BIOLOGY 141

LABORATORY

HANDOUTS
PRACTICAL 2

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STUDY OF HUMAN BONES, LIGAMENTS, & ARTICULATIONS
There are 206 named bones in the human skeleton, divided into two groups – the axial skeleton and the
appendicular skeleton. Each bone consists of two types of osseous tissue, compact (lamellar) and
spongy (trabecular or cancellous). In gross anatomy, bones are classified by shape. There are four or
six categories, depending upon how detailed one wishes to be (two are special cases*).

GROUPS OF BONES
I. AXIAL SKELETON – bones in the long axis of the body
Skull
Auditory ossicles (inside skull)
Hyoid
Vertebral Column
Thoracic cage
II. APPENDICULAR SKELETON – bones attached (appended) to the axial skeleton
Pectoral Girdle
Upper extremity
Pelvic girdle
Lower extremity

CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
1. Long Ex. Femur, metacarpals
2. Short Ex. Tarsals
3. Sesamoid (short bone embedded within a tendon)* Ex. Patella
4. Flat Ex. Skull bones, sternum,ribs
5. Sutural (Wormian)* Ex. Small bones isolated by sutures
6. Irregular Ex. Sphenoid, vertebrae

STRUCTURE OF A TYPICAL LONG BONE

Diaphysis
Medullary cavity
Epiphysis
Epiphyseal plate (growth plate of cartilage – child)
Epiphyseal line (osseous bone – adult)
Membranes:
Periosteum
Nutrient foramina
Sharpey’s fibers
Endosteum

STRUCTURE OF SHORT, FLAT, AND IRREGULAR BONES

Trabeculae
Diploe (spongy bone of flat bones)
Membranes (same as long bones)

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BONE MARKINGS
You should be familiar with these terms BEFORE you start trying to find specific features on the
bones. See the table in your text for definitions.

Projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment

Tuberosity
Crest
Trochanter
Line
Tubercle
Epicondyle
Spine
Process

Projections that help to form joints

Head
Facet
Condyle
Ramus

Depressions and openings which allow blood vessels and nerves to pass
Meatus
Sinus
Fossa
Groove
Fissure
Foramen

You are responsible for identifying all bones and specific features on the following
pages. Use your text, atlas, and models to identify structures.

Use plastic pipettes or wooden sticks only to point to a structure – no

pencils or pens. Do not write on the models.

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 BONES

I. AXIAL SKELETON
Skull 22
Auditory ossicles 6
Hyoid bone 1
Vertebral column 26
Thoracic Cage:
Sternum 1
Ribs 24

II. APPENDICULAR SKELETON

Pectoral Girdle 4
Upper extremity 60
Pelvic Girdle 2
Lower extremity 60
TOTAL 206 Bones

I. AXIAL SKELETON (Part I)

** We will study the skull, hyoid, and auditory ossicles when we study the nervous system
(Third Practical). Those bones are included on a separate handout - Axial Skeleton (Part II) **

The Vertebral Column consists of 24 vertebrae, a sacrum, and a coccyx. Vertebrae are named
according to region and number. There are common characteristics to all vertebrae (with a few
specialized exceptions). Vertebrae in different regions have unique features that allow easy
identification. You will be required to recognize and identify vertebrae from each region.
To name a specific vertebra, you need to know how many are in each region.

VERTEBRAE
Common features:
Centrum (body)
Vertebral (neural) arch
Pedicle
Lamina
Spinous process (or dorsal (neural) spine)
Transverse process
Superior and inferior articular processes
Articular facets
Vertebral foramen
Vertebral canal
Intervertebral foramen

What structure(s) pass through the vertebral foramen? The intervertebral foramen?

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VERTEBRAE (continued)
Regional features:

CERVICAL VERTEBRAE (C1 – C7)

C1, Atlas
Lateral masses
Anterior and posterior arches
C2, Axis
Dens (odontoid process)
C3-C7, vertebra prominens
Transverse foramen
Bifid spinous process

THORACIC VERTEBRAE (T1 – T12)

Demifacets
Superior and inferior costal facets
Transverse costal facets (T1-T10)

LUMBAR VERTEBRAE (L1 – L5)

SACRUM (1 bone consisting of 5 fused vertebrae, S1 – S5)

Sacral promontory
Sacral ala (wing)
Superior articular process
Auricular surface
Transverse ridges
Medial sacral crest
Sacral foramina (anterior and posterior)
Sacral canal
Sacral hiatus

COCCYX (1 bone consisting of 3 – 5 fused vertebrae)

INTERVERTEBRAL DISCS
Intervertebral discs act as shock absorbers and to partially bind successive vertebra together.
You should know the structure and function of these discs. (What is a “slipped disc”?)
Intervertebral disc:
Anulus fibrosus
Nucleus pulposus

NOTE: Bones of the Vertebral Column are not arranged in a straight, rigid rod.
Be able to discuss the four curvatures of the spine and their function.

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The THORACIC CAGE consists of thoracic vertebrae, a sternum and 24 ribs.

STERNUM
Manubrium
Body
Xiphoid process

You should be able to identify these three important anatomical landmarks on the sternum:
Jugular notch
Sternal angle
Xiphisternal joint

RIBS
Head
Neck
Shaft (body)
Tubercle
Costal groove
Costal cartilage

The 12 pairs of ribs are classified by how they are attached (or not attached) to the sternum.
You should be able to explain these designations:
True ribs (1 – 7)
False ribs (8 – 12)
Floating ribs (11-12)

How and where are the ribs attached to the vertebrae? (Be specific!)

What is the function of the costal groove?

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II. APPENDICULAR SKELETON

PECTORAL GIRDLE – clavicle and scapula

CLAVICLE (2)
Sternal end
Acromial end
Conoid tubercle

SCAPULA (2)
Superior border
Medial (vertebral) border
Lateral (axillary) border
Spine
Acromion
Coracoid process
Glenoid cavity (fossa)
Infraglenoid tubercle
Suprascapular notch
Supraspinous fossa
Infraspinous fossa
Subscapular fossa

UPPER EXTREMITY

HUMERUS (2)
Head
Anatomical neck
Surgical neck
Greater tubercle
Lesser tubercle
Intertubercular sulcus (bicipital groove)
Deltoid tuberosity
Radial groove
Trochlea
Capitulum
Medial and lateral epicondyles
Coronoid fossa
Olecranon fossa
Radial fossa

ULNA (2)
Olecranon process
Trochlear notch
Coronoid process
Radial notch
Head
Styloid process

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RADIUS (2)
Head
Neck
Radial tuberosity
Ulnar notch
Styloid process

CARPAL BONES (16)

Scaphoid
Lunate
Triquetral
Pisiform
Trapezium
Trapezoid
Capitate
Hamate

METACARPALS (10)
Base
Head

PHALANGES (28)
Proximal phalanx
Middle phalanx
Distal phalanx
Pollex

Metacarpals and phalanges are identified by number, 1 through 5, beginning laterally (with the thumb).

Notice the differences in the bones and joints between different carpals and metacarpals.

What type of synovial joint exists between the first metacarpal and the scaphoid?

Compare the bones in the pollex with those in other phalanges.

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PELVIC GIRDLE – Os Coxae

COXA (2) – each coxal bone consists of three bones that fuse by adulthood
The acetabulum is at the lateral site of fusion of these bones.
This deep cup-shaped depression, with the femur, forms the hip joint.

ILIUM
Body
Ala
Iliac crest
Anterior superior iliac spine
Anterior inferior iliac spine
Posterior superior iliac spine
Posterior inferior iliac spine
Greater sciatic notch (What passes through here?)
Gluteal surface
Auricular surface (sacroiliac joint – a synovial joint)
Iliac fossa
Arcuate line (pelvic brim)

ISCHIUM
Body
Ramus
Ischial spine
Lesser sciatic notch
Ischial tuberosity

PUBIS
Body
Superior pubic ramus
Inferior pubic ramus
Pubic crest
Pubic tubercle
Obturator foramen
Pubic symphysis
Pelvic arch (subpubic angle)
How does the shape of this help differentiate male and female pelves?

PELVIS:
The bony pelvis consists of the two os coxae, the sacrum, and the coccyx.
There is a false (greater) pelvis and a true (lesser) pelvis.
These are separated by the pelvic brim.
What structures form the pelvic brim?
What are the boundaries of the pelvic inlet and the pelvic outlet?
What are the importances of these structures during childbirth?
Compare pelvic structures in males and females.

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LOWER EXTREMITY

FEMUR (2)
Head
Fovea capitis
Neck
Greater trochanter
Lesser trochanter
Intertrochanteric line
Intertrochanteric crest
Shaft
Gluteal tuberosity
Linea aspera
Lateral and medial condyles
Lateral and medial epicondyles
Intercondylar fossa
Patella surface

PATELLA (2)

TIBIA (2)
Lateral and medial condyles
Intercondylar eminence
Tibial tuberosity
Medial malleolus
Fibular notch

FIBULA (2)
Head
Shaft
Lateral malleolus

TARSALS (14)
Calcaneus
Talus
Navicular
Cuboid
Medial cuneiform
Intermediate cuneiform
Lateral cuneiform

METATARSALS (10)

PHALANGES (28)
Hallux

Metatarsals and phalanges are identified by number, 1 through 5, beginning medially (with the great
toe). Individual bone structure, and name, is similar to the upper extremity, with some modifications.
What structure forms the “ball” of the foot?

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 LIGAMENTS
In the skeletal system, ligaments are strong bands of dense fibrous connective tissue which bind bones
together at joints. (Tendons attach muscles to bones and/or other muscles. We will consider them
when we study muscles.) Most ligaments are capsular (intrinsic) ligaments, which are thickened parts
of the fibrous capsule of the synovial joint. Others are outside the joint capsule (extrinsic ligaments),
or deep to it (intracapsular ligaments).

You are responsible for identifying the following major ligaments:

Vertebral Ligaments
Anterior longitudinal ligament
Posterior longitudinal ligament
Ligamentum flavum
Interspinous ligament
Supraspinous ligament
Ligamentum nuchae

Ligaments of the Shoulder

Glenohumeral ligaments
Coracohumeral ligament
Coracoacromial ligament
Acromioclavicular ligament
Coracoclavicular ligament
Trapezoid ligament
Conoid ligament
Superior transverse scapular ligament
Also, be able to identify the tendon of the long head of the biceps brachii muscle

Ligaments of the Elbow

Anular ligament
Ulnar collateral ligament
Radial collateral ligament

Ligaments of the Knee

Patellar ligament (continuation of the quadriceps femoris tendon)
Tibial collateral ligament
Fibular collateral ligament
Anterior cruciate ligament
Posterior cruciate ligament
Posterior meniscofemoral ligament
Also, be able to identify the lateral and medial meniscus

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Ligaments of the Hip
Ligamentum teres (round ligament of the head of the femur)
IIiofemoral ligament (Y ligament of Bigelow)
Pubofemoral ligament
Ischiofemoral ligament

Pelvic Ligaments
Inguinal ligament
Posterior sacroiliac ligaments
Sacrotuberous ligament
Sacrospinous ligament
Sacrococcygeal ligaments

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 ARTICULATIONS (JOINTS)
Every bone in the body forms a joint with another bone (except the hyoid bone).
Joints are classified two ways, by structure and function – what is it made of, and how does it work?

CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS
A. STRUCTURAL – based on the type of tissue binding the joint, and whether or not
a joint cavity is present
1. FIBROUS – short connective tissue fibers
2. CARTILAGINOUS – cartilage
3. SYNOVIAL JOINTS – fluid filled cavity between articulating bones

B. FUNCTIONAL – based on the amount of movement at the joint

1. SYNARTHROSES – immovable joints
2. AMPHIARTHROSES – slightly movable joints
3. DIARTHROSES – freely movable joints

Usually fibrous joints are immovable (synarthroses). Cartilaginous joints are slightly movable
(amphiarthroses). All synovial joints are freely movable (diarthroses), and are further classified based
upon the degree of movement.

EXAMPLES OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF JOINTS

FIBROUS JOINTS
Bones are joined by fibrous tissue. No joint cavity is present.
Functionally, these are synarthrotic joints.

1. SUTURES – Irregular edges of the bones interlock and are united by short
connective tissue fibers.
Ex. Between skull bones (In adults the fibrous tissue ossifies and the
skull bones fuse. Structurally, these joints are then called synostoses.)

2. SYNDESMOSES – Articulating bones are connected by a ligament (a short cord of

dense fibrous connective tissue), or an interosseous membrane (a sheet
of fibrous tissue). The bones do not interlock, and the fibers are
longer than in sutures.
Ex. Distal end of the tibia and fibula
Although this joint allows some give, it is functionally classified
as a synarthrotic joint.
Ex. The interosseous membrane between the radius and ulna

3. GOMPHOSES – Very short fibers lock the tooth in a socket.

Ex. Between a tooth and its alveolar socket

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CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS
Articulating ends of bones are connected by a plate or a pad of cartilage. No joint cavity present.
Functionally, these are classified as amphiarthrotic joints.

1. SYMPHYSES – Hyaline cartilage on the ends of articulating bones fuse to a pad or

plate of fibrocartilage.
Ex. Intervertebral joints
Ex. Pubic symphysis

2. SYNCHONDROSES – Bony parts are united by a bar or plate of hyaline cartilage.

Ex. Epiphyseal plate in children (a temporary joint that becomes ossified in
adults - the epiphyseal line, a synostosis)
Ex. Joint between costal cartilage of the first rib one with the manubrium
(also ossifies in adults)

SYNOVIAL JOINTS
Ends of articulating bone are separated by a joint cavity containing synovial fluid.
Most joints in the body are synovial joints.

STRUCTURE OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS

1. ARTICULAR CAPSULE – a double layer of fibrous connective tissue
surrounding the joint cavity
a. Fibrous Capsule – external fibrous connective tissue layer continuous
with the periosteum
b. Synovial Membrane – internal loose connective tissue layer

2. ARTICULAR CARTILAGE – layer of hyaline cartilage on the opposing

surfaces of articulating bones

3. JOINT CAVITY – the inner cavity, filled with synovial fluid

4. SYNOVIAL FLUID – lubricating fluid that reduces friction in the joint cavity;
produced by the synovial membrane from a filtrate of blood plasma

5. LIGAMENTS – fibrous connective tissue that reinforce and strengthen the synovial joint;
often a thickened part of the fibrous capsule (intrinsic or capsular ligament)

The articular capsule is typically reinforced with ligaments, and may or may not contain bursae (fluid-
filled sacs that reduce friction where tendons cross bone). Menisci (fibrocartilage pads) may or may
not be present within the capsule.

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MOVEMENT AT SYNOVIAL JOINTS

Skeletal muscles are attached to bone or connective tissue at two points (at least):
ORIGIN – muscle attachment on the immovable bone; usually proximal
INSERTION – muscle attachment on the movable bone; usually distal

Movement occurs when the muscle contracts across a joint.

The insertion moves toward the origin.
The movement can be described in directional terms relative to the axes around which
the body part moves and the planes of space (transverse, frontal, or sagittal) along which
the movement occurs.

RANGE OF MOVEMENT AT SYNOVIAL JOINTS:

1. NONAXIAL MOVEMENT – bones do not move around an axis, but glide

over , or slip along, one another
2. UNIAXIAL MOVEMENT – movement around an axis in one plane
3. BIAXIAL MOVEMENT – movement around an axis in two planes
4. MULTIAXIAL MOVEMENT – movement around an axis in all three planes

GENERAL TYPES OF MOVEMENT AT SYNOVIAL JOINTS:

1. GLIDING MOVEMENTS (also known as TRANSLATIONAL)

2. ANGULAR MOVEMENTS:
FLEXION
EXTENSION
ABDUCTION
ADDUCTION
CIRCUMDUCTION
DORSIFLEXION
PLANTAR FLEXION

3. ROTATION

4. SPECIAL MOVEMENTS – do not fit into any of the above categories;

occur at only a few joints
SUPINATION
PRONATION
INVERSION
EVERSION
PROTRACTION
RETRACTION
ELEVATION
DEPRESSION
OPPOSITION

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TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS BASED ON STRUCTURE AND MOVEMENT:
1. PLANE – Articulating surfaces are flat or slightly curved
Nonaxial joint allows only gliding, or slipping, movements
Ex. Intercarpal joints
Ex. Intertarsal joints
Ex. Intervertebral joints

2. HINGE – A rounded process of one bone fits into the concave surface of
another bone; uniaxial movement allows flexion and extension
Ex. Elbow joint
Ex. Knee joint
Ex. Interphalangeal joints

3. PIVOT – A rounded or conical surface of one bone articulates with a bony ring
in another bone; uniaxial joint permits rotational movement of a bone
around its long axis.
Ex. Between atlas and axis
Ex. Proximal radioulnar joint

4. CONDYLOID – An oval condyle of one bone fits into an oval depression

in another bone; biaxial joint allows all angular motions
Ex. Radiocarpal (wrist) joint
Ex. Metacarpophalangeal joints (knuckles)

5. SADDLE – Articulating surfaces are saddle shaped - the articulating

surfaces of both bones have convex and concave surfaces.
Biaxial joint, with greater freedom of movement than condyloid joints.
Ex. Carpometacarpal joints of the thumbs

6. BALL AND SOCKET – A ball shaped head (sphere or hemisphere) of one bone
fits into a cuplike depression of another bone.
Multiaxial, allows movement in all directions; the most
freely moving joint.
Ex. Shoulder joint
Ex. Hip joint

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 SKELETAL MUSCLES

There are over 600 skeletal muscles in the human body. They may be divided into the axial muscles
and the appendicular muscles. Most are attached to bones in at least two sites.
The origin is on the relatively immovable bone (usually proximal) and the insertion is on the movable
bone (usually distal). Movement occurs when muscles contract and pull the insertion towards the
origin.

You must know the action (A) for each muscle listed on this handout.
You are responsible for knowing the origin (O) and insertion (I) only where indicated.

To achieve movement, muscles work in groups. Individual muscles are classified according to their
function in creating a particular movement. There are four functional classifications:
Prime mover (agonist) – provides the major force for a specific movement
Antagonist – resists and reverses the action of the prime mover
Synergist – assists the prime mover
Fixator – a synergist that immobilizes a bone or a muscle’s origin
A muscle may function as any of the above depending upon the specific movement.
Review the handout on articulations for descriptions of different types of movement.
Also, see the back of this page for how those terms are used in naming muscles.

Muscle cells are bundled into fascicles. Within a fascicle, all cells are parallel. Arrangement of
fascicles in the muscle affects the muscle’s power and range of motion. Power of contraction is related
to the cross sectional area of a muscle. Thicker muscles contain a greater number of fascicles and can
generate more forceful contractions. Long parallel fibers allow a greater range of motion. Fascicles
are arranged in one of five patterns with respect to the tendon:
Parallel
Fusiform
Circular
Triangular
Pennate
Pennate muscles may be unipennate, bipennate, or multipennate.

Pay attention to these shapes as you learn the muscles and consider their actions.

NOTE: On the models in lab and in most textbook figures, different muscles are shown on the
two sides of the body. One side will show superficial muscles; the other side will show muscles
immediately deep to what is on the opposite side.

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HINTS for naming muscles:
Individual muscles are named according to a variety of characteristics.
Understanding the terminology will simplify finding the muscle and memorizing its name.
Location – usually named for a bone, body region, and/or anatomical position

Attachments – names of bones and processes (origin is usually named first, then insertion)

Number of origins – bi, tri, quadri

Direction of muscle fibers (relative to the body’s midline)

Rectus (parallel to midline)
Transverse (perpendicular to midline)
Oblique (diagonal to midline)
Shape
Deltoid (triangular)
Trapezius (trapezoid)
Rhomboid (diamond-shaped)
Quadratus (square, four sided)
Platys (flat)
Serratus (saw-toothed)
Pectinate (comblike)
Piriformis (pear-shaped)
Gracilis (slender)
Orbicularis (circular)

Relative size
Maximus (largest)
Medius (intermediate)
Minimus (smallest)
Longissimus (longest)
Longus (long)
Brevis (short)
Vastus (huge)
Magnus (large)
Major (larger)
Minor (smaller)

Action - principle type of movement

Flexor (decreases a joint angle; bends)
Extensor (increases a joint angle; straightens)
Abductor (moves away from the midline)
Adductor (moves towards the midline)
Levator (raises a body part)
Depressor (lowers a body part)
Supinator (turns palm anteriorly)
Pronator (turns palm posteriorly)
Sphincter (decreases the size of an opening)
Tensor (makes a body part rigid)
Rotator (rotates a bone around its longitudinal axis)

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You must know the action (A) for each muscle listed on this handout.
You are responsible for knowing the origin (O) and insertion (I) only where indicated.

O : Origin
I : Insertion
A : Action

HEAD AND NECK

Epicraneus (occipitofrontalis)
Main muscle of the scalp, composed of two bellies (frontal and occipital) connected by
the galea aponeurotica (an aponeurosis)

Frontalis (frontal belly of epicraneus)

A: Draws the scalp back to raise the eyebrows and wrinkle the brow

Occipitalis (occipital belly of epicraneus)

A: Draws the scalp posteriorly

Temporalis
A: Closes jaw; elevates and retracts mandible; maintains position of mandible at rest

Masseter
A: Prime mover for closing jaw; raises and retracts the mandible, clenches the teeth

Orbicularis oculi
A: Closes the eye powerfully; squinting (actions of the main portion of this muscle)
There are three parts to this muscle, each of which can be activated independently.
Levator palpebrae superioris – lifts and lowers eyelid (opens and closes eye)

Orbicularis oris
A: Closes the lips; protrudes the lips (kissing, whistling)

Sternocleidomastoid
O: 2 heads 1. Manubrium of the sternum
2. Clavicle, medial part
I: Mastoid process of temporal bone
A: Prime mover – Bilaterally flexes the neck
Rotates head to side opposite of contraction
Flexes and tilts head laterally

Platysma
A: Depresses the mandible and lower lip
Tenses and wrinkles the skin over the neck

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ANTERIOR BODY WALL

Pectoralis major
O: Clavicle, medial 1/3
Manubrium and body of the sternum
Cartilage of ribs 1 – 6 (or 7)
Aponeurosis of external oblique muscle
I: Greater tubercle of humerus
A: Prime mover – Flexes the arm
Prime mover – Adducts the arm
Rotates arm medially
Pectoralis minor
A: When ribs are fixed, pulls scapula forward and downward
When scapula is fixed, draws ribcage superiorly

Serratus anterior
A: Prime mover – protracts the scapula and holds it against the chest wall
Abduction and raising the arm, horizontal arm movements
Assists in upward rotation of the scapula

External intercostals
A: Elevates the rib cage and increases thoracic volume, aiding inspiration
Synergist of the diaphragm

Internal intercostals
A: Depresses rib cage, decreasing thoracic volume, aiding expiration
Antagonist to external intercostals

External abdominal oblique

O: Outer surfaces of lower 8 ribs
I: Linea alba, via aponeurosis
Some fibers into anterior portion of iliac crest and pubic crest and tubercle
A: Compresses the abdominopelvic cavity
Assists in flexing and rotating the vertebral column

Internal abdominal oblique

A: Same as external oblique

Transversus abdominis
A: Compresses the abdominopelvic cavity

Rectus abdominis
O: Pubic crest and symphysis
I: Xiphoid process of the sternum
Costal cartilages of ribs 5 – 7
A: Compresses the abdominopelvic cavity
Flexes and rotates lumbar region of the vertebral column
Fixes and depresses ribs
Stabilizes pelvis during walking

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Diaphragm
O: Internal, inferior surface of rib cage and sternum,
Costal cartilages of last six ribs, and lumbar vertebrae
I: Central tendon of diaphragm
A: Prime mover of respiration – when contracted, pulls central tendon downward,
increasing thoracic volume (and decreasing intrapulmonary pressure)
when strongly contracted, increases intra-abdominal pressure

BACK
Trapezius
O: Occipital protuberance, ligamentum nuchae
Spines of vertebrae C7 – T12
I: Lateral 1/3 of clavicle; acromium and spine of scapula
A: Elevates the scapula (upper fibers); depresses the scapula (lower fibers);
adducts the scapula (middle fibers); rotates the scapula

Latissimus dorsi
O: Indirect via lumbosacral fascia into spines of vertebrae T7- L5,
upper 2-3 segments of sacrum, lower 3-4 ribs, and iliac crest
I: Intertubercular groove of humerus
A: Prime mover – Extends the arm
Prime mover – Adducts the arm, powerfully
Medial rotation of the arm at shoulder; Depresses scapula

Levator scapulae
A: Elevates, adducts scapula
Flexes the neck laterally when scapula fixed

Rhomboid major
A: Adducts scapula

Rhomboid minor
A: Adducts the scapula

Supraspinatus
A: Stabilizes shoulder; assists in abducting the scapula

Infraspinatus
A: Prime mover – Lateral rotation of the humerus
Assists in adducting the scapula

Subscapularis
A: Prime mover – Medial rotation of humerus

Teres major
A: Adduction, medial rotation, and posteromedially extension of humerus

Teres minor
A: Prime mover – Lateral rotation of the humerus ; Assists in adduction of humerus

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UPPER ARM

Deltoid
O: Lateral 1/3 of clavicle
Acromium and spine of scapula
I: Deltoid tuberosity of humerus
A: Prime mover – Abducts the arm
Prime mover – Flexion and medial rotation of the arm (anterior fibers)
Prime mover – Extension and lateral rotation of the arm (posterior fibers)

Biceps brachii
O: Long head – Tubercle and superior border of glenoid cavity
(tendon runs within intertubercular groove of humerus)
Short head – Coracoid process of scapula
I: Radial tuberosity
A: Prime mover – Flexes the elbow
Assists in supinating the forearm

Triceps brachii
O: Long head – Infraglenoid tubercle of scapula
Lateral head – Humerus, upper posterior shaft
Medial head – Humerus, posterior shaft distal to radial groove
I: Olecranon process of ulna
A: Long head – Prime mover - Extends the forearm against resistance
Assists in adducting arm
Lateral head – Prime mover - Extends the forearm against resistance
Medial head – Prime mover – Extends the forearm

Brachialis
O: Humerus, anterior distal portion
I: Coronoid process of ulna
A: Prime mover – Flexes elbow (lifts the ulna as the biceps lifts the radius)

Coracobrachialis
A: Flexes and adducts the humerus

Brachioradialis
O: Lateral supracondylar ridge at distal end of humerus
I: Lateral distal portion and styloid process of radius
A: Synergist in flexing forearm
Pronates the forearm (when supinated )
Supinates the forearm (when pronated)

Anconeus
A: Synergist in elbow extension
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LOWER ARM

Flexor carpi radialis

A: Prime mover – Flexes the hand at the wrist
Radially deviates (abducts) the wrist

Palmaris longus
O: Medial epicondyle of humerus via the CFT(common flexor tendon)
I: Palmar aponeurosis
A: Weak wrist flexor
Tenses skin and fascia of palm during hand movements

Flexor carpi ulnaris

A: Prime mover – Flexes the hand at the wrist
Ulnarly deviates (adducts) the wrist
Stabilizes the wrist to permit powerful thumb motion

Flexor digitorum superficialis

A: Prime mover – Flexes the wrist and phalanges of fingers 2 – 5
Flexes the wrist if the fingers are extended
Flexes the fingers with speed against resistance

Extensor carpi radialis longus

A: Extends the hand at the wrist
Radially deviates (abducts) the hand at the wrist

Extensor carpi radialis brevis

A: Extends and abducts wrist

Abductor pollicis longus

A: Abducts and extends thumb; abducts wrist

Extensor pollicis brevis

A: Extends thumb

Extensor digitorum
A: Prime mover – Extends digits 2 – 5
Extends the wrist if the fingers are flexed
Abducts the digits as it extends them

Extensor digiti minimi

A: Extends the little finger

Extensor carpi ulnaris

A: Extends the hand at the wrist
Ulnarly deviates (adducts) the hand at the wrist

Supinator
A: Supinates the forearm

Pronator teres
A: Pronates the forearm
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UPPER LEG

Sartorius
O: Anterior superior iliac spine
I: Tibia, superior medial surface
A: Flexes, abducts, and laterally rotates the thigh
Flexes the knee (weak)

Gracilis
A: Adducts the thigh
Flexes and medially rotates the thigh (walking)
Flexes the knee (tibia)

Rectus femoris
O: Anterior head – Anterior inferior iliac spine
Posterior head – Superior margin of acetabulum
I: Common quadriceps tendon inserts into the patella
Patellar ligament inserts into tibial tuberosity
A: Prime mover - Extends the knee
Flexes the thigh at the hip

Vastus lateralis
A: Prime mover - Extends and stabilizes the knee

Vastus intermedius
A: Prime mover - Extends the knee

Vastus medialis
A: Prime mover - Extends the knee
Inferior fibers stabilize the patella

Adductor longus
O: Pubis, inferior body medial to the pubic tubercle
I: Linea aspera
A: Adducts, flexes, and medially rotates the thigh

Adductor magnus
O: Anterior part – Pubic ramus
Posterior part – Ischial ramus and tubercle
I: Linea aspera and adductor tubercle of femur (superior to medial epicondyle)
A: Anterior part – adducts, flexes, and medially rotates the thigh
Posterior part – extends the thigh (synergist with the hamstrings)
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Gluteus maximus
O: Posterior gluteal line of ilium
Posterior surface of sacrum and coccyx
I: Gluteal tuberosity of femur and iliotibial tract (IT band)
A: Major extensor of the thigh; also abducts and laterally rotates thigh
Rotates the thigh laterally

Gluteus medius
A: Prime mover – Abducts the hip

Tensor fasciae latae

A: Flexes and abducts thigh

Biceps Femoris
O: Long head – Ischial tuberosity
Short head – Linea aspera and distal femur
I: Head of the fibula and lateral condyle of tibia
A: Long head – Prime mover - Extends the thigh
Short head – Prime mover - Flexes knee
Laterally rotates the thigh if the knee is flexed

Semimembranosus
A: Extends the hip
Prime mover - Flexes the knee
Medially rotates the leg

Semitendinosus
A: Extends the hip
Prime mover - Flexes the knee
Medially rotates the leg

Two muscles of the upper leg are referred to as strap muscles.

Name these two muscles.

Four muscles make up the Quadriceps Femoris of the anterior thigh.

Name these four muscles.

Three muscles make up the Hamstrings of the posterior thigh.

Name these three muscles.
Why does it look like four muscles?

The femoral triangle is formed by two muscles and the inguinal ligament.
Which two muscles?
What major structures are in the femoral triangle?

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LOWER LEG

Tibialis anterior
O: Lateral condyle and upper shaft of tibia
I: Inferior surface of medial cuneiform and first metatarsal
A: Prime mover - dorsiflexion of the foot
Inverts the foot

Extensor hallucis longus

A: Extends distal phalanx of big toe (hallux)
Dorsiflexes and inverts the foot

Extensor digitorum longus

A: Prime mover – Extends the lateral 4 toes
Dorsiflexes and everts the foot

Fibularis longus (Peroneus longus)

O: Head and proximal 2/3 of fibula
I: Plantar surfaces of first metatarsal and medial cuneiform
A: Plantar flexes and everts the foot

Fibularis brevis (Peroneus brevis)

A: Plantar flexes and everts the foot

Gastrocnemius
O: Medial head – medial condyle of femur
Lateral head – lateral condyle of femur
I: Calcaneus, via calcaneal tendon (Achilles tendon)
A: Prime mover - Plantar flexes the foot when knee is extended
Flexes the knee when foot is dorsiflexed
Stabilizes the ankle and knee when standing

Soleus
A: Prime mover - Plantar flexes the foot (important in walking, running)

Flexor hallucis longus

A: Plantar flexes and inverts foot
Flexes great toe (hallux)

Flexor digitorum longus

A: Prime mover - Flexes toes 2 through 5
Plantar flexes and inverts foot

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Tibialis posterior
A: Prime mover – Inverts the foot
Plantar flexes the foot

Popliteus
A: Unlocks extended knee – flexes and rotates leg medially
Rotates thigh laterally when tibia is fixed
Pulls back lateral meniscus

Plantaris
O: Posterior surface of lateral condyle of the femur
I: Calcaneus or calcaneal tendon, via a long thin tendon (the plantaris tendon)
A: Plantar flexes foot
Flexes knee

Two muscles form the triceps surae of the posterior lower leg. These muscles are the prime
movers of ankle plantar flexion. The muscles insert by a common tendon.

Name the two muscles.

Name the tendon.

Why is this pair called triceps?

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