Senior High School

NOT

General Biology 1
Quarter 1 - Module 1
Cell: the basic unit of life

Department of Education ● Republic of the Philippines

Cell Types and Cell Modification
Lesson

4
What’s In

In lesson 3, you have learned about the difference between prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells according to their distinguishing features.
In this next topic, you will learn on the classification of different cell types and
cell modifications that lead to adaptation to carry out specialized functions.

What I Need to Know

There are certain characteristics that all living things exhibit, the
characteristics of life. Living things are made up of cells. They metabolize, grow and
develop, respond to stimulus, adapt to their environment and reproduce. Life on
Earth exhibits organization. The atom is smallest unit of matter, followed by
molecules, which are combinations of atoms. When these molecules are grouped
together, they ultimately form a cell. The cell is the basic unit of life. In multicellular,
organisms like plants and animals, cells are grouped as tissues to perform a specific
function. Different tissues can be grouped further and form organs. The organs form
organ systems that makes the function of the body more complex and efficient.
Organs system will then form the whole organisms. All living things exhibit
organization, whether they are unicellular or multicellular organisms.

What’s New

Direction: Arrange the words according to the levels of biological organization.

organ system organism tissue cell

 What Is It

There are hundreds of types of cells, but the four main types are epithelial
cells, connective tissue cells, muscle cells and nerve cells.

Epithelial Tissue—This type of tissue is commonly seen outside the body as

coverings or as linings of organs and cavities. Epithelial tissues are characterized by
closely-joined cells with tight junctions (i.e., a type of cell modification). Being tightly
packed, tight junctions serve as barriers for pathogens, mechanical injuries, and fluid
loss.
Cells that make up epithelial tissues can have distinct arrangements:

• cuboidal—for secretion
• simple columnar—brick-shaped cells; for secretion and active absorption
• simple squamous—plate-like cells; for exchange of material through diffusion
• stratified squamous—multilayered and regenerates quickly; for protection
• pseudo-stratified columnar—single layer of cells; may just look stacked because
of varying height; for lining of respiratory tract; usually lined with cilia (i.e., a type of
cell modification that sweeps the mucus).

Figure 1: Epithelial Tissue (Source: Reece JB, U. L. (2010). Campbell Biology 10th.
San Francisco (CA).)
Connective Tissue—These tissues are composed of the following:

BLOOD —made up of plasma (i.e., liquid extracellular matrix); contains water, salts,
and dissolved proteins; erythrocytes that carry oxygen (RBC), leukocytes for
defense (WBC), and platelets for blood clotting.

CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER (CTP)—made up of loose connective tissue that is

found in the skin and fibrous connective tissue that is made up of collagenous fibers
found in tendons and ligaments. Adipose tissues are also examples of loose
connective tissues that store fats which functions to insulate the body and store
energy.

CARTILAGE —characterized by collagenous fibers embedded in chondroitin

sulfate. Chondrocytes are the cells that secrete collagen and chondroitin sulfate.
Cartilage functions as cushion between bones.

BONE —mineralized connective tissue made by bone-forming cells called

osteoblasts which deposit collagen. The matrix of collagen is combined with calcium,
magnesium, and phosphate ions to make the bone hard. Blood vessels and nerves
are found at a central canal surrounded by concentric circles of osteons.

Figure 2: Connective Tissue (Source: Reece JB, U. L. (2010). Campbell Biology

10th. San Francisco (CA):.)

Muscle Tissue—These tissues are composed of long cells called muscle fibers that
allow the body to move voluntary or involuntary. Movement of muscles is a
response to signals coming from nerve cells. In vertebrates, these muscles can be
categorized into the following:
• skeletal—striated; voluntary movements
• cardiac—striated with intercalated disk for synchronized heart
contraction; involuntary
• smooth—not striated; involuntary
Figure 3: Muscle Tissue (Source: Reece JB, U. L. (2010). Campbell Biology 10th.
San Francisco (CA):.)

Nervous Tissue—These tissues are composed of nerve cells called neurons and
glial cells that function as support cells. These neurons sense stimuli and transmit
electrical signals throughout the animal body. Neurons connect to other neurons to
send signals. The dendrite is the part of the neuron that receives impulses from
other neurons while the axon is the part where the impulse is transmitted to other
neurons.

Figure 4: Neurons and Glial Cells (Source: Reece JB, U. L. (2010). Campbell
Biology 10th. San Francisco (CA):.)
 What’s More

Direction: Match each general tissue category to the appropriate feature. Write the
letter of your choice before each number.
A. Connective tissue
B. Epithelium
C. Muscular tissue
D. Nervous tissue

_1. A type of tissue that would make up the majority of the brain and
spinal cord?
_2. Found in the epidermis and form the lining of internal organs such as
the intestines
_3. Form the ligaments, tendons, fat and bone
_4. A type of tissue that makes up majority of the heart

What I Have Learned

Direction: Identify which type of connective tissue (A-C), epithelial tissue (D-F), and
muscle tissue (G-I) is being described.

A________________transport oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients and waste

through the body by travelling through the vessels called arteries and veins.
B________________is a type of dense connective tissue that connects
muscles to bones and connects bone to bone.
C________________is a type of connective tissue with one of the hardest
extracellular matrixes that forms a protective structure used for muscle attachment.
D________________found in respiratory tract (trachea), usually lined with
cilia.
E________________found in air sacs/alveoli of the lungs, capillaries.
F________________found in digestive tract for secretion and active
absorption
G. _ muscles of the heart; involuntary movements.
H. _ involuntary contractions of digestive tract
like esophagus, stomach and intestines.
I_________________striated; voluntary movements like biceps and
abdominal muscles.

What I Can Do

Direction: Give at least 4 examples of the four major tissue types. Be as specific as
possible in giving examples.
 Lesson Cell Cycle
5
What’s In

In lesson 4, you have learned about the classification of different cell types
and some cell modifications that lead to adaptation to carry out specialized functions.
In this next topic, you will learn on the phases of cell cycle and their control
points, stages of mitosis/meiosis, comparison and their role in the cell division cycle.

What I Need to Know

One of the distinct characteristics of living things is being able to preserve

themselves. Cells need to undergo cycles as part of their growth and to repair or
replace damaged parts. Cell cycle enables a living thing to continue its existence by
multiplying itself in controlled and systematic processes. This lesson will enhance
your understanding on cell cycle. This will provide learners with the concepts on the
different stages of cell cycle and the two types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis
and explain their significance on an organism.

What’s New

Direction: Label the diagram below with the following labels:

Anaphase Metaphase
Cell division (M Phase) Prophase
Cytokinesis Telophase
G1 –cell grows Interphase
G2- prepares for mitosis Mitosis
S-DNA replication
 The Cell Cycle Coloring Worksheet

Then on the diagram, lightly color the G1 phase light GREEN, the S
phase dark BLUE, the G2 phase light BLUE, and the stages of mitosis VIOLET.
Color the arrows indicating all of the interphases in BLUE. Color the part of the
arrow indicating mitosis PURPLE and the part of the arrow indicating cytokinesis
light VIOLET.

What Is It

Cell Division—involves the distribution of identical genetic material or DNA to two

daughter cells. What is most remarkable is the fidelity with which the DNA is passed
along, without dilution or error, from one generation to the next. Cell Division
functions in reproduction, growth, and repair.

Core Concepts:
• All organisms consist of cells and arise from preexisting cells.
• Mitosis is the process by which new cells are generated.
• Meiosis is the process by which gametes are generated for reproduction.
• The Cell Cycle represents all phases in the life of a cell.
• DNA replication (S phase) must precede mitosis so that all daughter cells receive
the same complement of chromosomes as the parent cell.
• The gap phases separate mitosis from S phase. This is the time when molecular
signals mediate the switch in cellular activity.
• Mitosis involves the separation of copied chromosomes into separate cells.
• Unregulated cell division can lead to cancer.
• Cell cycle checkpoints normally ensure that DNA replication and mitosis occur only
when conditions are favorable and the process is working correctly.
• Mutations in genes that encode cell cycle proteins can lead to unregulated growth,
resulting in tumor formation and ultimately invasion of cancerous cells to other
organs.

The Cell Cycle control system is driven by a built-in clock that can be adjusted by
external stimuli (i.e., chemical messages).
Checkpoint—a critical control point in the Cell Cycle where ‗stop‘ and ‗go-
ahead‘ signals can regulate the cell cycle.
• Animal cells have built-in ‗stop‘ signals that halt the cell cycles and checkpoints
until overridden by ‗go-ahead‘ signals. • Three major checkpoints are found in the
G1, G2, and M phases of the Cell Cycle.

The G1 Checkpoint—the Restriction Point

• The G1 checkpoint ensures that the cell is large enough to divide and that enough
nutrients are available to support the resulting daughter cells.
• If a cell receives a ‗go-ahead‘ signal at the G1 checkpoint, it will usually
continue with the Cell Cycle. • If the cell does not receive the ‗go-ahead‘ signal, it
will exit the Cell Cycle and switch to a non-dividing state called G0.
• Most cells in the human body are in the G0 phase.
The G2 Checkpoint—ensures that DNA replication in S phase has been
successfully completed.
The Metaphase Checkpoint—ensures that all of the chromosomes are attached to
the mitotic spindle by a kinetochore.
Kinase—a protein which activates or deactivates another protein by phosphorylating
them. Kinases give the ‗go-ahead‘ signals at the G1 and G2 checkpoints. The
kinases that drive these checkpoints must themselves be activated.
• The activating molecule is a cyclin, a protein that derives its name from its
cyclically fluctuating concentration in the cell. Because of this requirement, these
kinases are called cyclin-dependent kinases or CDKs.
• Cyclins accumulate during the G1, S, and G2 phases of the Cell Cycle.
• By the G2 checkpoint, enough cyclin is available to form MPF complexes
(aggregations of CDK and cyclin) which initiate mitosis.
• MPF functions by phosphorylating key proteins in the mitotic sequence.
• Later in mitosis, MPF switches itself off by initiating a process which leads to the
destruction of cyclin. • CDK, the non-cyclin part of MPF, persists in the cell as an
inactive form until it associates with new cyclin molecules synthesized during the
interphase of the next round of the Cell Cycle.

Discuss the stages of mitosis and meiosis.

Mitosis (apparent division)—is nuclear division; the process by which the nucleus
divides to produce two new nuclei. Mitosis results in two daughter cells that are
genetically identical to each other and to the parental cell from which they came.
Cytokinesis—is the division of the cytoplasm. Both mitosis and cytokinesis last for
around one to two hours.
Prophase—is the preparatory stage, during prophase, centrioles move toward
opposite sides of the nucleus.

• The initially indistinct chromosomes begin to condense into visible threads.

• Chromosomes first become visible during early prophase as long, thin, and
intertwined filaments but by late prophase, chromosomes are more compacted and
can be clearly discerned as much shorter and rod-like structures.
• As the chromosomes become more distinct, the nucleoli also become more
distinct. By the end of prophase, the nucleoli become less distinct, often
disappearing altogether.

Metaphase—is when chromosomes become arranged so that their centromeres

become aligned in one place, halfway between the two spindle poles. The long axes
of the chromosomes are 90 degrees to the spindle axis. The plane of alignment is
called the metaphase plate.

Anaphase—is initiated by the separation of sister chromatids at their junction point

at the centromere. The daughter chromosomes then move toward the poles.

Telophase—is when daughter chromosomes complete their migration to the poles.

The two sets of progeny chromosomes are assembled into two-groups at opposite
ends of the cell. The chromosomes uncoil and assume their extended form during
interphase. A nuclear membrane then forms around each chromosome group and
the spindle microtubules disappear. Soon, the nucleolus reforms.
Meiosis—reduces the amount of genetic information. While mitosis in diploid cells
produces daughter cells with a full diploid complement, meiosis produces haploid
gametes or spores with only one set of chromosomes. During sexual reproduction,
gametes combine in fertilization to reconstitute the diploid complement found in
parental cells. The process involves two successive divisions of a diploid nucleus.

First Meiotic Division The first meiotic division results in reducing the number of
chromosomes (reduction division). In most cases, the division is accompanied by
cytokinesis.

Prophase I—has been subdivided into five substages: leptonema, zygonema,

pachynema, diplonema, and diakinesis.
• Leptonema—Replicated chromosomes have coiled and are already visible. The
number of chromosomes present is the same as the number in the diploid cell.
• Zygonema—Homologue chromosomes begin to pair and twist around each other
in a highly specific manner. The pairing is called synapsis. And because the pair
consists of four chromatids it is referred to as bivalent tetrad.
• Pachynema—Chromosomes become much shorter and thicker. A form of physical
exchange between homologues takes place at specific regions. The process of
physical exchange of a chromosome region is called crossing-over. Through the
mechanism of crossing-over, the parts of the homologous chromosomes are
recombined (genetic recombination).
• Diplonema—The two pairs of sister chromatids begin to separate from each other.
It is at this point where crossing-over is shown to have taken place. The area of
contact between two non-sister chromatids, called chiasma, become evident.
• Diakinesis—The four chromatids of each tetrad are even more condensed and the
chiasma often terminalize or move down the chromatids to the ends. This delays the
separation of homologous chromosomes.

In addition, the nucleoli disappear, and the nuclear membrane begins to break down.

Metaphase I—The spindle apparatus is completely formed and the microtubules

are attached to the centromere regions of the homologues. The synapsed tetrads
are
found aligned at the metaphase plate (the equatorial plane of the cell) instead of
only replicated chromosomes.

Anaphase I—Chromosomes in each tetrad separate and migrate toward the

opposite poles. The sister chromatids (dyads) remain attached at their respective
centromere regions.

Telophase I—The dyads complete their migration to the poles. New nuclear
membranes may form. In most species, cytokinesis follows, producing two daughter
cells. Each has a nucleus containing only one set of chromosomes (haploid level) in
a replicated form.

Second Meiotic Division The events in the second meiotic division are quite similar
to mitotic division. The difference lies, however, in the number of chromosomes that
each daughter cell receives. While the original chromosome number is maintained in
mitosis, the number is reduced to half in meiosis.

Prophase II—The dyads contract.

Metaphase II—The centromeres are directed to the equatorial plate and then divide.
Anaphase II—The sister chromatids (monads) move away from each other and
migrate to the opposite poles of the spindle fiber.
Telophase II—The monads are at the poles, forming two groups of chromosomes.
A nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes and cytokinesis
follows. The chromosomes uncoil and extend.

Cytokinesis—The telophase stage of mitosis is accompanied by cytokinesis. The

two nuclei are compartmentalized into separate daughter cells and complete the
mitotic cell division process. In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by the formation of a
constriction in the middle of the cell until two daughter cells are formed. The
constriction is often called cleavage, or cell furrow. However, in most plant cells this
constriction is not evident. Instead, a new cell membrane and cell wall are
assembled between the two nuclei to form a cell plate. Each side of the cell plate is
coated with a cell wall that eventually forms the two progeny cells.

Table 1: Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis

(Source:http://courses.washington.edu/bot113/spring/WebReadings/PdfReadings/TA
BLE_COMPARING_MITOSIS_AND.pdf)
Disorders and Diseases

• incorrect DNA copy (e.g., cancer)

• chromosomes are attached to string-like spindles and begin to move to the middle
of the cell (e.g., Down Syndrome, Alzheimer‘s, and Leukemia)

Other chromosome abnormalities:

• arise from errors in meiosis, usually meiosis I;
• occur more often during egg formation (90% of the time) than during sperm
formation;
• become more frequent as a woman ages.
• Aneuploidy—is the gain or loss of whole chromosomes. It is the most common
chromosome abnormality. It is caused by non-disjunction, the failure of
chromosomes to correctly separate:
• homologues during meiosis I or
• sister chromatids during meiosis II

What’s More

Direction: Complete the chart by noting what occurs in each phase of the cell cycle.

Gap O (GO)
Gap 1 (G1)
Interphase
S Phase

Gap 2 (G2)

Prophase
Mitosis or M
Phase Metaphase

Anaphase

Telophase

Cytokinesis C
 What I Have Learned

Direction: The diagram below shows cells in various phases of the cell cycle. Note
the cells are not arranged in the order in which the cell cycle occurs. Use the
diagram to answer questions 1-6. Write you answer in CAPITAL letters.

1. _ _Interphase (G2) 4__________Metaphase

2. _ _Prophase 5. _ Anaphase

3. _ _Prometaphase 6__________Telophase & Cytokinesis

What I Can Do

Direction: Gene mutations in a cell can result in uncontrolled cell division, called
cancer. Exposure of cells to certain chemicals and radiation increases mutations
and thus increases the chance of cancer. Research on the causes of cancers and
disorders/diseases that result from the malfunction of the cell during the cell cycle
and answer the following questions.

1. Define cancer
_ _ _
_ _ _
_ _ _ .

2. What are the causes of cancer?

_ _ _
_ _ _
_ _ _ .
 Summary

The importance of cell cycle is very evident that the growth and
sustainability of multicellular organisms depend on this process. Cells that are
damaged and lost will be replenished when cells divide. Errors in mitosis lead to an
incorrect copy of the DNA which may produce deadly functional consequences
depending on the error. The positive correlation with the malfunction of these
processes to the onset of major diseases such as cancer, stroke, atherosclerosis,
inflammation, and some neurodegenerative disorders in increasingly proven in
various studies.
 Assessment: (Post-Test)

Direction: Select the letter of your choice. Write it in CAPITAL letters. Your answers should be
written on a separate sheet of paper.

1. Which level of organization is the basic unit of life?

A. Cell
B. Tissue
C. Organ
D. System
2. Which of the following is NOT a postulate of a unified cell theory?
A. All living things are composed of cells
B. Cells are the basic unit of life
C. All cells undergo complete development
D. All new cells arise from existing cells
3. Who coined the term cell for the box like structure he observed when viewing cork tissue?
A. Matthias Schleiden
B. Theodor Schwann
C. Rudolf Virchow
D. Robert Hooke
4. In many cells, the structure that controls the cell activities is the .
A. Cell Membrane
B. Organelle
C. Nucleolus
D. Nucleus
5. Which part of the cell serves as venue for cellular respiration and is known as the powerhouse of
the cell?
A. Nucleolus
B. Chromosome
C. Mitochondrion
D. Nucleus
6. Which type of tissue would be found in the epidermis and form the lining of internal organs such
as the intestines?
A. Nervous tissue
B. Muscular tissue
C. Connective tissue
D. Epithelial tissue
7. The process by which the nucleus divides to produce two new nuclei that results in two
daughter cells that are genetically identical to each other and to the parental cell from which they
came.
A. Meiosis
B. Interphase
C. Mitosis
D. Cytokinesis
8. A type of passive transport which relies on carrier proteins in order for the substances to move
down their concentration gradient.
A. Active transport
B. Facilitated diffusion
C. Osmosis
D. Sodium-potassium pump

44
 9. Which of the following is an example of passive transport which occurs
when particles move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration?
A. Phagocytosis
B. Pinocytosis
C. Diffusion
D. Osmosis
10. This process utilizes additional metabolic energy against the concentration
gradient to move molecules across the membrane from a region of lower
concentration to a region of higher concentration.
A. Active Transport
B. Passive Transport
C. Osmosis
D. Exocytosis