LINKING INSTRUCTIONAL Verbal Information
STRATEGIES TO LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
Linking Learning Objectives, Pedagogies, and
Technologies
 The idea of linking learning theories and
technologies became important as learning
theories become more mature and new
technologies became affordable and
commonplace.
 The critical appraisal of the link between
learning theories and technologies can be
structured around the following observations:
 Changes in society and education have
influenced the selection and use of learning
theories and technologies
 learning theories and technologies are situated in
a broad and ill-defined conceptual field;
 learning theories and technologies are connected
and intertwined with information processing and
knowledge acquisition and development;
 educational technologies have shifted in
emphasis from program or instructor control
toward more shared and learner control; and
 learning theories and findings represent a
complex mixture of principles and applications
(Spector, Merrill, van Merriënboer, & Driscoll,
2008).
Types of Learning Objectives
Motor Skills
 These include physical skills and bodily
movements involving muscular activity.
 Examples of motor skills are drawing a straight
line, learning to ride a bicycle, changing a flat
tire. Many motor skills also require verbal
information, cognitive strategies, and
intellectual.
 Knowing that something is the case, for
example, knowing that there are 24 h in a day or
that tides occur twice daily; also known as,
declarative knowledge.
 Examples of verbal information include
knowing that insects have six legs or that a byte
consists of eight bits (zeros or ones).
Cognitive Strategy
 Cognitive process that involves awareness of the
problem as well as awareness of one’s own
knowledge and ability relevant to the problem,
also known as contextual or causal knowledge.
 Examples of cognitive strategies include using a
split-half approach to solving a troubleshooting
problem or applying a bubble sorting algorithm
for a selected data set.
Intellectual Skills
 Learning how to do something; also known as
procedural knowledge. Subskills include
discrimination, concept application, rule using,
and problem solving; intellectual skills are also
known as procedural knowledge.
 Examples of intellectual skills include solving
equations, sorting objects into categories, and
identifying relevant principles to apply in
particular situations,
Attitudes
 Internal states which affect an individual’s
choice of action toward some object, person, or
event. Example of attitudes is being predisposed
to react in certain ways and having a particular
interest in something.
Discrimination
 Identifying things so as to be able to make
different responses to the different members of a
particular class. Examples of discrimination
tasks include distinguishing different classes of
objects, such as flowers, dogs, vegetables, and
people of different nationalities.
Concept Application
 Identifying and using appropriate concepts (both
concrete and abstract concepts).
 Examples of concrete objects include chairs and
tables. Examples of abstract objects include hate
and social cohesion.
Rule Using
 Applying a rule to a given situation or condition
by responding to a class of inputs with a class of
actions.
 An example of rule using is to multiple the
probabilities of individual events to determine
the probability of both events happening.
Mastery Learning
Problem Solving
 Combining lower level rules to solve
challenging problems. Solving problems is the
aim of most learning tasks and the tasks are
often complicated.
Instructional Strategies
Programmed Learning
 An instructional strategy is a description of an
approach to a particular instructional or learning
activity.
 Instructional strategies are closely linked with
the type of thing to be learned.
 A strategy for learning such a task could be a
combination of demonstrating and modeling the
task, and then having learners perform the task,
with feedback provided along the way. A
variation could be breaking the task down into
subtasks and using a part-task approach.
Simulation
 Drill and practice — appropriate for learning
verbal information that for whatever reason must
be committed to memory.
 Tutorial instruction — appropriate for learning
simple procedures or how to navigate within a
particular software system.
 Lecture—appropriate for introducing a new
topic and creating some motivation and an
appropriate foundation for that topic.
 Exploratory instruction—appropriate for
promoting understanding about phenomena new
to the learner.
 Interactive simulation—appropriate for
promoting critical reasoning about dynamic,
complex systems.
 Socratic questioning—appropriate for helping a
learner link something new and seemingly
unfamiliar to something already understood.
 The mastery learning model is based on the
assumption that all students of a class can learn
and attain the mastery level if sufficient time,
adequate instruction, and timely help are
provided to them according to their needs,
interests, and abilities (Schwartz & Beichner,
1998).
 The learning performed or instruction provided
by a teaching machine or programmed textbook
is referred to as programmed learning or
instruction.
 Programmed learning is a method or technique
of giving or receiving individualized instruction
from a variety of sources such as programmed
textbook, teaching machine, and computers with
or without the help of a teacher (Schwartz &
Beichner, 1998).
 Simulation is used as a technique for providing
training to the students. Such type of
instructional activities provides powerful
learning tools to them (Schwartz & Beichner,
1998).
Direct Teaching
 It is the pedagogy that makes mastering
academic knowledge and skills its central
purpose.
 It can also be used to develop strategies for
learning in a wide variety of content areas
(Schwartz & Beichner, 1998).
Inductive Teaching
 The inductive thinking model is an example of
concept formation based on allowing students to
infer a general rule or patterns based on multiple
examples and non-examples.
 This approach was developed by Hilda.
Concept Attainment
 The concept attainment model facilitates the
type of learning referred to as conceptual
learning in contrast with the rote learning of
factual information or of vocabulary.
 In practice, the model works as an inductive
model designed to teach concept through the use
of examples.
Advance Organizers
 As Ausubel maintains, advance organizers are
the primary means of enriching or strengthening
the learner’s cognitive structure and enhancing
the possibilities of learning or retention of new
knowledge or information.
 Ausubel describes advance organizers as
introductory materials or activities presented
ahead of the learning task and at a higher level
of abstraction and inclusiveness than the
learning task itself.
 Their purpose is to explain, integrate and
interrelate the material in the learning task with
the previously learned material (Ausubel, 1968).
 Advance organizers increase the ability to
absorb information and organize it, especially
when learning from lectures and readings.
Group Investigation
 Group investigation is a pedagogical approach
that allows a class to work actively and
collaboratively in small groups and enables
students to take an active role in determining
their own learning goals and processes.
 Examples for group investigation are observing
the behavior of insects in groups, discovering
the motion curve of an asteroid within a
scientific team (Sharan & Sharan, 1990).
Classroom Meeting Strategy
 The classroom meeting model is a multipurpose
approach for classroom management by setting
aside time for students to discuss classroom
issues as a group.
Project Based Learning Approach
 Project-based learning is a pedagogical approach
that encourages active learning within the
constraints set by the teacher.
Inquiry-Based Learning Approach
 Inquiry-based learning approach is a method
with which students learn knowledge driven by
specific questions or a complex problem.
 The teacher scaffolds and helps students as they
make contributions, identify questions, and
gather relevant data on the Web.
Collaborative Learning
 Collaborative learning is broadly defined as a
situation in which two or more people attempt to
learn together (Dillenbourg, 1999) or to
accomplish shared goals (Johnson & Johnson,
1986).
 Collaborative learning is a situation in which
two or more people learn or attempt to learn
something together.
Collaborative Knowledge Learning
 Collaborative knowledge building focuses on
problems and depth of understanding.
 It takes steps of the creation, testing, and
improvement of conceptual artifacts in groups.
Possible Instructional Strategies to

Types of Learning Objectives

Types of Learning Objectives Possible Instructional/Strategies/Pedagogies

Motor Skills Drill and Practice
Part-task Training
Mastery Learning
Programmed Learning
Direct Teaching
Attitudes Role Playing
Scenario Analysis
Classroom Meeting
Experience-Based Learning

Types of Learning Objectives Possible Instructional/Strategies/Pedagogies

Verbal Information Drill and Practice

Tutorial
Programmed Learning
Games
Lecture & Mastery Learning
Direct Teaching

Cognitive Strategies Explanatory Learning

Simulations
Socratic Questioning
Group Investigation

Types of Learning Objectives Possible Instructional/Strategies/Pedagogies

Intellectual Skills – Explanatory Learning
Collaborative Learning
Problem Solving Collaborative Knowledge Building
Socratic Questioning Project-Based Learning

Intellectual Skills – Tutorial

Explanatory Learning
Principles Simulations
Case Study: Game, Lecture, Debate

Types of Learning Objectives Possible Instructional/Strategies/Pedagogies

Intellectual Skills – Drill and Practice

Discrimination, Concept Tutorial
Use Case Study
Lecture
Inductive Thinking (Classification)
Concept Attainment
Advanced Organizer
 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY
Educators often use Bloom's Taxonomy to create
learning outcomes that target not only subject matter but
also the depth of learning they want students to achieve,
and to then create assessments that accurately report on
students’ progress towards these outcomes
(Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001).
Bloom’s Taxonomy Revised
(Anderson and Krathwol, 2001)
COGNITIVE DOMAIN
• It is focused on intellectual skills such as critical
thinking, problem solving, and creating a
knowledge base.
• The cognitive hierarchy spans from simple
memorization designed to build the knowledge
of learners, to creating something new based on
previously-learned information.
• In this domain, learners are expected to progress
linearly through the hierarchy, beginning at
"remember" and ending at "create."
COGNITIVE HIERARCHY
Remember
• Sample learning outcome: Remember the names
and relationships of a cast of characters in a
play.
• Sample assessment/activity: A multiple-choice
test designed to test the memory of learners.
• Rationale: A multiple-choice test will allow
educators to see whether students have
effectively memorized the given material.
Understand
• Sample learning outcome: Understand and
explain the main ideas of a play or piece of
literature.
• Sample assessment/activity: Write a short (1
page) paper summarizing the plot and most
important events in the play.
• Rationale: Writing a summary encourages
learners to think about what the most important
parts of a piece of literature are, and to decide
which aspects of the plot to discard in favor of a
concise summary. It allows educators to evaluate
whether or not they have understood the main
idea of the play.
Apply
• Sample learning outcome: Apply the main
ideas/themes in the play to another context.
• Sample assessment/activity: Write an advice
column responding to one of the characters.
• Rationale: In doing this assignment, learners
will consider the implications of a character’s
actions outside of the consequences shown in the
play.
• Sample learning outcome: Be able to analyze the
relative roles of each character in the play and
their relationships to each other.
• Sample assessment/activity: Write an analytical
paper comparing the antagonists and
protagonists of the play.
• Rationale: Through this assignment, as learners
consider what makes each character an
antagonist or a protagonist, they need to use both
their knowledge of the play and critical thinking
skills.
Evaluate
• Sample learning outcome: Evaluate the
decisions of characters in the play, and support
your evaluation with textual evidence.
• Sample assessment/activity: Write a response to
one of the events in the play, either supporting
 or rejecting their actions on the basis of evidence
from the play as well as personal opinion and
projected/actual consequences of action.
• Rationale: Through this assignment, learners
will consider the rationale and consequences for
actions in the play, leading them to understand
and make judgments about the validity of a
character’s decision making.
Create
• Sample learning outcome: Create a new and
unique piece of writing using similar plot
devices.
• Sample assessment/activity: Create a short story
using similar plot devices in a new time or
setting.
• Rationale: Through this activity, learners must
integrate the plot devices and writing techniques
into a new setting, allowing them to practice
their creative writing skills and showing their
full understanding of the writer's techniques.
PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN
• It encompasses the ability of learners to
physically accomplish tasks and perform
movement and skills. There are several different
versions including different hierarchies – the
examples here fall into Harrow’s (1972) theory
of the psychomotor domain.
• This hierarchy ranges from reflexes and basic
movement to non-discursive communication and
meaningfully expressive activity.
PSYCHOMOTOR HIERARCHY
Reflex
• Sample learning outcome: Instinctively respond
to a physical stimulus.
• Sample assessment/activity: A game of dodge
ball.
• Rationale: Learners must react (dodge) the balls
that are being thrown at them, allowing them to
develop their reflexive skills.
Basic fundamental movements
• Sample learning outcome: Perform a simple
action (including running and throwing).
• Sample assessment/activity: A game of
dodgeball.
• Rationale: Learners must run and throw to
actively engage the opposing team, allowing
them to develop these skills.
Perceptual abilities
• Sample learning outcome: Use more than one
ability to integrate different sensory perceptions.
• Sample assessment/activity: A game of catch or
soccer (or other game involving movement and
passing).
• Rationale: Learners must integrate running,
visual information about the position of the ball,
and predictive information about the future
position of the ball.
Physical abilities
• Sample learning outcome: Sustain an activity for
a set period of time.
• Sample assessment/activity: Run for 25 minutes
steadily.
• Rationale: This activity is a measure of the
learner’s stamina and physical fitness.
Skilled movements
• Sample learning outcome: Adapt one’s behavior
and movement to better achieve goals.
• Sample assessment/activity: A soccer or other
strategic game (football, hockey).
• Rationale: This activity allows teams to change
their strategy and individuals to change their
physical behavior depending on the response of
the other team.
Non-discursive communication
• Sample learning outcome: Express oneself
through purposeful movement and activity.
• Sample assessment/activity: A soccer or other
strategic game (football, hockey)
 • Rationale: These games all involve teamwork,
strategy, and integrative and purposeful
movement. Successful teams must integrate all
of their senses, communicate through
movement, and use a variety of adaptive
strategies.
• PSYCHOMOTOR HEIRARCHY It focuses on
the attitudes, values, interests, and appreciation
of learners.
• The hierarchy associated with it begins with
receiving and listening to information, and
extends to characterization, or internalizing
values and consistently acting upon them.
AFFECTIVE DOMAIN
• It focuses on allowing learners to understand
what their own values are and how they have
developed.
AFFECTIVE HIERARCHY
Receiving
• Sample learning outcome: Listen to other
students with respect.
• Sample assessment/activity: Be an audience
member to another student’s presentation, and
then write a summary.
• Rationale: Through this assignment, learners
will learn how to listen effectively to others as
well as remember key details about their
presentation (used in writing the summary).
Responding
• Sample learning outcome: Speak effectively in
front of an audience and actively respond to
others.
• Sample assessment/activity: Present on a subject
in front of the class, and answer questions from
peers about their presentation.
• Rationale: Through this, learners will become
more comfortable with public speaking as well
as more comfortable with contributing to a
discussion in the form of answering questions.
Valuing
• Sample learning outcome: Demonstrate and
explain own values regarding various topics.
• Sample assessment/activity: Write an opinion
piece on any issue, explaining one’s own stance
and reasons supporting that stance.
• Rationale: Through this, learners will explore
not only their own values but why they support
their values, giving them a chance to understand
more fully their own value system.
Organization
• Sample learning outcome: Compare value
systems and understand evidence behind values.
• Sample assessment/activity: Organize and
compare different cultural value systems,
evaluating the differences between them and
why these differences may have arisen.
• Rationale: In doing this activity, learners will
consider how value systems are put into place
and organized, as well as the evidence that
supports different value systems across the
world.
Characterization
• Sample learning outcome: Work well in a team
of peers.
• Sample assessment/activity: A group project,
including group work on any assignment.
• Rationale: By working in a group, learners must
balance their own values with the values of the
team, as well as prioritize tasks and practice
teamwork.