1.

0 WATER DEMAND

1.1 General

Water is required by the community for domestic and other needs or purposes. The estimation of water
demanded by a community is important for the design of a water supply system. Usually a water supply
system is designed for a future population in which case a decision has to be made regarding the time in
the future for which the various components of the scheme are to be designed.

The total amount of water required by the community is computed by:

Qf = P f x q

Where Qf = the quantity of the water required per day (Day Demand),

Pf = the projected population estimated at the end of the design period and

q = the rate of water consumption per capita per day.

When designing a scheme, a decision has to be made regarding the time in the future for which the
various components of the scheme are to be designed.

In calculating the water demand of a water supply system, it is necessary to do the following:

 Determine the number of users falling in the different consumer categories at various stages of
the design period.
 Determine the average day unit water demand figures for the various consumer categories
concerned.

Table 1.1: Average Day Unit Water Demand Figures

Consumer type Average Day Unit Water Demand

Domestic
Standpipe 20 litres/person/day
Yard tap 40 litres/person/day
House connection  200 litres/person/day: High income consumers with multiple fixtures and
a garden tap; includes car washing and garden watering.
 100 litres/person/day; medium income consumers (with a kitchen sink,
one or two WCs, showers or bath tubs and hand wash basins).
 50 litres/person/day; low income consumers (with limited fixtures, a WC
and one or two taps)
Institutional
Schools - Day (Students and 5 litres/person/day
staff)
- Boarders(Studen 50 litres/person/day
ts and staff)
Hospitals – Out patients and 10 litres/person/day
non residents
- Inpatients and 100 litres/person/day
resident staff
Mosques 15 litres/person/day
Churches 5 litres/person/day
Prisons 50 litres/person/day

1
Commercial
Hotels 100 litres/bed/day
Lodges 50 litres/bed/day
Shops 20 litres/shop/day
Bars/restaurants 200 litres/day
Offices 5 litres/person/day
Petrol stations/washing bays 200 litres/day
Abattoirs/butcheries 50 litres/day
Industrial 100 litres/bed/day
Milk cooling 100 litres/bed/day
Dry processing mills 100 litres/bed/day
Unspecified industrial areas 100 litres/bed/day
Livestock
Livestock unit 50 litres/head/day

1.2 TYPES OF WATER DEMAND

1.2.1 Domestic Water Demand

This is the water demanded by people in their home environment.

1.2.1.1 Population Projection

Population projection is a process of estimating the future population. During population projection, the
current population figures are used together with the annual growth rate. A number of formulae are
available for population projection but the following is the most commonly used:

Where:

Pn = Projected future population after n years.

Pi = Initial population in the “base” year.

r = Estimated population growth rate – in %.

n = Number of years.

The population in each local council 1 (LC 1) area should be projected separately. Population figures for
towns can be confirmed by physically counting the houses, shops, bars etc in towns.

Populations in principal towns and urban centres should be analyzed separately for different areas and
different income categories. “High”, “Medium” and “low” income housing populations should be
projected independently.

1.2.1.2 Service Levels

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The modes by which consumers draw water from the system are called service levels. Table 1.2 shows
some of the categories of service levels that may exist in a water supply area with the corresponding
level of the consumer income.

Table 1.2: Consumer Service Levels and Levels of Income

Service level Levels of income

House connections High income persons

Yard taps Medium income persons

Public stand pipes Low income earners

Non piped supply Very low (or no) income earners.

The following points should be noted with regard to service levels:

 The distribution between the service levels indicated in Table 1.2 should be arrived at after
carrying out detailed socio-economic study of the proposed water supply scheme area.
 Service levels should be derived from income levels, the Ability - to - pay and the Willingness –
to – pay of the local communities as determined from the socio-economic study. Ability - to –
pay and Willingness – to – pay depend on the proposed tariff structures and levels.
 When designing expansions to the existing schemes, the distribution between House
Connections, Yard Taps and Public Standpipes should be determined based on observations of
the actual situations on the ground.
 The up-take of Private Connections is an important factor in indicating and stimulating the level
of development in an area.
 The maximum walking distance from a Public Standpipe to the dwellings should normally not
exceed 500 m in rural areas and 250 m in urban centres. The number of users of a Public
Standpipe should normally be restricted to 300 persons in rural areas, and 250 persons in urban
centres.
 The recommended walking distances and numbers of users of Public Standpipes can be changed
by the designer in exceptional cases to suit the actual situation prevailing in the water supply
area. This should however first be discussed and agreed with beneficiaries of the water supply
scheme.

1.2.1.3 Commercial Demand

This is the demand for commercial enterprises that may include shops, workshops, restaurants, bars,
hotels, banks etc. it should be based on the situation prevailing at the time of scheme design and the
future development plans. Thus, it should be assumed that future increases in commercial activity will
be directly related to the growth in population.

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1.2.1.4 Institutional Demand

1.2.1.4.1Educational Institutions
The following should be considered when including educational institution demand in the water supply
system design:
- The water demand in educational institutions should be based on the situation prevailing at the
time of the scheme design, the development plans of the Ministry of Education and Sports and
the District Local Governments, and the projected growth of the local population.
- For preliminary estimates, it may be assumed that 30% of the population attends primary school
and/ or secondary.
- Day schools and boarding schools should be analyzed separately.
- Sanitary standards with regard to the use of water closets should also be studied. In this regard,
the use of ‘Low Flush’ toilets should be particularly encouraged.
- The water demand for staff should be included in the total demand for educational institution
concerned.

1.2.1.4.2 Health Institutions

The following should be considered when including Health institutional demand in the water supply
system design:
- The water demand in Health institutions should be based on the situation prevailing at the time of
the scheme design, the development plans of the Ministry of Health and the District Local
Governments, and the projected growth of the local population.
- In the long term, it is planned for about 20,000 – 50,000 people to be served by one health centre
(incorporating an out patients’ department, a maternity and a few beds for in-patients), to be
provided one in each sub county.
- In Uganda, the number of hospital beds can be assumed to be 1.2 per 1,000 people. However, the
districts and other major hospitals need to be studied in more detail separately.
- The water demand for staff should be included in the total demand for health institution
concerned.

1.2.1.4.3 Other Institutions

The water demand in other institutions should be based on the situation prevailing at the time of the
scheme design and the future development plans of the institutions.

1.2.1.5 Industrial Demand

For industrial demand, the following should be noted:

- Water demand for industries should be studied in detail by consulting the proprietors concerned
and other relevant agencies.
- Areas designated as “Industrial Areas” in the town council physical development plans but for
the exact nature of the industry is not known, should be allocated quantities of water per unit area

4
 as indicated in Table: 1.1. However, realistic time frames for the development of such areas must
be considered.

1.2.1.6 Other Demands

1.2.1.6.1 Fire Fighting

The following should be considered:
- In principal towns, the water demand for fire fighting should be determined in collaboration with
the relevant fire authorities.
- For smaller urban centres, it is recommended that the capacity of fire fighting should be not less
than 10 l/s during a period of 2 hours.
- There shouldn’t normally be any provision made for fire-fighting in rural water supply schemes.

1.2.1.6.2 Livestock and Irrigation

This is the water demanded by animals and crop production. This demand is discouraged during the
design of water supply schemes in Uganda. However, in some special cases, consideration can be made.
During this consideration, the available animals are converted to livestock units; 1 livestock being
equivalent to 100% full healthy Friesian (exotic) cow (cattle). In this regard therefore;
- 1 cattle = 0.7 Livestock Units.
- 1 Pig = 0.4 Livestock Units.
- 1 Goat/sheep = 0.15 Livestock Units.

1.3 DESIGN OF WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

1.3.1 Design Period

This is the period or time frame upon which the water supply system design can be based on. Uganda’s
design period is ten years.

1.3.1.1 Factors that should be considered regarding the design Period

In determining the design period for a water supply scheme to meet the water demand, the following
factors should be considered:

1. Project size / cost: The bigger the project, the longer the design period.
2. Running (operation and Maintenance) costs: Construction, operation, maintenance and repair
should be within the competence of local technical staff. The available skills in the local
community should be utilized and improved, if required.
3. Population growth: The more rapid the population growth, the longer the design period should
be.
4. Financial constraints.
5. Durability (service life) of different components a water supply scheme.
6. Future extensions – the need for future extension of the system necessitates a longer design
period.

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1.3.1.2 Lead time

The period from the conception of the idea about the project to its commissioning is called “Lead
Time”.

Normally the water demand projections should be made for the “Initial year”, the “Future year” and the
“Ultimate year”.

1.3.1.3 Initial Year

The initial year is the year when the water scheme is expected to be commissioned in to operation. It
can be assumed to be 5 years from the date of commencement of feasibility studies.

1.3.1.4 Future Year

It is usually 10 years ahead of the initial year. Mid term review is normally carried out in the “Future
year”.

1.3.1.5 Ultimate Year

It is 20 years ahead of the initial year. A water supply scheme should normally be design for the
“Ultimate Year” demand. However, phasing of the implementation may be done (as has often proved
necessary from the financial view point); thus its possibility should be examined against the background
of the “Initial year” and the “Future year” water demand projections.

Once the “Initial” and “Ultimate” years have been designed, they should not be changed.

0 5 years 10 years 10 years

Lead time
Base Year Initial year Future year Ultimate year

(Start) (Commissioning) (Mid term review) (Final year of Design)

Fig 1.1: Stages in Years for Water Supply System Development

1.4 COMPONENTS OF A WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

The following components of the water supply system (presented in schematic fig 1.2) should be
considered during the design of the water supply scheme.

INTAKE/ RAW WATER

TREATED WATER STORAGE
PUMP
TRANSMISSION TRANSMISION TANKS/RES-
SOURCE TREATMENT
Be able to ERVOIRS
To be big enough to PLANT
carry for DISTRIBUTION
Able to supply convey for MDD To be able to SYSTEM
MDD
MDD Able to store for To be Designed
treat for MDD
MDD Based on Peak Hour
MDD = Maximum Day Demand Demand
Fig 1.2: Components of Water Supply System

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1.5 WATER DEMAND PATTERNS

The daily water demand in a water supply scheme area will vary during the year due to seasonal climatic
variations, work situations such as harvest seasons and other factors such as religious and cultural
festivals.

1.5.1 Average Day Unit Demand

This is the per capita demand of a category of a water consumer. The figures of Average Day Unit
Demand are presented in Table 1.1.

1.5.2 Average Day Demand

This is calculated from Average Day Unit Demand in conjunction with the numbers of the domestic,
institutional, commercial, industrial and other consumers.

1.5.3 Maximum Day Demand

This is the demand which is used to design the capacities of the water sources, raw water transmission
mains, treatment plants and treated water transmission mains. It is estimated by adding 10 - 30% to the
“Average Day Demand”. The factor that is used to multiply the “Average Day Demand” to give
“Maximum Day Demand” is known as ‘Peak Day Factor’ and lies in the range of 1.1 – 1.3.

1.5.4 Peak Hour Demand

Water Demand Patterns also vary daily (diurnal). The variations in rural areas are assumed such that,
the bulk of the water used in a day is drawn between 7 am and 7 pm but with hourly variations.
Generally, two peak periods are observed; one in the morning and the other in the evening.

It is generally not economical, and not even technically feasible to design water sources, raw water
transmission mains, treatment plants and treated water transmission mains to follow all such fluctuations
in water demand and thus to be able to meet those “Peak Hour Demands”. Water storage facilities are
therefore, needed for this reason.

The “Peak Hour Demand” of the consumers is calculated by multiplying the “Maximum Day Demand”
with a factor known as “Peak Hour Factor”. Table 1.3 shows “Peak Hour Factors” which can be used for
rural areas.

Table 1.3: Peak Hour Factors for Rural Areas

Population Peak Hour Factors

1,000 or more 2.0
500 2.5
200 3.0
100 3.5
50 4.5

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Where the Peak Hour Factors fall intermediate population figures, interpolation should be applied to
obtain the Peak Hour Factor.

Where the reliable records of actual consumption exist, corresponding Peak Hour Factors should be
calculated accordingly.

For principal towns and urban centers, the Demand patterns and “Peak Hour Factors” for the design of
water supply schemes should be based on the analysis of the records from the existing water supply
systems. If such information is not available, records from other towns may be used.

Storage facilities should be encouraged and considered when determining the design flows and
capacities of the distribution mains. Large institutions and industries that can have their own on-site
balancing storage facilities should be encouraged as these somewhat attenuate “Peak Hour Demands” in
distribution systems.

1.5.5 Peak Hour Factor Behavior

Peak Hour Factors tend to be high for small rural communities and lower for larger communities and
towns. The reason is that, the fewer the people, the likely is that they tend to behave almost in the same
manner socially and economically. Whilst on the other hand, the bigger the population, the more diverse
their socio – economic behavior is i.e. they are likely to do a variety of different things at the same time.
Practical Worked Example 1..1

A third year Civil and Building Engineering student of Kyambogo University wanted to know the “Maximum Day Demand” during the design of a water
supply scheme for Ocaapa Brooks Corner Township in the new district of Serere. He proceeded with his calculations as follows (basing his calculations on
Figures in Table 1.1, Table 1.4, and Table 1.5).

A. Domestic Demand (DD)

1. House connections = 51 households  51 households x 8 Persons/household on average = 408 persons broken down as follows:
 High income earners = 4 persons; Average Day Demand = 4 x 200 = 800 l/d
 Medium income earners = 14 persons; Average Day Demand = 14 x 100 = 1,400 l/d
 Low income earners = 390 persons; Average Day Demand = 390 x 50 = 19,500 l/d
2. Public Stand Pipes = 1374 persons; Average Day Demand = 1374 x 20 = 27,480 l/d
Total DD = 49,180 l/d

B. Commercial Demand (CD)

1. Shops = (54+4+12) = 70; Average Day Demand = 70 x 20 = 1,400 l/d
2. Lodges = 3; Average Day Demand = 3 x 50 = 150 l/d
3. Bars / restaurants = (18+10) = 28; Average Day Demand = 18 x 200 = 3,600 l/d
4. Butchers = 3; Average Day Demand = 3 x 50 = 150 l/d
Total CD 5,300 l/d

C. Industrial Demand (ID)

1. Grinding mills = 5, Average Day Demand = 5 x 30 = 150 l/d
Total ID 150 l/d

D. Institutional (primary schools) (PD)

1. Boarding = 160 students; Average Day Demand = 160 x 50 = 8,000 l/d
2. Day = 2866 students; Average Day Demand = 2866 x 5 = 14,330 l/d
Total PD 22,330 l/d

Average Day Demand (ADD) = DD + CD + ID + PD = 76,960 l/d

Maximum Day Demand (MDD) = PDF x ADD

Where: PDF = Peak Day Factor (lying between 1.1 – 1.3). The Student’s PDF was 1.2.

8
Thus MDD = 1.2 x 76,960 = 92,352 l/d

= 92.35 m3/d

(Note: Since there was no consideration for the rural surrounding population currently, the population in the fringe area was ignored).

Table 1.4: Estimated Population

Site Total Fringe area Core area

Village No. HH Male Female Remarks
No Pop. Pop pop

 No supply was planned for the

1 Oburiekori 401 - - 2967 2429 538
fringe area(i.e. rural population)

2 Sapiri 136 522 438 960 374 586 “

3 Orupe 313 1014 1490 2504 1856 648 “

4 Oburin 342 1085 1177 2262 2252 10 “

Supply to primary and secondary
5 Sapiri P.7 School Day 648 707 1355
schools considered

6 Boarding           “
St. Michael
7 Day 104 100 204     “

Boarding 102 58 160     “

8 Sunrise High Sch.
Day 200 170 370     “

9 Oburin P.7 Day 358 365 723 “

10 St, Michael P.7 school Day 114 100 214 “

9 Total   1526 1500 11719   1782  

Source: District Water Office, Soroti.

Table 1. 5: Existing Commercial Areas

Shops 54
Barber shops 04
Drug shops 12

9
 Lodges 03
Bars 18
Eating houses 10
Butchers 06
Grinding mills 05
Source: District Water Office, Soroti.

2.0 WATER SOURCES

2.1 General

All fresh waters on earth come in the form of precipitation evaporated mainly from oceans, seas and
other surface water sources. A part of this precipitated water flows as surface water and remains trapped
in depressed areas and another part enters in to the earth to form ground water. Therefore, surface water
and ground water are the main sources of water for water supply. Rain water being relatively free from
contamination is a good source of water supply.

2.2 Types of Water Sources

The various different types of water sources that may be available for harnessing water for community
water supplies include:

2.2.1 Surface Sources

 Rivers and streams

 Lakes.

2.2.2 Ground Water Sources

 Springs
 Wells and boreholes

2.2.3 Other Sources

 Rain water harvesting

2.3 Criteria for Selection of a Water Source

The main considerations include the following:

1. Quantity: The quantity of water should be adequate at all times of the year and should meet all the
requirements of the community and at convenient locations. The concern here should be that of the
available water source being capable of supplying all the demand or if there may be need to beef it
up with other sources in order to fully meet the demand.

2. Quality: The quality of water at the source should be such that the requirement for treatment is
minimum. Further more, the quality of water should meet accepted standards and guidelines for
drinking water and should not deteriorate below certain acceptable level (usually the National Water
Quality Standards or WHO Guideline values are the bench mark), during the period for which the
system is to be designed.
10
 If the water requires treatment, what could be the cost for treatment based on a simple low cost
technology? If the quality of the water can not be brought to the required standards even after
treatment, the source should be discarded.

3. Cost: The capital as well as the operation and maintenance costs of the water supply should be
acceptable. The costs should be reasonably affordable to the consumers. Construction and operation
cost should be minimum and imported materials should be avoided.

4. Protection: This refers to the possibility of protecting the water source from the present and future
pollution and contamination. The catchment area should be the type that can be effectively protected
to ensure sustainability of the quantity and quality of the raw water.

2.4 Other Planning and Design Considerations (Specific Selection Criteria):

In planning and design of a low-cost water supply scheme especially in developing countries like
Uganda, the following Specific Selection Criteria should be considered:

 Traditional sources e.g. springs, wells and boreholes which require little or no treatment should
be given first consideration for development of water supply systems, provided their yields are
sufficient to meet the water demands of the scheme.
 For large schemes, surface water sources such as streams, rivers and lakes, though may require
some form of treatment to render the water safe for human consumption, should be considered as
they will still be the most economic available and viable option.
 When surface sources are being selected, rivers with their upland mostly forested catchments
should be given preference.
 In some cases, the exploitation of a combination of different sources can some times give a more
economical and reliable water supply than a single source. Also in this regard, the mixing of
waters from different sources can also be used to deliberately reduce the concentrations of
certain constituents such as fluorides, to an acceptable level.
 The use of pumping and chemicals should be minimized, skill attendance should be avoided.
Sources from which water can be supplied by gravity should be given more consideration than
those that require pumping.
 The system should be planned together with the community to enable adaptation to local
conditions, needs and preferences and to take advantage of local skills and knowledge. Steps
should be taken to consult the women, to understand their needs and involve them in local
management to encourage their interest in keeping the system functional.
 Provision should be made e.g. having more than one treatment units to prevent or deal with
possible deterioration of quality of raw water or break down of the system.

2.5 Yields of Water Sources

2.5.1 Rivers and Streams

2.5.1.1 Safe Yield

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The “Safe Yield” of a river or stream is the reliable yield obtainable from it.

2.5.1.2 Determination of Safe Yield of a River or Stream

The “Safe Yield” of a river or stream can be determined by performing analysis of a flow-
frequency/probability and plotting on appropriate graphs using the lowest recorded daily flow for each
calendar year for which records are available for the dry seasons. From this analysis, the 95% -
probability daily low flow should be determined and taken as the “Safe Yield” of the river or stream.

Excess Water above MDD Low Flows to be analyzed

Flow
(m3/s)

MDD
(Maximum Day Demand)

Time (Years)
Fig 2.1: PLOT OF A RIVER OR STREAM FLOW AGAINST TIME FOR ANALYSIS OF STREAM OR RIVER FLOWS

LOW FLOW
DISCHARGE
Line of Best fit

Safe Yield

PERCENT PROBABILITY FLOW 95%

Fig 2.2: PLOT OF LOW FLOWS AGAINTS PERCENT PROBABILITY FLOWS

Example 2.1

Assume the MDD for some small town to be 1000 m 3 per day and a safe yield (at 95% probability) of 1200 m 3/day was obtained from the stream. It implies
that, the available 95% probability yield can suffice.

12
2.5.2 Flood Flow:

The following consideration should be noted designing when designing;

 Small dams (with a height less than 4 m), spill ways and intakes structures should be designed
for the respective 100-year return period floods.
 When dealing with a river or stream with no or few flow observation records, full use should be
made of flow records and Rainfall data from the adjacent rivers or similar catchments to
construct a probable flow-frequency/probability curve.
 The longer the return period, the higher the flood. The design should be based on a particular return
period e.g. 100 years.
HIGH FLOW
DISCHARGE

40- year Return

Period

20 -Year Return
period (years)

20 40 RETURN PERIOD (YEARS)

Fig 2.3: PLOT OF HIGH FLOW DISCHARGE Vs RETURN PERIOD

Springs
The following should be noted about springs;
 A spring is a place where rock or clay layers block the flow of underground water, forcing it
upwards where the outflow emerges in the open at the ground surface.
 In Uganda, there are two types i.e. the gravity springs which occur in unconfined aquifers and
artesian springs which occur in aquifers overlain by confining impervious layers preventing the
water from rising to its free water table level, and therefore, kept under pressure.
 To locate good springs and to get information about their reliability especially during drought
periods, the designer should consult the local people resident in the area.
 Flows from artesian springs often fluctuate less than flows from gravity springs.
 The bacteriological quality of water from artesian springs tends to be better, because the
impervious confining layers protect the water in the spring aquifer against contamination.
Therefore, all other factors being equal, artesian springs should be preferred to gravity springs.

Boreholes and Wells

The basic considerations to be made include the following:

13
  The safe yield has to be estimated to see if the proposed abstractions for water supply purposes
can be sustained in the long term. The safe or long term yield of a borehole can be defined as the
maximum quantity of water that can be obtained permanently from the borehole or well.
 The long term yield evaluation of a water supply borehole relies on factors such as:
- Estimations of the recharge.
- Calculation of Hydro geological parameters such as Transmissivity (T), Storage coefficient
(S), skin factor etc.
- Analysis of aquifer boundary conditions.
 For proper aquifer analysis, test pumping periods should be extended to 1-2 weeks or in some
cases even months when major aquifers are being investigated. This is important especially in
the development of major water supply schemes involving very large capital investments.
 For a new water supply borehole, a 48-hour test pumping should be carried out to facilitate the
choice of the production pump capacity. Such a test will not provide information on aquifer
yield. However, the aquifer type and properties must be identified and understood if serious
mistakes are to be avoided.
 The pump used for test pumping should have adequate capacity to give maximum information
without pumping the borehole prematurely.
 Estimation of aquifer boundary conditions is a major problem after a short pumping test. In such
cases, the judgment of a skilled Hydrogeologist will be required. Negative hydraulic boundaries
will lower the yield while the positive hydraulic boundaries will increase the yield.
 The recharge rate and the estimated recharge area should be evaluated to estimate the long term
yield of the borehole. These parameters are best evaluated based on long term monitoring of the
borehole abstractions, ground water level and rainfall.
 When pumping is stopped during test pumping, the water level in the borehole or aquifer will
always rise back to (recover) the pre-pumping level, the static head. The rate of recovery can
yield useful information about the present aquifer conditions in a manner similar to test pumping.
Therefore, the recovery should be done by an experienced hydrogeologist in order to cross-check
the calculations based on test pumping.

2.5.4 Artificial Recharge

The following are to be noted about artificial recharge:

 When the natural recharge of an aquifer is supplemented and thus its safe yield capacity added,
this is called artificial recharge. Artificial recharge in addition, also provides purification of the
infiltrated water.
 Artificial recharge entails measures to feed water from surface sources such as rivers and lakes in
to an aquifer, either directly or by spreading the water over the infiltration area and allowing
percolating downward in to the aquifer.
 Artificial recharge should be considered in the following cases:
- Where soil conditions are suitable.

14
 - Where the quality of the original water is unacceptable. Occasionally, high yield, poor
quality ground water sources are used to supplement low yield, high quality groundwater
sources.
- Where the quantity is insufficient.

2.5.5 Artificial Aquifers

 Should be designed for a retention period of water underground of 60 days. For shorter periods,
disinfection of the water will be necessary.

2.5.6 RAIN WATER HARVESTING

This entails the utilization of rain water falling on roof tops, natural ground, roads, yards or other
specially prepared catchments.

2.5.6.1 Situations in which rain water harvesting should be favored

 High levels of rain fall.

 The Catchment surface where rain fall water can be collected e.g. roof tops like tined roofs are
available.
 Where access to water is required within the home.
 A storage reservoir where water is stored until it is required (e.g. a tank made of polythene,
ferrocement, brick masonry, G.I. sheets, concrete).
 Where water sources are polluted and are distant.
 In water stressed areas – where other options for improved water sources are lacking.

For purposes of rainwater harvesting for domestic use, the annual rainfall at the 90% - probability level
should be regarded as dependable.

2.5.6.2 Factors to Consider When Determining Rain Water Collection Tank Capacity

 Total water demand

 Longest dry spell – defined as the period when the average monthly rainfall is less than 50 mm.

2.5.6.3 Constraints to rain water harvesting

 Inexperience of professionals in designing the systems.

 Relatively high costs
 Lack of specialist components on the market
 Unsuitable designs
 Uncertainties of rain fall patterns
 For domestic rain water harvesting, there is inexperience in handling inequality of roof
ownership. (Ref: MWE – The district implementation manual for water and sanitation sector).

3.0 WATER INTAKES

15
Water intakes are engineering works / components or facilities put around or near or within the source of
water to facilitate the drawing or abstraction of water from the source in to the water supply system.

3.1 Types of Water Intakes

The following are the different types of intakes:

 River intakes – situated to the upstream of the city so that pollution is minimized.
 Lake (submerged) intakes – this is constructed entirely under water and commonly used to
obtain water from a lake.
 Canal intakes – in addition to irrigation, it may be used to supply water to a nearby town.
 Reservoir intake – Used especially when the flow in the river is not guaranteed through out the
year. A dam is constructed to store water in the reservoir so formed. They are similar to river in
takes except that they are located more near to the upstream face of the dam where the depth is
maximum.
 Wells and Boreholes – a sufficient diameter should be provided to allow pump installation
above and below the water aquifer. The intake of a borehole pump should be set at least 2 metres
above the bottom of the borehole.
 Springs – a spring chosen for a water supply intake structure should be enclosed for sanitary
protection to prevent contamination of the water. The intake / storage chamber should be fitted
with a lockable manhole cover for access for cleaning and maintenance. The spring should be
fenced off and its upstream protected, cut off drain provided to divert any storm water.
 Infiltration galleries – are horizontal ditches or drains for ground water withdrawal. They can
be used in sand rivers, springs intakes and other types of ground water abstraction.

3.2 Selection of the Site for an Intake

The design expert needs to take the following points in to consideration when selecting a suitable site for
an intake structure:

a) The site should be so selected that, it may admit water even under worst condition of flow in the
river, or under lowest possible level in the lake or reservoir. If possible, intake should be located
sufficiently inside the shore line. Intake should be situated where the flow is adequate to cater for
the Ultimate year water demand.
b) Its site should be as near the treatment works as possible.
c) It should be so located that it admits relatively pure water free from mud, sand or other floating
materials. It should be located at a place protected from rapid currents.
d) It should be so located that it is free from pollution. River intakes should be constructed well
upstream of points of discharge of sewage and other industrial wastes. If located near a city, it
should be constructed on its uphill so that water is not contaminated.
e) For river intakes, they should be located upstream of populated and farming areas.
f) It should not interfere with river traffic, if any. It should be located upstream of bridges, cattle
watering, laundry washing and sewerage outlet points.
g) An intake should be located on a river having a forested catchment area.
h) A river intake should be sited on a level which allows the water to be supplied by gravity.

16
 i) An intake should be located where the area immediately upstream of the intake is not easily
accessible to people or animals. Otherwise, the intake should be fenced off.
j) The intake should be so located that good foundation conditions are available e.g. where ground
is rocky or firm and the possibility of scouring and flooding is the least.
k) The intake site should be selected so that its further expansion is possible.

3.3 Design Guidelines/Details for Intake Structures

3.3.1 River Intakes
 For some water supply schemes, a weir or dam may be required to be constructed across the river
to impound water in a reservoir, so that the quantity and depth of water available for supply is
sufficient even under worst condition of flow in the river.
 The intake should be designed such that clogging is prevented, scouring avoided and the
structure remains stable even under flood conditions.
 The intake draw – off should be perpendicular to the direction of flow of the river to allow some
of the silt sediments to be dropped before entering the intake. The bottom of the intake should be
positioned at least 1 m above the river bed, to prevent rolling stones from destroying the intake
screens.
 A special baffle may be needed to keep out debris and floating matter such as tree trunks and
branches. To reduce the amount of silt and suspended material entering the intake, the water
should flow in the intake at a velocity not exceeding 0.1 m/s.
 After the water has passed the intake screens, the velocity should rise to at least 0.5 m/s to
prevent the settling out of suspended matter. This minimum velocity must be upheld in the intake
chambers, canals an intake pipes even during the initial phases of a scheme, when the water
demand is still low.
 There should be facilities for the closing off of the intake using stop logs or other similar devices.
 Adopt a floating intake if large rivers with variable water levels.
 Pumping is usually required at river water intakes. If the difference between high and low water
levels in the river does not exceed 4 m, a suction pump placed on the river bank may be used.
Otherwise, an arrangement including a sump constructed in the river and infiltration drains laid
under the river bed is recommended.
 As the lowest water level in the sump is likely to be too deep for suction pump placed above
ground, the water is usually abstracted using a submersible or shaft – driven pump.

3.3.2 Lake Intakes

 The under water pipeline should be laid at an even slope with no peaks where air pockets can be
formed. The pipeline should be adequately flexible and anchored to prevent buoyancy especially
when the pipeline is empty.
 The cleaning of the intake screens should be considered in the design. Where possible, a
connection should be made from the discharge to the under water pipe to make the backwashing
of the intake pipe possible.
 In lakes where water levels fluctuate, e.g. Lake Victoria, the level of the intake should also be
adjustable to suit the fluctuating water levels.

17
  Water should flow towards and in to the intake at a velocity of not exceeding 0.1 m/s. This
ensures most of the sediments settle before entering the pipe.

3.3.3 Borehole Intakes

 The intake of a borehole pump should be set at least 2 m above the bottom of the borehole.
 A sufficient diameter should be provided to allow pump installation above and below the water
aquifer.
 In all production boreholes, sufficient space should be provided for separate 20 mm diameter
access pipe to accommodate water level monitoring equipment. This will also require an extra
hole to be provided in the well head. Special precautions must be taken against the risk of
pollutants entering the borehole through this extra hole.
3.3.4 Spring Intakes
 A spring intake should be enclosed in a structure (for sanitary protection to prevent the
contamination of water) and the site should be fenced off. In its upstream, a cut off drainage
ditch is required to divert surface water runoff away from the storage chamber.
 Springs in granular soils can be tapped using infiltration drains consisting of pipes with open
joints, placed in gravel pack.
 The drain system and storage chamber should be so designed and constructed as to prevent the
pollution and contamination of the collected water.
 The storage chamber should be fitted with a lockable manhole cover for access for cleaning and
maintenance work. Air vents, overflow pipes and clean out drains must have screened openings.

3.3.5 Rainwater Harvesting

3.3.5.1 Roof catchments
 Roof guttering should slope evenly towards the down pipe to prevent the formation of pools
where mosquitoes can breed.
 New houses should be planned such that the length of guttering and pipes is as short as possible,
and water can be tapped by gravity.
 There should be an arrangement in form of a small vessel (of 100 – 2000 litres for an ordinary
roof) which collects the foul flush, before the water starts overflowing in to the rain water
storage tank.

3.3.5.2 Rainwater Storage Tank

 The inlet pipe should be fitted with a net or sieve to trap foreign matter.
 The tank should be covered to reduce contamination and evaporation losses.
 The outlet pipe should be placed 0.2 m above the floor of the tank.
 The tank should have a scour or constructed in a manner which facilitates cleaning and sediment
removal.
 The tank should be well raised to facilitate tapping. The tap area should be properly drained and
it should also have a concrete apron to keep it dry and clean.

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  Corrugated galvanized iron tanks should be laid on wooden supports placed on raised concrete
platforms, to ensure that the bottom surface is kept dry and thereby reducing the chances of
corrosion occurring.

3.3.6 Dug Wells

 The diameter of a dug well should be at least 1.2 m, to allow two people to work together during
the digging.
 For a large community (of 200 people or more), a well diameter of 2 – 3 m is recommended. It
should be noted that, increasing the well diameter further may not be cost effective because the
additional yield obtained may not be much.
 The well should be dug at least 3 m below the expected lowest water level.
 There should be an inner lining constructed of materials such as brick, stone, in-situ concrete
rings or precast concrete rings.
 Generally, the safest and easiest method of sinking a dug well is to excavate from the inside of
precast concrete rings.
 In very loose soils, other methods such as hand – drilling (auguring) should be employed.
 In consolidated ground, including rock formations, the well may stand unlined but the upper
section should always have a lining.
 The section of the well penetrating the aquifer requires a lining with openings or perforations to
allow ground water to enter.
 The bottom of the well should be covered with graded gravel of a 150 mm thick layer of grain
size 1 – 2 mm overlain by a 150 mm layer of grain sizes 4 – 8 mm and finally at the top a 150
mm thick layer of grain size 20 -30 mm, to form a proper filter.
 The upper part of the lining should be water tight, to a depth of several metres below the lowest
draw down water level in the well.
 The annular space between the well walls and the linings should be sealed with puddle clay or
cement grout from the ground surface to the top of the aquifer or to at least 2 m below the ground
surface.
 The top of the lining should be extended to about 0.5 m above the ground surface level, to form a
wall around the well.
 A concrete apron should be constructed on the ground surface, extending about 2 m all round
and sloping outwards towards the drainage channel with a suitable outfall.
 The well should be sealed with a water tight slab. A manhole that can be tightly and securely
locked should be provided for inspection and disinfection of the water in the well.

3.4 Intake Screens

The intake should be equipped with a screen(s). There are two types of screens:

i) coarse screens
ii) fine screens

3.4.1 Coarse screens

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Coarse screens or bar screens are intended to intercept only grosser floating material. They are mostly in
form of bar grill; bars being generally 25 mm size spaced at 30-50 mm between bars and kept inclined at
30o - 450 to the horizontal so that they can be cleaned easily with a rake. The mesh type of screen is thus
not recommended.

The screens should be designed with a maximum water flow velocity in the openings between the bars
of 0.7 m/s, otherwise soft deformable matter may be forced through.

3.4.2 Fine screens

Fine screens are used at surface water intakes, sometimes alone, sometimes following a bar screen. In
order for the fine screen not to get clogged up, some device is set up to clean it continuously.

4.0 WATER QUALITY

Pure water is not available in nature. It is common practice to assess water quality in relation to specific
guidelines or standards. The guidelines are those set by World Health Organization and Uganda for
drinking water.

4.1 Impurities Present In Water

The impurities in water may be present in solution, suspension or pseudo-solution. Some of the water
quality parameters respond to human senses of sight (turbidity, colour), taste (salty, offensive) and smell
(odour). The presence of pathogens and poison in drinking water can’t be identified by human senses.
The most important parameter in drinking water quality is the microbiological water quality i.e. presence
of pathogenic organisms.

The constituents are normally divided in to five groups as follows:

 Bacteriological (microbiological) parameters

 Chemical parameters directly related to health

 Chemical parameters indirectly related to health

 Physical and Chemical parameters related to aesthetic and technical effects

 Physical and Chemical parameters affecting building and pipe materials.

4.2 Basic Requirements of Drinking Water to be considered

The basic requirements of drinking water are that the water should;

 Be completely free from pathogenic micro-organisms that can cause disease.

 Contain no element or compound in concentrations that can cause acute or long term adverse
effects on human life.
 Be fairly clear and aesthetically attractive, i.e. low turbidity and colour.
 Not be saline to cause salty test.
 Contain no compound that can cause an offensive test or odour.
20
  Not cause corrosion or encrustation of the water supply system, scale formation, discoloration or
staining clothes and other items washed in it.
 Not have a temperature unacceptable to the consumers.
Table 4.1: Some Common Selected Water Quality Parameters and Their Significance
Parameter Source
PH Measure of the concentration
of free hydrogen ions in the
system.
Turbidity Suspended clay, silt, finely
divided organic and inorganic
matter, algae etc
Total dissolved solids Inorganic salts and small
amounts of inorganic matter.
Alkalinity (The capacity Salts of weak (Carbonates
to neutralize acids - and Bicarbonates) acids and
measure of the buffer strong bases (Hydroxides).
capacity)
Hardness Areas with thick top soil and
limestone formations.
Ground water rich in
Bicarbonates.
Chlorides Sodium Chloride, Potassium
Chloride, Calcium Chloride.
Nitrates Fertilizer, bacteriological
decomposition of organic
matter.
Total coli form and Contamination from sewage,
faecal coli form human and animal excreta.
Bacteria (germs)
Iron Rocks and minerals, landfill
leachates, sewage etc.
Effect / Significance
 Very important in the biological treatment of water
because the organisms involved in the treatment
process operate with in a certain PH.
 Also important in coagulation, disinfection and water
softening.
 When in excess of 5 Nephelometric Turbidity Units
can protect micro organisms from the disinfection
effect.
 Can stimulate bacteria growth and can exert a
significant chlorine demand.
 Makes water look aesthetically not good (objectionable
to users)
 Affect taste (objectionable to users)
 Promote hardness, corrosion and encrustation,
 Excess or insufficiency interferes with water treatment.
 Wastes soap
 Produce scales in hot water pipes, boilers, heaters.
 High concentrations are corrosive to metals in
distribution pipes.
 Higher content in inland water indicates sewage
pollution.
 Are toxic when in excess.
 Cause “methamoglobinaemia” in infants (Blue baby
syndrome.
 Cause diseases like dysentery, typhoid fever etc
 Hardness.
 Undesirable taste in beverages.
 Staining of clothes and plumbing fixtures.
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  Encrustation of water mains.
 Reddish colour in water.

4.3 Deficiencies in Water Quality

If deficiencies in water quality have been detected, remedial action have to be taken promptly. Such
action may temporary like special campaigns to promote the boiling of drinking water in homes, and/ or
long term measures for localizing and eliminating the source of contamination and improving treatment.

4.4 Water Quality Preservation and Monitoring

The following should generally be noted:

 All water supply schemes should be designed to preserve water quality. The most important step
in meeting this requirement is to site all system facilities in such away as to minimize the risk of
contamination e.g. providing water sources with appropriate protection zones.

 The quality of water sources to be used in water supply should be checked not only at the
beginning, but also regularly monitored at a number of sampling points during scheme operation.

 The monitoring of drinking water quality should not only be limited to a matter of establishing
regulations, but it is also a matter of establishing the necessary supportive related physical
facilities including laboratories. Infrastructural, organizational as well as educational measures
are also important in this respect.

 Water supply schemes should be designed in such a way as to facilitate water quality monitoring,
so that water samples can be taken readily at the following points:

 Water sources

 Water treatment plants

 Distribution systems.

4.5 Water Sampling

In water sampling, the following should be noted:

 The selection of water sources and treatment methods will require the collection and analysis
of water samples from the alternative sources available for water supply.

 The samples taken should cover all the regimes of the water source under investigation, and
should be taken in sufficient numbers covering the dry and rainy seasons.

 Samples from new wells and boreholes should be taken after at least 24 hours of pumping.

 All listed chemical and biological analysis should normally be carried out, unless it is clear
that only limited number are required.
22
  The results of the water sample analysis should be evaluated against the water quality
guidelines. Whenever the results have some doubts regarding the selection of the water
sources and/or treatment methods, additional samples should be collected and analyzed.

 Water sampling and analysis should be carried out by trained and skilled personnel, as
incorrect techniques can lead to incorrect results and decisions.

5.0 WATER TREAMENT

Water treatment is the object of making water portable i.e. to make water safe to drink, pleasant to taste
and suitable for domestic uses. The treatment required depends on the physical, chemical and biological
characteristics of water.

Treatment of the water may be required because it is either polluted or contaminated. Pollution of water
refers to the addition of a fouling agent that is physical or chemical to the water thereby impairing its
quality. On the other hand, contamination is addition of a fouling agent that is biological (i.e. germs) to
the water thereby rendering it unsafe for drinking.

The most common steps in water treatment are clarification and disinfection.

The most common water treatment methods are:

 Plain sedimentation
 Sedimentation with coagulation
 Filtration and
 Disinfection.

Some of the treatments processes / unit operations for removal of specific impurities are:

 Aeration
 Water softening
 Arsenic removal
 Iron removal
 Activated carbon application
 Fluoridation and de-fluoridation
 desalination

5.1 Clarification

Clarification involves the removal of suspended and colloidal particles including colour producing
substances by plain sedimentation, and chemical sedimentation and filtration to remove visible
impurities and make the water attractive to the users or consumers.

5.2 Disinfection

This means the destruction of pathogenic organisms to make the water safe.

5.3 Coagulation
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Coagulation is the process of addition of a salt that produces positive ions in water and application of
rapid agitation for good mixing leading to the destabilization of colloids and promotion of frequent
contact among the particles. It is used to mean the first stage in the formation of precipitates of finely
divided, suspended and colloidal matter in water induced by the addition of special chemicals called
coagulants. Rapid mixing is required for immediate dispersal of coagulants through out the mass of the
water because hydrolysis of coagulants and destabilization of colloids takes very little time.

Coagulation sedimentation is used to remove the following types of impurities:

 Miscellaneous fragments of animal and vegetable matter.

 Plankton – mainly phytoplankton
 Finely divided mineral matter including clay and other colloidal solutions
 Organic coloring matter, partly in true solution and partly in colloidal form
 Complex mixture of colloidal and dissolved organic compounds derived from sewage and
industrial effluents
 Bacteria and viruses

5.3.1 Factors affecting coagulation

1. Types of coagulant
2. Quality or dose of the coagulant
3. Characteristics of water such as
 Temperature
 PH of the water
4. Time, violence and method of mixing

5.3.2 Common coagulants used

1. Aluminum sulphate (or Alum)

2. Chlorinated copperas
3. Ferrous sulphate and lime
4. Magnesium carbonate
5. Poly electrolytes
6. Sodium aluminates

5.4 Flocculation

Flocculation is the process of gentle and continuous stirring for agglomeration of micro-flocs formed
during the coagulation process to produce larger flocs with good settling characteristics. It generally
consists of the building up of the particles of the floc to a larger size that can be removed by
sedimentation in the third stage of clarification. Flocculation requires very slow and continuous mixing
of water for frequent contact between fine particles and the hydrolyzed product of the coagulants.

The object of flocculation is achieved by keeping the water in a state of controlled agitation in
flocculators consisting of tanks having power operated paddles and horizontal or vertical shafts.

24
5.4.1 Floc

It’s a thick gelatinous precipitate which is formed when a coagulant is dissolved in the water and
thoroughly mixed in it.

5.5 Sedimentation

This is the process causing the organic and inorganic particles heavier than water to settle by retaining
the water in a tank or basin. It is the removal of suspended particles by gravitational settling. The
process takes place in the sedimentation tanks which are designed to reduce the velocity of flow of water
so as to permit suspended solids to settle out of the water by gravity. The particles are held in suspension
in natural water mainly by turbulence or current and when the current is retarded, the suspended
particles settle at the bottom of the basin.

5.5.1 Plain Sedimentation

This is when impurities are removed / separated from suspending fluid by an action of natural forces
alone e.g. gravitation or natural aggregation of the settling particles.

5.5.2 Design of Sedimentation Tanks

Rectangular tank can be divided in to four sub divisions thus

 Inlet
 Settling
 Outlet
 Sludge accumulation zones

5.5.3 Design elements of sedimentation tanks

They include:

1. Detention period, displacement efficiency and Flowing through period

2. Over flow rate and surface loading
3. Basin dimensions
4. Inlet and outlet arrangements
5. Sludge removal

5.5.4 Flowing through period (t0)

It is the average time required for a batch of water to pass through the settling tank. It is less than the
detention period due to short circuit effects.

The flowing through period of an existing tank can be determined by placing sodium chloride in the
influent and testing for the chloride content of the effluent.

5.5.5 Over flow Rate and surface loading

25
The quantity of water passing per hour (or per day) per unit horizontal area is known as surface loading.
The surface flow rate (SoR) (or over flow rate) is equal to flow divided by the plan area of the tank.

Q Q
i.e. S 0    Surface Loading
LB A

5.5.6 Basin Dimensions

The surface area of the basin is determined on the basis of the overflow rate of surface loading rate.

Volume of water in litres per hr

 Surface Area A 
Surface loading rate(l / hr / m 3

5.5.7 In let and out let Arrangements

The in let and out let arrangements should be such that minimum disturbance is caused due to influent
and effluent streams.

Due to turbidity, the influent water tends to sink and move at the bottom and then rise at the out let. This
will cause backward flow towards the inlet at the surface thereby reducing effective detention period. An
ideal inlet structure should:

a) Uniformly distribute the water as uniformly as possible across the width and depth of the tank.
b) Mix it with the water already in the tank to prevent density currents.
c) Minimize large scale turbulence.
d) Initiate longitudinal and radial flow so as to achieve high removal efficiency.

5.5.8 Out let arrangements

Should consist of:

a) Weirs, notches, orifices

b) Effluent trough (or Launder)
c) Out let pipe.

5.5.9 Sludge removal

The particles that settle at the basin constitute the sludge. Sludge can be removed manually or
mechanically.

5.6 Aeration

Aeration is the process of bringing water in to intimacy contact with air for the following purposes:

 increasing the oxygen content of the water

 Reducing the carbon dioxide content of the water thus reducing its corrosiveness and raises its
PH value.
 Removing hydrogen sulphide, methane and other volatile organic compounds responsible for
imparting tastes and odour.

26
  Removing iron and manganese responsible for imparting tastes and discolouration. This is done
by converting iron and manganese from their insoluble states to insoluble precipitates which can
then be removed.
 Due to agitation of water during aeration, bacteria may be killed to some extent.
 It is also used for mixing chemicals with water as in the aero mix process and in the use of
diffused compressed air.

5.6.1 Aeration of surface water

There is no need for special aeration of surface water with the aim of iron and manganese removal in
Uganda. This is because iron and manganese contents found in the surface waters in Uganda are usually
in the form that can easily be removed by coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation and filtration.

Aeration may however be required to increase oxygen content in waters abstracted from large storage
reservoirs.

5.6.2 Aeration of ground water

It is widely used for the treatment of ground water having unacceptably high contents of iron and /or
manganese. The atmospheric oxygen brought in to contact with the water through aeration, reacts with
the dissolved ferrous and manganese compounds changing them in to insoluble ferric and manganese
oxide hydrates. The hydrates can then be removed by the subsequent processes of sedimentation and /or
filtration.

5.6.2 Types of the units of aerators

5.6.2.1 Cascade aerators

A cascade aerator consists of a flight of 4-6 steps, each about 300mm high as. To produce turbulence
and thus enhance the aeration efficiency, obstacles are placed at the edge of each step.

5.6.2.2 Multiple Tray Aerators.

A multiple tray aerator consists of 4-8 trays with perforated bottoms at intervals of 300-500mm through
perforated pipes, the water is divided evenly over the upper tray, from which trickles down, the droplets
being dispersed and being re-collected at each successive tray.

5.6.2.3 Inclined apron aerator with riffle plates

In this type of aerator, water is allowed to fall along an inclined plane / apron which is usually studded
with riffle plates in herring bone fashion. The breaking up to the sheet of water will cause agitation of
water and consequent aeration.

5.6.2.4 Slat tray aerators

Are the most commonly used. Consists of a closed round or square structure containing a series of
closely-stacked superimposed wood-slat trays. Water enters the top of the aerator and is evenly
distributed over the top most trays. The slats in the trays are staggered so that the films of water raining
on the edges of the slat in one tray fall on the centre of the slats in the tray just below. Air is supplied to

27
the bottom of the aerator by means of a blower which blows it upwards. A ventilator is provided at the
top which expels the air and gases to the atmosphere. Water is collected at the in the collector pan at the
bottom, from where it flows to a catch basin of reservoir.

5.6.2.5 Gravel Bed aerators (trickling beds)

Cascading through beds of coke, limestone or anthracite is believed to have more efficient CO 2 removal
than other methods.
5.6.2.6 Spray aerators
Divide the water flow in to fine streams and small droplets which come in to intimate contact with air in
their trajectory. Water is sprinkled in to fine jets through nozzles.

5.7 FILTRATION

Filtration is a process of water purification in which water is allowed to pass through a bed of filtering
media, usually sand and gravel. The purified water in the form of a filtrate is collected at the bottom
through an under drain system. The filter media are very efficient in retaining finer and colloidal
particles including bacteria and viruses.

5.7.1 Theories of filtration

The phenomenon of removal of bacteria, finely divided suspended and colloidal matters (i.e. filtration)
can be explained on the basis of four actions that take place namely;

1. Mechanical straining
2. Sedimentation and adsorption
3. Microbial / biological action
4. Electrostatic attraction / Electrolytic action.

5.7.1.1 Mechanical straining

The particles too large to pass through the interstices of the sand grains are retained by mechanical
straining. It takes place exclusively at the top of the filtering media and the accumulated material at the
top layer of the bed increases filtering efficiency but also increases resistance against the downward
flow of water. This process may not remove bacteria and colloidal matter too small to be removed by
straining out.

5.7.1.2 Sedimentation and adsorption

It accounts for the removal of colloids, bacteria and small particles. The curved flow paths around sand
grains bring the fine particles and bacteria in to contact with the sand surfaces, where they adhere
because of physical attraction and presence of sticky gelatinous coating formed by previously deposited
bacteria and colloidal matters.

5.7.1.3 Microbial action

During the process of filtration, a coating of micro-organisms is formed around the sand grains. This is
primarily responsible for the removal of organic matter and bacteria present in the raw waters. A part of

28
the organic matter is oxidized for energy requirements and the other is transformed in to cell materials
for microbial growth. Since the amount of organic matter is small in the water, it can support limited
microbial growth in the filter bed. The layer of microbial film around the sand grains is called
Schmutzdecke and is very prominent in the top of the slow sand filters.

5.7.1.4 Electrostatic attraction / Electrolytic action

It is most prominent between particles having opposite electrical charges. The sand particles have
negatively charged surfaces which become over-saturated as a result of the adsorption of positively
charged particles and ions resulting in to charge reversal occurring. The overall charge of filter grain
coatings becomes positive and negative-charged particles are attracted and retained. The filter bed, after
the ripening period, will exhibit continuously varying negative and positive charged grain coatings that
are able to adsorb most impurities present in water.

5.7.2 Types of Filtration

1. Roughing filtration
2. Slow sand filtration
3. Rapid sand filtration

5.7.2.1 Roughing Filtration

Roughing filters are constructed for pre-treatment of surface waters with very high turbidities. The
filters consist of one or three compartments in which gravel of different sizes is arranged in decreasing
sizes in the direction of flow. There are three types of roughing filters:

1. Up-flow roughing filters

2. Down-flow roughing filters
3. Horizontal-flow roughing filters

5.7.2.1.1 Layout and Design

The raw water in the vertical flow roughing filters is supplied from top or bottom depending on down-
flow or up-flow type. The filtrate is collected from the opposite sides and fed in to the second and then
third units containing comparatively finer filter beds.

The horizontal – flow roughing filters have the simplest layout. The raw water runs from the inlet
compartment in the horizontal direction through a series of differently graded filter media separated by
perforated walls.

5.7.2.1.2 Cleaning:

 Filter cleaning is regularly carried out hydraulically by shock drainage or manually if necessary.
The water store in the filter is drained through fast opening valves or gates. The pressure or

29
 shock waves are introduced by these unstable flow conditions, which will loosen and disintegrate
the solids accumulated on the filters.
 Vertical flow filters can be drained separately without affecting the entire filter as in the
horizontal-flow filters.
 Up-flow filters posses a more favorable layout for hydraulic cleaning as compared to down-flow
filters since most of the solids are retained in the entrance zone at the bottom of the filter next to
the drainage system.
 Manual cleaning is required for roughing filter especially after consolidation of sludge and
gelatinous material that develops from biological activities may hinder efficient hydraulic
cleaning. Manual cleaning involves excavation of the filter bed, cleaning it and re-filling it in to
the filter boxes.
 Hydraulic cleaning is required at the interval of a few days or weeks depending on the quality of
raw water and the efficiency of the filter. Manual filter cleaning is required depending on the
frequency and efficiency of hydraulic cleaning but it must be done after several years of filter
operation.

5.7.2.1.3 Efficiency of Roughing Filters

 Roughing filtration is primarily intended for the removal of suspended solids and reduction of
turbidities in raw water. Roughing filters are also efficient in removal of colour and faecal
coliforms from raw waters.
 Suspended solids removal is up to 95% and 90% for raw waters with high suspended solids.
 Turbidity removal of up to 50-90% has been reported.
 Removal of real colour in the range of 20-50%
 Feacal coliform reduction of between 0.65-2.5 log units has been achieved by roughing filters.
 Around 50% removal of iron and manganese from ground water.

5.7.2.2. Slow Sand Filtration.

In slow sand filtration, water is allowed to pass through a bed of fine sand which retains most of the
impurities present in water. It is suitable for the development of a surface-based water supply system in
developing countries. It is a suitable method for complete treatment of water in developing countries.

5.7.2.2.1 Main purpose

1. Reduce the number of microorganisms present in the water

2. Retain fine inorganic and organic solid matters
3. Oxidize organic compounds dissolved in water.

5.7.2.2.2 Important Characteristics

1. Rate of filtration is low 0.1-0.3m3/m/hr

2. Very high removal of turbidity and colour, (80-85%) and bacteria (95-99.9%)
3. Cleaning of filter bed by scraping and removal of a top layer of sand
4. No pre-treatment is generally required especially if the turbidity of raw water is not very high.
5. Not suitable for water having turbidity greater than 30 NTU
30
 6. Not very effective in the removal of colloidal matters
7. Low cost of operation and maintenance. Slow sand filters do not require complex mechanical or
electrical equipment or coagulating chemicals commonly required for most water treatment
processes. The skill for operation and maintenance can easily be acquired by training. Cleaning
may call for unskilled labour which is quite abundant in developing countries.

5.7.2.2.3 Description

 SSF consists of an open tank containing a sand bed of approx 0.5-0.7m thickness.
 Bed is composed of relatively fine sand, usually ungraded and free from impurities.
 The upper part of the tank is filled with water to a depth of some 1 m above the filter bed.
 The filtered water is collected by an under drain system and conveyed through flow control
devices.
 The purification process is located in a thin layer located at the surface of the sand bed (called
Schmutzdecke or zoogeleal layer).

5.7.2.2.4 Design

The main features include:

 An inlet
 The filter box – can be any shape (rectangular, circular, or square). Box to be at least 2 m to
accommodate the various components of the filter. The minimum size of the filter unit should be
15 – 20 m2.
 An outlet control box.
 The height of the supwernatant water shold be 1 – 1.5 m.
 The surface loading shoulod lie between 0.1 – 0.2 m3/m2h.
 The oxgen content of the water after filtration should be not less than 3 mg/l.
 Filter material mostly used is clean sand free from clay, silt and organic matter. The effective
grain size should lie between 0.15 – 0.35 mm and the niformity coefficient of 2 -5.
 Under drain system usually composed of gravel layer with a total height of 0.3-0.5 m which
supports sand and provides enough space for perforated pipe to evenly collect the filtered water.
 A simple facility such as a platform for washing the filter sand should be provided as close to the
filter as possible.

5.7.2.2.5 Operation of SSF

 Perform best under continuous operation and constant flow conditions – 24 hr operation makes
the best use of the filter plant.
 Biological activities must first be allowed to develop in a newly installed filter bed – ripening
period will take 2-4 weeks after installation.
 Later on, cleaned filters will regain their full biological activities with in 2-3 days provided the
cleaning process is of few hours duration.
 Inlet and outlet structures control flow in the filter – inlet-controlled slow sand filter is easier to
operate. Flow rate is adjusted in the inlet valve at the start of the filtration operation.
31
5.7.2.2.6 Cleaning

 Cleaning is required once the supernatant water reaches the highest permissible level.
 Proven method of cleaning a SSF is by scraping off the sand surface with hand shovels to
remove the top 1.5-2 cm of dirty sand.
 The scraped off mixture of sand and impurities may be discarded and replaced by new sand or
washed for re-use if it is cheaper than buying new sand.
 Frequency of cleaning is 1-3 months for a well operated SSF.
 After removal of the top layer, the filter operation is immediately started in order to minimize
interference with biological activity within the filter bed.

5.7.2.2.7 Limitations of SSF

1. Can only treat relatively clear water. Turbidity of the water should be below 30 NTU. Higher
turbidity will clog the filter bed, interfere with the biological process and reduce the filter runs
between filter cleanings.
2. Algal bloom may result in to filter failure although presence of small numbers of algae is
beneficial to the treatment process.
3. Pre-treatment of the raw water prior to slow sand filtration is generally necessary especially in
case of excessive turbidity and algal growth.

5.7.2.3 Rapid Sand Filtration (RSF)

In RSF, the filtration rate is higher than in SSF due to use of larger and relatively uniform size sand
particles as filter medium. The filter bed usually consists of a course sand layer about 1 m thick laid on
top with a layer of graded gravel about 0.5 m thick. The gravel is underlain by an under drainage system.

5.7.2.3.1 Major characteristics of RSF

1. High filtration rate about 5-15 m3/m2/hr – achieved by using coarse sand with an effective size in
the range of 0.4-1.2 mm. RSF can be both gravity and pressure type.
2. High removal of turbidity and colour – the capacity of the filter bed to store deposited impurities
is larger due to the use of large size sand particles.
3. Cleaning of filter bed by back washing. Water is directed in a reverse direction at a high rate of
flow through the filter bed. The filter bed expands to release the entrapped impurities in it and
wash water carries the impurities out of the filter.
4. Pre-treatment such as coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation are required
5. Suitable for all types of turbid and coloured waters.
6. Relatively high cost of operation and maintenance.
5.7.2.3.2 Design
 Each filter unit to have a separate out let.
 The inlet should be designed in such a way that flushing and velocities exceeding 0.4 m/s
do not occur.
 The surface loading should be 5 m3/m2h

32
  The height between the top of the filter medium and the bottom of the wash water troughs
should be at least 40% of the height of the filter medium, to allow for the expansion of
the medium during backwashing.

5.7.2.3.3 Operation of RSF

The operation of RSF requires the following observations:

 careful pre-treatment of raw water

 routine observations including:
1. quantity of water treated daily
2. length of filter runs between washings
3. percentage of wash water required for each washing
4. quantity of chemicals used
5. Quantity of water at each stage of treatment.

5.7.2.3.4 Operating difficulties / Conditions to be observed during operation

1. formation of mud balls

2. occurrence of negative head and air binding
3. cracking of filter bed
4. jetting and sand boils
5. Sand leakage in to the under drain.
6. overloading of filter
7. shortening of filter runs

Negative head and Air binding: Arises due to excessive loss in the top layer of the sand bed and usually
occurs at the interface between zones of high and low head losses. Negative head is when the head loss
in the top layer becomes more than the head of water above the sand causing the column of water below
the sand to flow out quickly and act as a draft tube resulting in to a partial vacuum. When the air trapped
in the sand escapes from solution in the water, this phenomenon is called air binding and is caused by
excessive negative head. Air binding interferes considerably with filtration. The advantage of negative
head is that, it permits shallow filter boxes and longer filter runs provided no other difficulties arise.

Mud balls: consist of grains of sand and chemical flocs carried over from the coagulating basin. Are
believed to be formed as a result of insufficient washing of the sand bed. They induce unevenness in rise
of wash water and aggravating the inequality filter wash.

Removal of mud balls

 Skimming them off the surface while washing the filter.

 Breaking them with rakes.
 Washing the sand in place to break up the mud balls with high velocity surface wash.
33
  Washing the filter with chemicals such as caustic soda, sulfur dioxide, carbonic acid, chlorine or
copper sulfate.
 Removing, cleaning and replacing the sand.

Cracking of Filter Bed: This is caused by unequal head loss particularly at the walls, and the resulting
pressure difference in the filter bed. The cracking of the filter impairs both washing of filter beds and
efficiency of filtration. The phenomenon is remedied by washing and replacing the filter beds.

Jetting and Sand boils: water is jetted in to the sand from the gravel due to the difference in the porosity
and permeability of sand and gravel. If the jetting is severe, the sand boils up like quick sand and gravel
as well as sand is lifted to the surface.

Removal of jetting and sand boils

1. Packing sand and gravel of similar sizes and size distribution through out the bed.
2. Opening slowly the backwash valve to allow the filter bed to disintegrate uniformly.
3. Doing surface washing instead.

Sand leakage: Sometimes sand leaks in to the under drain system if the sand and gravel layers are not
properly sized and placed and the smaller gravel at the interface between the sand and gravel layers is
displaced by backwashing.

5.7.2.3.5 Causes of RSF operation difficulties / problems

1. poor plant design

2. faulty operation
3. Inadequate and disruptive washing.

5.8 SCREENING

Water when derived from the surface sources, may contain suspended matter which may range from
floating debris such as sticks, branches, leaves etc to fine particles such as sand, silt etc causing
turbidity. The process of stopping / intercepting this suspended matter is called screening. Screening is
therefore, a protective process rather than treatment. The various types of screens are discussed in 3.4.

5.9 DISINFECTION

The term ‘disinfection’ is used in practice to describe treatment processes that have the sole objective of
killing the pathogenic organisms. Strictly defined, disinfection is the destruction of all pathogenic
organisms while sterilization is the total destruction and removal of all micro-organisms. Disinfection of
water supplies provides for destruction or at least complete inactivation of pathogens present in water.

5.9.1 Factors influencing disinfection of water

1. The nature and number of organisms to be destroyed – different species of different organisms
require different doses.
2. The type and concentration of disinfectant used and the form in which the applied disinfectants
are present in water.

34
 3. The temperature of the water to be disinfected – the higher the temperature, the more rapid is the
disinfection.
4. The time of contact – the longer the disinfectant stays in the water the more the disinfecting
effect is complete.
5. The nature of the water to be disinfected – if the water contains particulate matter, particularly of
colloidal and organic in nature, the disinfection process is generally hampered.
6. The pH (acidity / alkalinity) of water – it controls the forms of disinfectant present in water.
7. Mixing of water – good mixing ensures proper dispersal of disinfectants through out the water to
promote the disinfection process.

5.9.2 CHEMICAL DISINFECTION

5.9.2.1 Important characteristics of a good chemical disinfectant

1. Quick and effective in killing pathogenic micro-organisms present in water.

2. Rapidly soluble in water in concentrations required for disinfection and capable of providing a
residual for subsequent protection of water.
3. Not imparting test, colour, odour or turbidity to water.
4. Not toxic to human and animal life.
5. Easy to detect and measure in water.
6. Easy to handle, apply, control and supply.
7. Readily available at moderate cost.

5.9.2.2 CHLORINATION

Chlorine and chlorine compounds such as chlorinated lime (bleaching powder), calcium hypochlorite
and sodium hypochlorite, are the most effective and commonly used chemical disinfectants.

5.9.2.2.1 Chlorine demand

The chlorine demand of water is the difference between the amount of chlorine present as a residual
either free or combined after a designated time.

5.9.2.2.2 Forms / Practices of chlorination

Chlorination practices may be described under several categories depending upon the desired level of
residual chlorine and the point of application, thus:

5.9.2.2.3 Plain chlorination

This is the application of chlorine to plain or raw water supply as it enters the distribution system. It also
includes the chlorination of raw waters in tanks or reservoirs to check the growth of weeds, organic
matter, algae and bacteria. It also removes colour and odour from water. It is resorted to when the water
is relatively clear.

5.9.2.2.4 Pre-chlorination

35
Pre-chlorination is the application of chlorine prior to any other treatment – especially before filtration.
This is done frequently to control algae, taste and odour. Pre-chlorination reduces the bacterial load on
the treatment process and oxidizes organic matter present in raw water. It also reduces the amount of
coagulants required because of the oxidation of organic matter especially if it is applied before the water
enters the sedimentation tanks.

5.9.2.2.5 Advantages of pre-chlorination

 Reduces the quantity of coagulants required.

 It reduces the bacterial load on filters.
 It helps in maintaining longer filter runs.
 It controls the algae and planktons in basins and filters.
 It prevents putrefaction of sludge in settling basins.
 It eliminates tastes and odour.

5.9.2.2.6 Post-chlorination

Post-chlorination refers to the application of chlorine after other treatment processes, particularly after
filtration and before it enters the distribution system. It is the standard practice in chlorination of water
supply. It is useful for protection against contamination from cross-connections. The dose of chlorine
should be so adjusted that the residual chlorine is about 0.1-0.2 p.p.m.

5.9.2.2.7 Double or Multiple Chlorination

It is the application of chlorine at two or more points in the treatment process. Double chlorination is
essentially pre-chlorination (just before water enters the sedimentation tanks) and post-chlorination
applied to the final effluent from the filters. This is done especially when raw water is highly
contaminated and contains large amount of bacterial life and other organic matter. Its advantages are
similar to those of pre-chlorination.

5.9.2.2.8 Super-chlorination

It is the application of excess amount of chlorine to water beyond the stage of break point. The dose may
vary from 1 ppm to 3 ppm. The method is very effective in destroying high concentrations of taste,
odour and organic pollutants in water. Excess chlorine may be added at any point or points of
chlorination, though it is usually applied after filtration. In case of water pollution during floods and
cyclones or if there is an epidemic in the locality, super chlorination is used to destroy excessive
bacterial pollution.

5.9.2.2.9 Break point chlorination (also free residual chlorination)

When chlorine is added in to water, it performs two actions one after the other thus:

a) It kills bacteria and disinfection is complete and

b) It oxidizes organic matter.

36
The break point in the chlorination of water may be defined as the point on applied residual chlorine
curve at which all, or nearly all, the residual chlorine is free chlorine. The addition of chlorine at the
break point is termed break point chlorination. It is termed free residual chlorine, as the process involves
addition of sufficient chlorine to oxidize all organic matter, reducing substances and free ammonia in
raw water leaving behind free available chlorine which possesses strong disinfecting action against
pathogens. The free residual chlorine also makes the water free from bad tastes and odour.

5.9.2.2.10 De-chlorination

It is the process of removing excess chlorine from water before distribution to the consumers to avoid
chlorine tastes. De-chlorination should be done in such a way that some residual chlorine remains in
water. De-chlorination can be achieved by either aeration or use of chemicals such as sodium thio-
sulphate, sodium bio-sulphate.

6.0 WATER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

6.1 General

Water transmission is the transport of water from one location to another by means of conduits, canals,
aqueducts or tunnels.

6.2 System Design

6.3 Points to note:

 The available alternative systems have to be studied and compared from technical as well as
economic points of view. The economic analysis has to look at the capital and operation and
maintenance costs over the design period of the scheme. With respect to this, a gravity flow
scheme with a high initial capital cost may be preferred to a pumped scheme with a lower capital
cost but higher operation and maintenance costs in the long term.
 A given supply area may be best served by one large scheme or several smaller separate
schemes. Within a given supply area, sparsely populated peripheral and isolated high areas
should be studied carefully, to determine whether they could be more economically served by
small independent systems (like boreholes, springs etc) rather than by one single large scheme
(or main supply scheme).
 The size of the supply area is directly proportional to the costs of the transmission and
distribution pipelines lines per cubic metre of water supplied. The implication is that, the costs of
the transmission and distribution pipelines lines per cubic metre of water supplied generally
increase for large supply areas. However, the decreased water treatment and pumping costs for
the larger supply area off-sets this increase.
 Where the construction of large schemes has to be phased (as is most often the case), this should
be taken in to consideration right from the preliminary design stages, so that the scheme can be
appropriately divided in to technically and economically manageable sub-schemes.
 The most economical supply area should be determined for each project because it’s not possible
to give general rules concerning the scheme sizes. However, simple gravity schemes without

37
 treatment should generally be smaller and more preferred to complicated schemes with treatment
and pumping.

6.4 Pipeline Design

The design should aim at supplying the maximum number of consumers at the lowest possible cost. To
achieve this, the following rules have to be observed;

 Storage (balancing) reservoirs should be incorporated in to the systems in order to cut down
pipelines designed for peak hour flows.
 A pipeline traversing an area should be designed with adequate capacity to carry the Peak Hour
Demand flow for that area, and the Maximum Day Demand flows of down stream areas.
BM+DP
B
BP
D
4

E
WATER AM+BM+CM+DM+E M
TREATMENT AM+BM+CM+DM+EP
1 2 AM+CP
PLANT

+ C
AM = Maximum Day Demand Flow to Area AP
3
Ap = Peak Hour Demand Flow to Area A
A
A = Consumption Area A

1 = Storage reservoir No. 1

Figure 6.1: Water Flow +Transmission +
+
 Static pressures should be kept as low as possible, by breaking the pressure preferably in the
storage (balancing) reservoirs or in special break pressure- tanks. Except in exceptional cases,
break-pressure valves are not recommended.
 To avoid air pockets, the numbers of pronounced high and low points should be kept + to the
++minimum, by trying to follow the contour lines of the terrain rather than following only roads
and tracks.
+ This calls for the active participation of the designer in the survey of the pipeline
routes.
 Pipeline+ excavation depths should be varied to avoid local high and low points. This is aimed at
+ minimizing the number of air- valves and washouts.

6.5 Factors to Consider when Selecting Pipes

The selection of pipes for a particular application is governed by the following factors:

 Its availability in the market in respect of pressure classes and sizes.

38
  The cost price of the pipes together with its associated valves and fittings.
 Susceptibility to corrosion, mechanical damage, ageing and other causes of material
deterioration.
 Storage costs.
 Transportation and other handling costs.

It should also be noted that, the most commonly used pipe materials in Uganda include ductile iron
(D.I), Steel, galvanized steel (G.S), Asbestos cement (A.C), unplasticised polyvinyl chloride (UPVC)
and polyethylene (P.E).

6.7 PIPE APPURTENANCES

The following pipe appurtenances / additions should be considered when designing systems:

 Air valves
 Washouts
 Fire hydrants
 Section valves
 Break pressure devices
 Flow direction devices (Non return valves)
 Marker / indicator posts.
 Anchor and thrust blocks

6.7.1 Air Valves: +M

The number of air valves on a pipeline should be kept to a minimum by keeping the number of peaks to
a minimum. The quantity of air in a pipeline should be limited by preventing air entry in to the pipeline.

All air valves should be equipped with isolating (gate) valves, to facilitate the removal and repair of the
valves.
+M
It should be noted that, the determination of high +M points in a pipeline should be with respect to the
+M
hydraulic gradient rather than the ground elevations.

6.7.2 Washouts
+
They are
+Mto be placed at only ‘pronounced’ low points (especially at valley places) in a pipeline so that
+M M
water can come / flow at high gashing velocity. Only on the washout outlet pipes should the washout
valves be fitted+M
and not on the main pipeline.

6.7.3 Fire Hydrants

+M
+M
They are those outlets where the water is made available for fire fighting. The fire hydrant need not
necessarily be under high pressure because the fire fighting equipment itself is designed to pump water
from the mains. The more important requirement is the availability of adequate quantities of water in the

39
pipelines and this can be achieved by using pipelines of diameters of not less than 100 mm in high value
commercial areas.

6.7.4 Section Valves

These are installed on the distribution system to enable the appropriate closure of a section of the
system. Section valves are usually sluice (gate) valves for small size and low pressure distribution
pipelines and are butterfly valves in case of large diameter distribution pipelines exceeding 300 mm
under high pressure. Section valves on a distribution pipeline should be placed at a distance of 3 km (for
rural areas) and 1 km for urban areas. All branch pipelines should have section valves at their points of
connection to the main pipelines. No section valve is required on the pumping main outside the pump
house.

6.7.5 Break Pressure Devices

Break pressure tanks and pressure relief valves are used to keep pipeline pressures within the limits
recommended. They can also be used to divide distribution systems in to appropriate pressure zones. It
should be noted that, in developing countries like Uganda, the use of pressure – relief valves should be
recommended only in exceptional cases and if operation skilled personnel are available. It should also be
noted that, break pressure tanks aren’t for storage purposes but for breaking down the pressure to zero.
In this regard therefore, their capacity is often small (may only be 5000 litres). However, storage tanks
can as well be used as break pressure tanks. The break pressure tank has to be designed strong enough to
 v
2

withstand the jets that result when the pressure head is changed to velocity head  2g  .
 

6.7.6 Flow Direction Devices (Non Return Valves)

When pumping water uphill, non return (or Check / stop) valves should be installed in the pipeline. Non
return valve helps (closes) to prevent the backward flow which could result from pump failure or when
the pump is stopped normally or due to excessive steep hills. However, in a long pumping main, with a
high velocity of water flow and a high static head, high water hammer (surge) pressures may result when
the check valve closes. To reduce these, a surge tank should be constructed and connected the pipeline.
The surge tank takes up excess water and relieves the mains off the excess pressure and thereby
preventing or reducing water hammer. Surge valves can also be used to reduce water hammer.

6.7.7 Marker / Indicator Posts

Marker posts should be put at ever 300 metres on the pipeline. They show direction and location of the
pipeline. They should be placed at all bends, tee-junctions, section valves, air valves, washouts, rivers
and road crossings.

6.7.8 Anchor and Thrust Blocks

40
These help to keep the system intact. Anchor and thrust blocks should be provided at horizontal and
vertical bends, capped ends, changes of pipe sizes, tees and for pipelines laid in steep slopes exceeding
1:6.

7.0 WATER PUMPING

7.1 Selection of Pump for Use

The following factors should be considered when selecting the pump to be used:

 Depth to the water level and its seasonal variations.

 Pressure rages needed for adequate water supply.
 Heights through which water has to be lifted; both below and above the pump (the maximum
suction lift should be observed).
 Pump location.
 Pump durability and efficiency.
 Pump supplier service.

7.2 Power Sources

The different types of power sources used in Uganda include:

 Diesel engines.
 Electric motors powered by the national grid.
 Electric motors powered by local diesel generators.
 Electric motors powered by solar equipment.
 Human- powered pumps – hand and / or foot/treadle pumps

8.0 WATER STORAGE

8.1 General

A provision should be made for storing water in the distribution system. This serves two main purposes
in a water supply system as follows:

 Balancing of variations in water demand during the day. This requirement is caused by the
cyclical variations in water demand over a period of time. It should be noted that, if there is no
storage facility for balancing purposes, the water source, raw water transmission main, treatment
plant and treated water transmission main would have to all be designed to follow the
fluctuations in the water demand. This generally isn’t technically feasible and not even
economical.
 Emergency storage. This requirement is to ensure supply during break-downs and fire fighting.

It should further be noted that, in practice, for a 24 – hour constant supply rate, the balancing storage
should be of the order of 50% of the Maximum Day Demand of the area served. Hence in the case
shown in figure 6.1. storage reservoir No.1 will have a balancing storage capacity of 50% of the
41
Maximum Day Demand of area E and storage reservoir No. 2 will have a balancing storage capacity of
50% of the Maximum Day Demand of areas C and D.

In principle, the emergency storage volume should be put together with the balancing storage volume in
one storage reservoir. The reservoir should be sited as close to the consumers it serves as it is
practicable. Large consumers (e.g. schools, hospitals, industries) who are dependant on a reliable water
supply should be encouraged to set up their own storage facilities.

8.2 Storage Reservoir Design

8.3 General Considerations

 The selection of reservoir materials largely depends on whether the reservoir is placed on the
ground or on an elevation on a support structure. Ground storage reservoirs are normally made of
reinforced concrete or concrete blocks or bricks. Elevated storage reservoirs are normally made
of galvanized pressed steel panels and placed on steel support structures.
 All other factors being equal, the most economical storage reservoir shape is “circular”, followed
by “square” and lastly “rectangular”.

 Normally, the depth of water in a storage reservoir should not exceed 5 m.

 Reservoir sites should be on stable ground, not threatened by land slides or erosion. Level
ground sites are preferred because they simplify excavation work. Proper evaluation of the
ground bearing capacity should be done first before the design of the storage reservoir
foundation is done.

 The recommended reservoir capacities should be 10, 25, 50, 100, 150,200, 300, 500, 800 and
1200 m3.

8.4 Design Features

The following design features should be considered for storage reservoirs:

 Be covered and have lockable access manhole covers.

 Be equipped with internal and external ladders.
 Have level indicators which can be read from outside.
 Have inlet pipes which end close to the reservoir floors, to prevent air entgrainmet by falling jets.
 Have out let pipes with entrances of at least 0.2 m above the reservoir floors.
 Have scour (washout) pipes which allow complete emptying.
 Have over flow pipes (usually 50% larger than the inlet pipes), placed at 50 mm above the
normal top water level, and in such a way that it’s possible to see water overflowing.
 Have ventilation pipes covered with fly (mosquito) nets.
 Have external walkways and hand rails if the reservoirs are elevated.
 Be appropriately partitioned if the reservoirs are large, exceeding 500 m3.

42
(Ref: 1. Water Supply engineering by Punmia, Ashok Jain, Arun Jain, 2. Water Supply and
Sanitation – Rural and Low Income Urban Communities by M. Feroze Ahmed & Md. Mujibur
Rahman, 3. Water Supply Design Mannual MWLE – DWD / Lecture Notes).

43