2.

1 Speech Act Theory

To understand how speech acts work it is necessary to look at the components an
utterance consists of - namely locution, illocution and perlocution.

2.1.1 LOCUTION
The locution is the physical act of speaking. That means that the speaker composes a
sentences in a specific context. The locution thereby is the grammatical structure of the
utterance.

The following examples show the different grammatical forms that an utterance can
have:

(1) Declarative: “You are generous.”

(2) Closed- interrogative: “Are you generous?”
(3) Open- interrogative: “Who is generous?”
(4) Imperative: “Be generous!”
(5) Exclamative: “How generous you are!”

(Huddles and Pullum 2002, 853)

2.1.2 ILLOCUTION
When making an utterance the speaker always has an intention behind it. The speaker
makes an utterance to make either a statement about the world, to apologize or to
explain something. This intended meaning behind the utterance is called illocutionary
force and is internal to the locutionary act. The same locution can have different
possible meanings depending on the context.

By looking at the example “It is cold in here.” the declarative can be stated either to
make a statement about the current temperature but also to make the hearer do an action
such as closing the window. This makes it obvious that in conversation it is not always
clear what the intended meaning behind an utterance is. That shows that the same
utterance can be ambiguous and can only be understood by looking at the context in
which it is uttered.

2.1.3 PERLOCUTION
The Perlocution is the intended or unintended effect that the utterance can have on the
hearer and is external to the locutionary act as the speaker cannot control the effect the
utterance will have on the hearer. Looking at the example of “There is a good movie
tonight.” the perlocution can be that the hearer understands the declarative as an
information and answers “Thank you.” or the utterance is understood as an excuse and
“Never mind.” is answered. (Renkema 2004, 14)

2.2 Speech Acts

As the example “It is cold in here” has shown, utterances can be used to make other
people do something. The speaker can chose to make his intended meaning explicit or
to state it indirectly.

2.2.1 DIRECT SPEECH ACT

An utterance is seen as a direct speech act when there is a direct relationship between
the structure and the communicative function of the utterance. The following examples
show that the form correspondences with the function:

(6) A declarative is used to make a statement: “You wear a seat belt.”

(7) An interrogative is used to ask a question: “Do you wear a seat belt?”

(8) An imperative is used to make a command: “Wear a seat belt!”

(Yule (1996, 55)

Direct speech acts therefore explicitly illustrate the intended meaning the speaker has
behind making that utterance.

2.2.2 INDIRECT SPEECH ACT

Searle stated that an indirect speech is one that is “performed by means of another”
(Searle quoted in Thomas, 1995, p.93). That means that there is an indirect relationship
between the form and the function of the utterance. The following examples show that
the form does not correspondence with the function:

(9) An interrogative is used to make a request: “Could you pass the salt?”

(10) A declarative is used to make a request: “You’re standing in front of the TV.”

(Yule 1996, 56)

The speaker does not explicitly state the intended meaning behind the utterance. It is the
hearer’s task to analyse the utterance to understand its meaning.

3. Felicity Conditions

According to Searle, general conditions have to be fulfilled to have a successful

communication. The participants have to understand the language that is being used and
that they are non-playacting. Besides these general condition Searle further divides
felicity conditions into four classes: propositional content conditions, preparatory
conditions, sincerity conditions and essential conditions. (Renkema 1993, 23)

Propositional content condition requires that the locution must exhibit conventionally
acceptable words for erecting the particular speech act. Preparatory condition requires
that specific requirements are existing such as that the utterance is made by a person
that has the authority to do the action and that the utterance is stated in appropriate
circumstances with appropriate actions. If that condition is not met the act has not been
carried out. The sincerity condition requires that the person performing the act must
have appropriate beliefs or feelings to do the action. If that condition is not fulfilled
there is an abuse. The essential condition requires that the speaker commits himself to
the speech act and takes upon himself the responsibility of carrying out the act.
(Renkema 1993, 23)

In the following section the felicity conditions will be further explained by using the
example of “to warn”. The propositional content condition is that it must be a future
event. The preparatory precondition requires that the speaker believes the event will
occur and be disadvantageous to the hearer and the speaker believes that it is not
obvious to the hearer that the event will occur. The sincerity condition requires that the
speaker truly believes that the event will be disadvantageous to the hearer. The essential
condition requires that the speaker wants to inform the hearer about an event that will be
disadvantageous to the hearer.

4. Cooperative Principle and Conversational Implicature

"Make your contribution such as it is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the
accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged." (Grice in
Cruse 2004, 367) With this quote Grice made clear that a successful conversation works
in line with certain conditions to which the participants of a conversation should confine
themselves. Utterances always entail an implicature, the meaning behind the utterance.

4.1 Conventional Implicature

The conventional implicature is the linguistic meaning of an utterance which is attached
to the linguistic structure of the utterance. (Levinson 2000, 97) That means that there is
a one to one correspondence between the locution and the illocutionary force of the
utterance because conventional implicatures do not change depending on the context
surrounding the utterance. Direct speech acts entail a conventional implicature as they
explicitly state the illocutionary force behind the utterance