a relay center connecting the
cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord. It
performs many automatic functions such as
breathing, heart rate, body temperature, wake and
sleep cycles, digestion, sneezing, coughing, vomiting,
and swallowing.
LOBES OF THE BRAIN
Frontal lobe
 Personality, behavior, emotions
 Judgment, planning, problem solving
 Speech: speaking and writing (Broca’s area)
 Body movement (motor strip)
 Intelligence, concentration, self awareness
Parietal lobe
 Interprets language, words
 Sense of touch, pain, temperature (sensory strip)
 Interprets signals from vision, hearing, motor,
sensory and memory
 Spatial and visual perception
Occipital lobe
 Interprets vision (color, light, movement)
Temporal lobe
 Understanding language (Wernicke’s area)
 Memory
 Hearing
 Sequencing and organization
NEURONS
Dendrites are treelike extensions at the beginning of
a neuron that help increase the surface area of the cell
body. These tiny protrusions receive information
from other neurons and transmit electrical stimulation
to the soma. 
The soma, or cell body, is where the signals from the
dendrites are joined and passed on. The soma and the
nucleus do not play an active role in the transmission
of the neural signal. Instead, these two structures
 serve to maintain the cell and keep the neuron
functional.
The axon is the elongated fiber that extends from the
cell body to the terminal endings and transmits the
neural signal. The larger the axon, the faster it
transmits information.
What is the Endocrine System?
The endocrine system is made up of glands that produce and
secrete hormones, chemical substances produced in the body
that regulate the activity of cells or organs. These hormones
regulate the body's growth, metabolism (the physical and
chemical processes of the body), and sexual development and
function. The hormones are released into the bloodstream and
may affect one or several organs throughout the body.
Parts of the Endocrine System
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is located in the lower central part of the
brain. This part of the brain is important in regulation of
satiety, metabolism, and body temperature. In addition, it
secretes hormones that stimulate or suppress the release of
hormones in the pituitary gland. Many of these hormones are
releasing hormones, which are secreted into an artery (the
hypophyseal portal system) that carries them directly to the
pituitary gland. In the pituitary gland, these releasing
hormones signal secretion of stimulating hormones. The
hypothalamus also secretes a hormone called somatostatin,
which causes the pituitary gland to stop the release of growth
hormone.
Pituitary Gland

The pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain beneath

Hormones are chemical messengers created by the body. They
transfer information from one set of cells to another to
coordinate the functions of different parts of the body.
The major glands of the endocrine system are the
hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pineal
body, and the reproductive organs (ovaries and testes). The
pancreas is also a part of this system; it has a role in hormone
production as well as in digestion.
the hypothalamus and is no larger than a pea. It is often
considered the most important part of the endocrine system
because it produces hormones that control many functions of
other endocrine glands. When the pituitary gland does not
produce one or more of its hormones or not enough of them, it
is called hypopituitarism.
Thyroid Gland

The endocrine system is regulated by feedback in much the

The thyroid gland is located in the lower front part of the neck.
same way that a thermostat regulates the temperature in a
It produces thyroid hormones that regulate the body's
room. For the hormones that are regulated by the pituitary
metabolism. It also plays a role in bone growth and
gland, a signal is sent from the hypothalamus to the pituitary
development of the brain and nervous system in children. The
gland in the form of a "releasing hormone," which stimulates
pituitary gland controls the release of thyroid hormones.
the pituitary to secrete a "stimulating hormone" into the
Thyroid hormones also help maintain normal blood pressure,
circulation. The stimulating hormone then signals the target
heart rate, digestion, muscle tone, and reproductive functions.
gland to secrete its hormone. As the level of this hormone
rises in the circulation, the hypothalamus and the pituitary
gland shut down secretion of the releasing hormone and the Parathyroid Glands
stimulating hormone, which in turn slows the secretion by the
target gland. This system results in stable blood concentrations The parathyroid glands are two pairs of small glands
of the hormones that are regulated by the pituitary gland. embedded in the surface of the thyroid gland, one pair on each
side. They release parathyroid hormone, which plays a role in
regulating calcium levels in the blood and bone metabolism.
Ho rmo ne s Re g ula te d by the Hyp o tha la m ic / Pituita ry
Syste m Adrenal Glands

Thyro tro p in -
Thyro id
Th yro id -stim ula ting re le a sin g
The two adrenal glands are triangular-shaped glands located
ho rm o ne s
h o rm o n e (TSH) ho rm o ne on top of each kidney. The adrenal glands are made up of two
T4, T3
(TRH) parts. The outer part is called the adrenal cortex, and the inner
part is called the adrenal medulla. The outer part produces
C o rtic o tro p in -
C o rtiso l
Ad re no c o rtic o tro p in
re le a sin g
hormones called corticosteroids, which regulate the body's
h o rm o n e (AC TH)
fa c to r (C RF) metabolism, the balance of salt and water in the body,
the immune system, and sexual function. The inner part, or
Lu te inizin g adrenal medulla, produces hormones called catecholamines
ho rm o ne -
re le a sin g
(for example, adrenaline). These hormones help the body cope
Fo llic le -stim ula ting
ho rm o ne with physical and emotional stress by increasing the heart rate
Estro g e n o r h o rm o n e (FSH),
te sto ste ro n e lute inizin g ho rm o ne
(LHRH) or and blood pressure.
g o na d o tro p in -
(LH)
re le a sin g
ho rm o ne Pineal Body
(G nRH)

G ro w th The pineal body, or pineal gland, is located in the middle of

Insulinlike
g ro w th
ho rm o n e - the brain. It secretes a hormone called melatonin, which may
G ro w th ho rm o n e re le a sin g
fa c to r-I help regulate the wake-sleep cycle of the body
ho rm o ne
(IG F-I)
(G HRH)
Pancreas

The pancreas is an elongated organ located toward the back of

the abdomen behind the stomach. The pancreas has digestive
and hormonal functions. One part of the pancreas, the exocrine
pancreas, secretes digestive enzymes. The other part of the
pancreas, the endocrine pancreas, secretes hormones called
insulin and glucagon. These hormones regulate the level of
glucose (sugar) in the blood.