Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The Philippines: A Story of A Nation
The Philippines: A Story of A Nation
A STORY OF A NATION
BY
HONOLULU, HAWAI'I
August 2001
1
Acknowledgments
My utang na loob goes to so many people in the Philippines and in Hawaii who
have helped me in every inch of the way. My deep gratitude to Florence Lamoureux,
coordinator of the University of Hawaii's Center for Southeast Asian Studies textbook
project, for her patience, understanding and excellent editorial advice. I would also like
to acknowledge Dr. Leonard Andaya who conceptualized and wrote the proposal;
Clement Bautista of Operation Manong who provided me with office space and computer
use; and Betsy Ackley who patiently read the manuscript and gave me good feedback.
In the Philippines, I would like to thank Maria Theresa S.M. Lazaro and Jacinto
C. Mateo ill for their insightful comments and suggestions; my students Lester Firmalino
and Leana Odiamar of the University of the Philippines for their technical assistance;
and, most of all, my mother Estelita who shared my passion for history and extended
invaluable assistance in so many countless ways.
CONTENTS
Map 4
Chapter 1 The Philippines: Pearl of the Orient Sea 1
Chapter 2 Cultural Unity Amidst Diversity 10
Chapter 3 Philippine Prehistory 18
Chapter 4 Precolonial Filipino Societies 27
Chapter 5 Precolonial Culture 34
Chapter 6 First Contact: The Filipinos and Spaniards 40
Chapter 7 Christianization and Conversion 45
Chapter 8 Establishment of a Colonial Order 50
Chapter 9 Creastion of a Colonial Society 56
Chapter 10 The Unhispanized Philippines: The Filipino Muslims and 60
the Igorots
Chapter II Popular Movement: The Cofradia de San Jose 67
Chapter 12 Campaign for Reforms: The Propaganda Movement 73
Chapter 13 The Katipunan and the Philippine Revolution of 1896 79
Chapter 14 The Philippine Revolution in Perspective: Issues of Class, 85
Gender, and Ethnicity
Chapter 15 The Philippine-American War 93
Chapter 16 Pacification and Scientific Medicine 100
Chapter 17 Political Tutelage and the "Mis"Education of the Filipinos 104
Chapter 18 Perpetuation of Economic Dependency 109
Chapter 19 Popular Movements, 1900-1942 114
Chapter 20 Filipino Diaspora to Hawaii 122
Chapter 21 Filipino Diaspora to California 132
Chapter 22 Popular Movements Among Migrant Filipinos 139
Chapter 23 The Japanese Invasion and the Filipino Resistance 145
Chapter 24 Filipino Society Under Japanese Occupation 150
Chapter 25 Liberation and "Independence" 156
Chapter 26 The Huk Rebellion 161
Chapter 27 Elitist Politics and Filipino Nationalism in the 1950s and 167
1960s
Chapter 28 Declaration of Martial Law 174
Chapter 29 The Marco Dictatorship 181
Chapter 30 The Politics of Plunder: The rise of Crony Capitalism 188
Chapter 31 The People Power Revolution 197
Chapter 32 Restoration of Democracy and Elite Politics 206
Chapter 33 The New Heroes: The Filipino Migrant Workers 215
Chapter 34 The Estrada Presidency 223
Chapter 35 People Power II 235
1
CHAPTERl
The Philippines was named in honor of Philip II, the King of Spain, in the second
half of the sixteenth century. Felipinas, the Spanish word for the Philippines, was first
used in 1543 by the Spanish explorer, Ruy Lopez de Villalobos, to refer to the islands of
Samar and Leyte, but later on it was applied to the entire archipelago. Since then the
islands have dazzled and inspired colonizers and visitors, who have coined various titles
and passages to capture its mysticism and beauty. A Spanish missionary called the
Philippines the "Pearl of the Orient Sea", a title which was in turn popularized by
Apolinario Mabini and Dr. Jose P. Rizal, the country's national hero, in their
stretching over 1,100 miles from north to south. The largest of these islands are Luzon,
Mindanao, Palawan, Samar, Negros, Panay, and Mindoro. Only about 1,000 islands are
inhabited, with the largest population concentrated in Luzon, Mindanao, Cebu, Leyte,
Negros, and Mindoro. The country is divided into three major island groupings--Luzon,
Visayas, and Mindanao--which are represented by the three stars in the Philippine flag.
There are altogether 79 provinces. Due to the islands' geographical fragmentation, the
was administratively divided into a National Capital Region, or NCR, and twelve regions,
3
season from June to October, which coincides with the Southwest Monsoon. The
Northeast Monsoon marks the onset of the dry season with cool temperatures from
December to February, while the hot temperatures are registered in the summer months
of March to May. In recent years, however, El Nino has affected global weather
patterns, whereas in the Philippines, the wet season has been unusually dry, thus
Agriculture
grown staple crop, and Central Luzon is considered the rice granary of the country.
VariOllS crops are also grown throughout the country depending on regional variations in
temperature and soil. Abaca, also known as Manila Hemp, is grown in the volcanic
enriched soil ofDavao and Bicol. Due to a cooler climate, citrus fruits such as pineapple,
grapefruit, durian, rarnbutan, and cavendish banana are grown in the Davao provinces
and in northern Mindanao. One of the largest pineapple plantations in the world is the
Cordillera provinces, the cool climate all year round favors the cultivation of strawberries
and vegetables like lettuce, cabbage, beans, mushrooms, and cauliflower. To the south,
coffee and coconuts are grown in the Tagalog provinces of Laguna, Cavite, Batangas, and
Quezon. The provinces of Iloilo, Capiz, Antique, Negros Oriental, and Negros
Occidental grow sugarcane. Meanwhile, the narrow plains of Ilocos and the Cagayan
THE PHILIPPINES
Luzon Strait
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5
Natural Resources
gold in the world. Gold is mined in Benguet, Paracale in Camarines, and Davao. The
country also has the world's largest deposits of chromite in Zambales. Nickel deposits in
Nonoc Island and Surigao del Norte are also some of the largest in the world. Recently,
oil exploration in Palawan has been quite successful. Cagayan Valley, Cebu, Leyte,
Cotabato, and Sulu Sea are also being explored for possible oil deposits.
The Philippines, like most of Southeast Asia, has good timber resources in
mahogany, molave, narra, and ironwood. The excessive and unregulated cutting and
milling have destroyed much of the country's beautiful landscape and, worse, have
triggered floods and mudslides. IlIegal logging if unabated will result in major
environmental destruction in the next generations. Twenty five years ago, the Philippines
had about 15 million square miles of rain forest but this is expected to dwindle to a mere
1.2 million square miles by the year 2000 if illegal logging continues. The billion dollar
a year timber export industry is plagued by widespread corruption and crimes. So far, the
government's reforestation and selective logging programs have largely been ignored.
The Philippines is also rich in water resources. Laguna Lake, Lanao Lake, and
Lake Naujan are the prime sources of fish. In Bulacan, Pampanga, Pangasinan, Iloilo,
and Capiz, fishponds breed the biggest bangus (mi1kfish) and shrimp. The Philippines
has different kinds of fish and the more popular ones are bangus, tilapia, dalag
(mudfish), mackerel, and tuna. Moreover, the islands have the most beautiful pearls,
"Taglish".
Like most of island Southeast Asia, Filipinos are predominantly Malays. But the
coming of the Chinese, Spaniards, and Americans further enriched the ethnic, linguistic,
and cultural mix of the people. Although a relatively small group, the Chinese dominate
the economic life of the country. The Filipino Chinese, however, are assimilated in
Philippine society.
Regionalism
regionalism. For many Filipinos their ethnicity and identity is located, first and foremost,
in their region of origin. This feeling of regionalism accounts for competition among the
different ethnic groups. Although regionalism was undoubtedly fostered by four hundred
years of the colonial policy of divide-and-rule, and of favoring one ethnic group over
another, it was strengthened by actual regional differences. From the most trivial factors
such as food, to more serious ones such as values, ethnic groups are constantly trying to
outdo each other. For instance, the Pampangans and the Bicolanos claim to be the
culinary experts and declare their food exceptional compared with food in the rest of the
country. The Ilocanos, on the other hand, think themselves the most adventurous, as
illustrated by the fact that many of them emigrated not only to Central Luzon and
Northern Luzon in the nineteenth century but also to Hawaii and Califomia in the
twentieth century. The scarce economic opportunities provided by the Ilocos region, the
home of the Ilocanos, encouraged outmigration and are a probable explanation for the
9
Independiente or Philippine Independent Church; and some Protestant denominations.
Aside from seeking the endorsement of the Catholic Church, politicians also court the
Iglesia ni Kristo since its adherents tend to vote as a bloc during elections.
bound by their religion and culture. The nation's diversity is reflected in its ethnic mix,
yet the theme of unity amidst diversity pervades Filipino culture. It is this culture which
has shaped the country's history, and in turn has been most responsible for binding
efficiently facilitate:
c. tax collection
4. What three major island groupings are represented in the Philippine flag?
5. The worst volcanic eruption in the history of the Philippines was caused by:
a. silver c. iron
b. gold d. chromite
a.I1ocano c. Waray
1- d
2. Since 85% of the Filipinos are Roman Catholics, the Church plays a very influential
role in the politics and daily life of the people. Their influence is seen, for instance,
in the failure of the government to develop a strong family planning policy which is
needed to curtail the high birth rate. Should the Philippine government formulate an
effective family planning policy? What should be done to counter the influence of the
Church in this issue?
1. What do you think are the similarities and differences of the Philippines and the
United States when it comes to the issue of ethnic diversity?
2. What is the "Pacific Ring of Fire"? How has it affected the geography of the
Philippines? What consequences does it have for the Filipino people?
IV Creative Writing
2. Gather facts and figures about the natural resources of the Philippines. Write an
essay about the country's natural wealth and the effect of the excessive and
unregulated destruction of the country's natural resources to present and future
generations.
V Map Knowledge
13 Mt. Pinatubo
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10
CHAPTER 2
Filipino culture must be examined on its own tenns. To compare and, worse, to
culture by juxtaposing it against the American paradigm, they expose their cultural bias,
which views non-Western culture as the antithesis of their own modern Western culture.
Hospitality
home is palatial or a modest hut, Filipinos extend the comfort of their abodes to the
visitor by offering him or her the best food, chair, bed, and other amenities of the house.
The Filipino profusely apologizes for the lack of comfort of his house but nonetheless
encourages you to feel at home and treat his house as your own. The visitor can come
unannounced any time of the day, even at night, and still be warmly received and fed.
Family
Family is the foundation of Philippine society, not only the immediate members
or nuclear family but also the extended family, which includes the grandparents, in-laws,
and grandchildren. Respect for elders is a common trait. The various Philippine
languages are rich with terms or names of respect which are usually used to refer to
elders. For instance, among the Tagalogs, ate is for an older sister while kuya is an older
brother. But ate and kuya are not exclusive to blood relations. Any woman older in age
I David Joel Steinberg, The Philippines: A Singular and a Plural Place, Third Edition (Boulder and
Oxford: Westview Press, 1994), p. 8.
14
social propriety," which regulates social behavior.2 But Enriquez disagrees because of
the complexity of the Filipino language. He says that the meaning of hiya changes since
Nakakahiya has a social connotation ofbehavior while nahiya has a moral injunction.
Mary Hollensteiner, of the IPC school, explains that every Filipino is expected to
have utang na [oob from those who have bestowed favors, whether in kind, or otherwise,
solicited or not; and for which he or she hopes to be able to repay with equal, if not
[oob. Utang na [oob does not necessarily mean a contractual relationship or that the
obligation to repay such kindness or favor becomes a burden to the recipient of the favor.
In many cases, mends do favors willingly and are not at all conscious of the interplay of
debt repayments.
Political Culture
The Filipino cultural and value system is often applied in political life. Relations
in Philippine society are perceived to be hierarchical, where one is superior and serves as
a patron, while the other is subordinate and is a client. The ultimate example of this is the
politicians and their followers or the landlords and their tenants. The politician and the
landlord are the ultimate patrons who bestow assistance and favors to their followers and
tenants, respectively, who act as the clients. A client is expected to have utang na [oob to
the patron and repayment can be done by supporting (i.e., voting for) the politician during
2 Mary Racelis Hollensteiner, "Reciprocity As a Social Value," Mary Racelis Hollensteiner (editor),
Society, Culture and the Filipino (Quezon City: The Institute of Philippine Culture, Ateneo de Manila
16
in the West. Its culture is akin to its Southeast Asian neighbors and not to the Western
culture. Thus, Filipino culture, like the rest of Southeast Asia, must be viewed solely
within its own parameters. In the eyes of Filipinos, pakikisama, hiya, and utang na loob
should be viewed and explained within the larger Filipino culture and value system. It
can also be argued that patron-client linkages assure that everyone is included and taken
Patrons are not the only determinants of the relations, nor are the clients mere
victims. As Resil Mojares argues in his essay on the Osmenas, a political family in Cebu,
patrons are not in total, absolute control. They adjust to "altered conditions" and they act
and react based on "pressures from below."s The patron does not exist in a void. He
takes into consideration the inputs and sentiments of the community. In a sense, even if
power originates from him, the top, it nonetheless circulates and he continuously derives
his power by responding to the needs of the community who in turn bestow on him their
Catholicism
archipelago regardless of their location and status in life is Catholicism. The Catholic
religion is a unifYing factor in Philippine society. It governs the Filipinos' relations with
a superior being, God, and at the same time their dealings with their fellow human
the same Church rituals like Sunday services, observance of the Holy Week, and
5 Resil B. Mojares, "The Dream Goes On an On," Alfred W. McCoy (editor), The Anarchy of Families:
State and Family in the Philippines (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University, 1994), p. 343.
2- a
Suggested Readings:
_ _ _" Filipino Psychology in the Third World. Quezon City: Philippine Psychology
Research House, 1977.
Steinberg, David Joel. The Philippines: A Singular and a Plural Place, 3d ed. San
Francisco and Oxford: Westview Press, 1994, Chapter 1, pp. 1-10.
Suggested Activities:
I Multiple Choice
a. barangay c. family
b. school d. clan
a. bilaterally c. maternally
b. compadrazzgo d. pakikisama
2- c
ill Questions for Debate
2. Filipinos are prone to the bahala na syndrome. This bahala na attitude is blamed for
why many Filipinos are said to be fatalistic. But bahala na is not necessarily negative
and does not automatically mean passivity to whatever will happen. Argue on the
correct or more appropriate interpretation of bahala na.
IV Essay Writing
1. What are the contrasting explanations provided by the Institute of Philippine Culture
and the Sikolohiyang Pilipino on utang na loob, pakikisama and hiya?
2. Based on the Filipino traits discussed, explain the political culture of the Filipinos.
V. Creative Writing
1. As an outsider looking into the Filipino value system, write on the Filipino value/trait
which you admire most or which strikes you as uniquely Filipino.
2. Interview Filipinos in the United States and asked them to explain what utang na
loob, hiya, and pakikisama mean to them.
PHILIPPINE PREHISTORY
prehistory. Evidence unearthed so far is scanty, even shaky. The burial caves which
have been excavated were found to have already been disturbed or plundered by grave
robbers. Archaeological digs are not widespread, having been mainly confined to
Palawan and the Cagayan Valley. Other places have received token or sampling
excavations while the rest of the archipelago has been largely ignored. However, the
Philippines does benefit from a more extensive and reliable regional reconstruction, such
migration.
Four scholars, in different times, formulated separate theories about the prehistory
of the Philippines.
Southeast Asia, but his account of the flow of migration and the routes taken has largely
Henry Otley Beyer, in the late 1940s, wrote that the Philippines was peopled by
six waves of migration: each migrant group brought its own cultural baggage, improving
upon the cultural legacy of the previous migrants. His wave-migration theory also has
Henry Scott, believed that the Tabon Man was pre-Mongoloid. In his most definitive
study of prehistoric island Southeast Asia, archaeologist Peter Bellwood claims that there
is some evidence, although debatable, that the Tabon Man was pre-Mongoloid and was
probably part of the Australo-Melanesian family. Bellwood contends that the Australo-
Melanesian stock. They were hunters and gatherers who lived as nomads. Bellwood
explains that the pre-Austronesian inhabitants occasionally used edge-ground stone axes
and shell adzes. They exploited but did not domesticate many tubers and fruit trees.
Although the present day Negritos have adopted Austronesian languages and some have
partly acculturated to shifting cultivation, it is believed that the Negritos have local
ancestries that predate the Austronesian speaking Southern Mongoloid, which is the
racial stock of the Filipinos, Indonesians, and Malays. Bellwood warns, though, against
Negritos have been in contact with the outsiders (i.e., the Austronesians) for several
millennia and have made some cultural adaptation in becoming, in part, agriculturists.
Austronesian Migration
Three thousand years before Christ, the Indo-Malaysian archipelago absorbed the
Mongoloid) race. Archaeological and linguistic evidence point out that the Austronesians
7See Peter Bellwood, Prehistory ofthe Indo-Malaysian Archipelago, revised edition (Honolulu: University
of Hawaii Press, 1997).
22
was excavated in Sunget site, Batan Island. The red-slipped pottery was present in
many other excavation sites in the Cagayan River Valley in Northem Luzon and in the
Batungan Mountain, Masbate, in Central Philippines. Plain pottery, on the other hand,
was found in the Bagumbayan site in Masbate and in the Edjek site in Negros. A
Archipelago. Aside from the extensive use of pottery, Bellwood claims that the
excavated neolithic sites yielded evidence of pig and deer hunting as well as the use of
flake tools.
Bellwood contends that during the millennium, 500 B.C. to A.D. 500, major
domesticated cattle and water buffalo, and even terraced and irrigated cultivation such as
in Northern Luzon. Contact with China and India began in some regions during this
artifacts and their manufacturing technologies. Bellwood believes the starting point was
roughly 500 B.C., although it may prove to be closer to 200 B.C. The excavation site in
KaIanay Cave, Masbate, yielded the best known ceramic and metal artifacts. According
to Scott, the KaIanay caves had some sixteen distinctive fonus ofjars, pots, bowls, plates,
University, 1995), p. 236; and Peter Bellwood, "Austronesian Prehistory in Southeast Asia: Homeland,
Expansion and Transformation," The Austronesians, pp. 106-107.
24
was replaced by burying the remains in a container. A "primary burial" means the
simple interment of the dead, while a "secondary burial" pertains to the reinterment of the
bones after the remains of an earlier burial have sufficiently decomposed. The
treating the bones. Many of these jar burials have been unearthed throughout the
Mindoro, Marinduque, Camarines Sur, Sorsogon, Masbate, Samar, Palawan, Cebu, and
Basilan.
Regional Ties
Solheim theorizes that by A.D. 1000, the population must have been spread out in
the archipelago with a large concentration of people living near the mouths of major
rivers. Solheim believes that there was a close interaction between the trading villages
along the coast or downstream of major rivers, and the villages in the hinterlands,
upstream, or the interior. Population concentration and settlement arrangement along the
coasts were dictated by the exigencies of external trade. Foreign traders, particularly the
Chinese, sought interior or forest products like rattan, different kinds of wood, beeswax,
medicinal plants, resin, and honey. It was the upstream or hinterland communities which
provided these products in exchange for the provisions and manufactured goods of the
pattems theorized that the coast developed manufacturing industries for a variety of
products such as native pottery and metal implements, thereby indicating that the coastal
26
fifteenth century, Philippine communities were also developing an elaborate political
b. Emergent d. Incipient
3. The earliest human remains found in the Philippines are collectively called:
b. TabonMan d. Ramapithecus
5. Population in the archipelago was believed to have been spread out by A.D. 1000
with a large concentration of people living in:
c. Agusan, Mindanao
People of the Philippines were scattered among many islands. By sailing among
the islands they came into contact with one another, for inter-island trade was the primary
incentive which linked these diffuse settlements. Although there were many Filipino
societies rather than one, in early times they nonetheless showed themes and
commonalities which may be considered identifYing marks of who and what constituted
the early Filipinos. Some of these commonalities include similar settlement patterns, an
elaborate societal structure, a fondness for tattooing, belief in spirit worship, and many
more practices.
among the islands. Bodies of water separated Filipinos. But in a sense these bodies of
water also unified the people since they were able to bridge the islands with ships.
Sailing was the only avenue of transportation and communication. Inter-island trade was
Yet, at the onset of the Spanish rule in the sixteenth century, the Filipinos in
Information on early Filipinos comes from the accounts of the Spanish chroniclers
who came to the Philippines in the sixteenth century. Since the early Spaniards usually
settled in the centers of population such as Cebu and Manila, our knowledge of sixteenth
century Filipinos is highly uneven. There is an extensive description of the Tagalogs and
the Visayans from early written accounts. In contrast, scanty treatment was accorded to
29
system of government. Early Spanish chroniclers wrote extensively of the barangays
settlement, or pueblo, which included other barangays. Some barangays even had as
many as four hundred households. A settlement with one barangay is called pook
Barangays usually fonned alliances for mutual protection and need. But in some
cases, an entire barangay went to war or conducted raids, either to avenge grievances,
engage in vendettas, seize captives, or claim lives as part of mourning rituals for a chiefs
death. Visayan barangays went to war when attacked by another community, provoked
by a betrayal of alliance, murder or theft, and abuse and insults. Similarly, communities
launched unprovoked raids to seize slaves. During this time, population was small,
economic production was low, and access to natural resources was unlimited.
Tagalog Society
Precolonial society was stratified into classes: rulers, commoners, and slaves.
Among the Tagalog societies, the ruling class was called maginoo (aristocracy) and they
were the most privileged. The head of the barangay was a datu, and he belonged to the
maginoo. A datu was considered the wisest and bravest, someone who typified the
Southeast Asia concept of a leader being a "man of prowess." He ruled his people, led
them in war, protected them from enemies, intervened and settled disputes among them,
Like the Tagalog societies, the Visayans were stratified into three classes. The
ruling and most privileged class was called the datu. Datu for the Visayan was both a
social class and a political position. A person became a datu through his lineage but his
power and influence came from his wealth, the number of his slaves and subjects, and his
physical prowess. In many ways he was considered a man of substance. Like the datus
of the Tagalogs, the Visayan datu governed his people, settled disputes, protected his
subjects from perceived enemies, and led them in wars. In return, he received his
subjects' respect and their labor and tribute. They provided him a share of the harvest,
worked his fields, built his houses, rowed his boats, and joined him in his trips.
The second class was the timawa, or freemen, who originally were the offspring
expected to pay tributes. But those who were attached to specific masters as personal
vassals did not pay tribute nor render personal service. The timawas fought side by side
with their masters, earned their tattoos with him in battles, received the master's favors,
and shared in his honors. Thus, in their own right the timawas were men of consequence
in the community.
The third and lowest class was the oripun, or slave. An oripun derived his status
capture. There were three kinds of oripun: ayuey, mamahay and tumaranpok. The ayuey
was the lowest kind. He lived in his master's house, received the master's food and
clothing, and only worked one out of four days for himself. The mamahay had his own
33
and they had the right and means to engage in trade. The pandita, on the other hand,
were the wise men who were well versed in Islamic law and customs.
century. What is lmown, though, is that like Maguindanao, the Sulu sultanate provided a
centralized political system to Sulu society. Abu Bakr's ascendancy in 1450 marked the
beginning of the Sulu sultanate. Sulu's prosperity depended on the overseas trading of
goods, which included forest and sea products and human slaves.
4-b
a. datu c. maginoo
b. timawa d. alipin
5. In the Visayan societies, the third and lowest class was the:
a.oripun c. timawa
b. datu d. maharlika
6. In the sixteenth century, Southern Mindanao was Islamic in culture and was ruled by a:
b. sultan d. orangkaya
1. The was the Council of Elders in Islamic Mindanao which embodied the
2. In the sixteenth century, Northern and Eastern Mindanao was in culture while
bloodline.
4. Infonnation on early Filipinos comes from the accounts of the early who
I. Write an essay comparing and contrasting the precolonial Tagalog, Visayan, and
Muslim Mindanao societies. How were they similar and different from each other?
2. Research on slavery in other societies in the sixteenth century. How was slavery in
these societies similar or different from slavery in precolonial Philippines?
IV Creative Writing
34
CHAPTERS
PRECOLONIAL CULTURE
A culture is the window to the collective thoughts and consciousness ofa group of
people. Prior to colonial contact, Filipinos had developed an extensive material culture
and an impressive body of literature. Their religious beliefs allowed them to explain
natural phenomena, to rationalize their existence, and to cope up with their often harsh
Religious Beliefs
Religion was central to the daily life of the early Filipinos. Their religious beliefs
and their own ancestors. Their pantheon of deities was headed by a supreme god called
Bathala among the Tagalogs, and Laon among the Visayans. Bathala or Laon was
considered as the creator of everything. Below Bathala or Laon was a series of gods
called by the Tagalogs and Bicolanos as anitos, and by the Visayans as diwatas. These
gods discharged specific duties usually with reference to birth, death, longevity, fertility,
and afterlife. Some of their names described their functions. For instance, among the
Tagalogs, Lakan Bakod (fences) was lord of the fences and his name was invoked to keep
animals out of rice fields; and among the Visayans, the DaIikmata (eyes), a god with
Spirits believed to inhabit nature were worshipped. The sun and the moon,
especially the new moon, were revered, for they were associated with prosperity and
fertility. Tala (star) and constellations were called upon to pray for material wealth like
36
In some cases, the babaylan or katalonan were male transvestites called asog.
Transvestites could play an important role since they symbolically combine the regenerative
powers of both sexes (bisexuality). Asogs had the ability to deal with both male and female
Because the world was viewed as unpredictable and unsafe, signs of portents and
premonitions were taken seriously. These omens manifested themselves in many ways
including the behavior of birds and reptiles, the act of sneezing, or even when a snake,
lizard, or black cat crossed one's path. Sometimes the babaylan or katalonan questioned
the gods or spirits; their responses were interpreted based on the movement or inaction of
certain objects.
Material Culture
Tattoos
Early Filipinos, particularly the Visayans, usually indulged in tattooing. The lack
of tattoos, however, was one of the distinguishing features of the Tagalogs. In contrast,
the Spaniards called the Visayans "Pintados" because they were ''painted.'' Tattoos were
indicative of a man's bravery in capturing or killing enemies. The more tattoos a man
had, the more success in battle. In a sense tattoos were like a modern military decoration
or medal.
The art of tattooing was intricate and took more than one sitting. A skillful artist
usually traced the designs on the body with ink. Using a small tool set with several short
needles he pricked the skin and then rubbed the ink on the wounds. It was considerably
painful and thus in itself was a test ofmanbood. The first tattoos were applied on the legs
38
In general, women engaged in weaving clothes as regular housework. In
Ilocos, cotton was cultivated extensively and women wove it to make G-strings, cloth and
blankets for household use, and to exchange for the gold of the upland Igorots. Raw and
woven cotton cloth and abaca constituted one of the many trading items of Filipinos
which they usually exchanged for the silk, porcelain, ironware, and other goods of the
Chinese.
Literature
attest to the existence of an alphabet called baybayin by the Tagalogs. Literacy perllaps
spread from the Tagalogs to the Visayans since they were believed to have been literate
much later than their Tagalog counterparts. The baybayin is considered one of about a
dozen indigenous alphabets from Southeast Asian islands such as Java and Sumatra. The
baybayin was believed to have been a local development, although its basis may have
been derived from the neighboring islands of Southeast Asia having been brought back
letters, three of which were the vowels a, e-i and o-u. The fourteen other signs
and meanings.
The early Spanish accounts claim that the Filipinos did not write for record
keeping or literary compositions; instead, the purpose of writing was perhaps for letters
and messages. Literature of early Filipinos was mainly spoken. Principal themes
depicted the heroism of ancestors and warriors and the beauty of the women. The most
5- a
Suggested Readings:
Suggested Videos:
Suggested Activities:
I Multiple Choice
a. government c. religion
b. culture d. society
a.Laon c. Anito
b.Diwata d. Bathala
4. Who were called pintados by the Spaniards because of their colorful tattoos?
a. Tagalogs c. Visayans
b. IIocanos d. Maranaos
5- c
b. precolonial Philippine society
The conquest of the Philippines by Spain in the sixteenth century was part of the
first stage of European expansion to Asia. In this phase, Spain and Portugal were the two
world. Their squabble resulted in the papal division of the world between the two of
them. They launched voyages of exploration and discovery, which were dictated by their
Spain and Portugal pioneered the European expansion to Asia. Both countries were in
search of the trinity of spices - clove, nutmeg, and mace. Spices were the most valuable
trading commodity at this time because of their many uses, the most important of which
was to preserve meat and add flavor to otherwise bland food. The cost of spices,
however, had become exorbitant since the Muslims controlled the Middle East --
Mediterranean trading route from Asia to Europe. The Spanish and Portuguese Crowns
financed expeditions to find a new trade route to the East. Spain, in particular, wanted to
secure a share of the lucrative spice trade which was monopolized by the Portuguese at
this time. Equally important for the Spaniards was their desire to propagate Christianity
In 1519, Ferdinand Magellan with a fleet of five ships and 237 men sailed for the
East. On March 17, 1521, Magellan reached the Philippine shores. In Limasawa, Leyte,
42
entrenched in Southern Mindanao. The Filipino Muslims thus were able to repulse for
three hundred and fifty years all atternpts of the Spaniards to subjugate the region.
The conquest of the Philippines was not without bloodshed. Magellan's and
Legazpi's forces had to overcome intense resistance from the local inhabitants, especially
since it was customary for the Spaniards to enter villages in order to extract much of the
wealth of the land and the people. In 1570, despite the sandugo between the Spanish
master-of-camp Martin de Goiti and Rajah Sulayman, the Spaniards still sacked Manila,
resulting in the seizure of Sulaiman's fleet and cannons, the burning of 1,500 houses, and
the death of 500 Muslims. Likewise, in the exploration of northern Luzon by Juan de
Salcedo, his Spanish forces bumed about 4,000 houses and killed more than 500 Ilocanos
who resisted the forcible extraction of food provisions and tributes in gold and cotton.
Although outnumbered, the Spaniards relied on the superiority of their weapons - guns
and cannons - which were unmatched by the spears and daggers ofthe villagers.
Although bloody, the conquest of the Philippines was considered mild compared
to the bloodshed that accompanied the carving out of a Spanish empire in the Americas.
conquistadors in the Americas, had relatively tempered the use of violence and force on
the Filipinos. Moreover, unlike the American Indians who were isolated prior to the
coming of the Spaniards, the Filipinos had extensive contact with the Chinese and their
island Southeast Asia neighbors. As such, the demographic tragedy which occurred in
Spanish America as a result of the smallpox epidemic was not replicated in the
44
and vice versa. It was then the practice that the conquistadors were accompanied by
the friars.
The friars unwittingly became fiscalizers of the Crown. The early Augustinians
criticized the abuses of the Crown and its conquistadors in collecting tributes and
extracting free services from the people. But the Church through the friars was also a
party to colonial abuses. Because there was a fast turnover of colonial officials, the
friars, who tended to stay for years in a parish, became the symbol of the Spanish
government. Their preeminent control of the people was due to their spiritual function
and their mastery of the local language. In due time, the Crown relied on the Spanish
friar who exercised multifarious political, economic, and religious powers. He controlled
the educational system and public works in his parish, supervised the collection of taxes
and the conscription of his parishioners into the colonial army, overlooked the taking of
the census, and dictated the standard of morality and conduct to which people had to
conform. How religion and the friars were able to dominate the lives of the Filipinos is
1. was the most valuable trading commodity in the sixteenth century because of
2. In 1519, Ferdinand Magellan with a fleet of five ships and 237 men sailed for the
Catholic mass was celebrated followed by the baptism ofHumabon, a local chieftain,
and about 800 local inhabitants. Spain's foothold on the Philippines was cut short
1. Describe the Spanish conquest of the Philippines. What was its immediate
repercussion on the lives of the Filipinos? Why was the Spanish conquest in the
Philippines considered mild in terms of the bloodshed which accompanied the
Spanish conquest of the Americas?
2. Discuss why the Spanish friars were considered the most influential and powerful
during the Spanish period. How did they affect the lives of the Filipinos?
IV Creative Writing
I. Reconstruct the celebration of the first mass in the Philippines by means of a skit.
Prepare a script based on the actual event.
2. Role play the Spanish friars who exercised political, economic, social and religious
functions in every community in colonial Philippines. Show the extent of the power
and influence of the friars in the everyday life of the Filipinos.
3. Research and write a script on the first colonial contact between the Filipinos and the
Spaniards. Re-enact the following scenes:
45
CHAPTER 7
From the beginning the Cbristianization of the Filipinos was a complicated and
difficult process. The early Spanish missionaries labored under several handicaps,
including the geographical fragmentation of the Islands and the scattered population, the
overcome these difficulties, Filipinos had to be resettled in order to maximize the effects
Reduccion
instituted reduccion, which means resettlement. Reduccion was the process of resettling
or consolidating the people into a community. The center of population became a pueblo,
or town center; and at the same time it was also the cabecera, or capital of the parish
where the Spanish friar resided and proselytized. The cabeceras were along the coasts
and rivers. The center of the cabecera was the plaza, the focal center of which was the
church and the convent. Since many lived in the outlying villages outside the pueblo or
cabecera, there were series of visita chapels, which were occasionally visited by the friar.
The cabecera-visita complex, which was first utilized by the Spaniards in Mexico,
Many Filipinos, however, resisted resettlement. John Leddy Phelan claims that
the resistance was rooted, first, on the desire of the Filipinos to live in places where they
and their ancestors had lived all their lifetime; and, second, because their economy was
47
the Augustinians received the provinces of Pampanga, one of the most fertile regions,
and Ilocos. The Franciscans acquired the Bicol-speaking provinces such as Camarines.
The Dominicans, on the other hand, were given the provinces of Pangasinan and
Cagayan. The Visayan region was split between the Augustinians and the Jesuits. Later
on, a fifth religious order, the Augustinian Recollects, arrived in the islands and, being
The Spanish aimed to speed up conversion by having each religious order learn
and master only a few local languages. From the start, it was agreed that the Filipinos
would respond to conversion faster if indoctrinated in their native tongues. The first task
of a friar was to learn the local language. In the seventeenth century, printing presses
which were owned by the religious orders published bilingual catechisms, dictionaries,
/"
grammars, and confessionals. However, these were meant for the Spanish clergy since
instruction to the new faith was oral and done in the local tongue. These catechism
classes were usually held on Sundays in the cabecera and visitas. Chieftains or datus and
their sons were the first to be instructed. The Filipinos for the most part memorized in
The majority of the Spanish friars learned to speak the local languages with
enough fluency to discharge such religious duties as sermons during mass and hearing
confessions. Phelan points out that obviously some friars more than others were better
able to penetrate the linguistic barrier and communicate better with their parishioners.
Vicente Rafael, however, asserts that based on his study of conversion among
propitiate spirits before the planting season persisted. Christian and traditional practices
blended. For example, guilt or innocence involved fastening scissors shaped like the
cross of St. Andrew from which a rosary was hung in a hi/ao or sieve. Then one name
after another was then mentioned. If the hi/ao shook, then the person whose name was
spoken was adjudged a thiefY The conversion and Christianization process blended
with indigenous rituals and beliefs that eventually produced a popular or folk
Catholicism.
Today, Filipinos practice folk Catholicism. The practice of flagellation and the
reenactment of the crucifixion and death of Jesus Christ by penitents who nail themselves
on the Cross during Holy Week is an example of folk Catholicism. Fr. Frank Lynch, who
wrote on folk Catholicism in the Philippines, argued that this form of religion makes the
d. a, b, and c
a. Augustinians c. Dominicans
b. Jesuits d. Franciscans
5. To speed up the conversion of the Filipinos, the religious orders learned and mastered
I. The Filipinos practice Catholicism which make them better Christians and
Filipinos.
2. The Spanish missionaries exerted all efforts to eradicate the indigenous religion of the
___ system.
I. Sketch the layout of a pueblo or town center in Spanish Philippines. Show where the
cabeceras (capital) were in relation to the visitas (outlying villages) and missiones
vivas (religious missions).
2. Interview Filipinos in the United States regarding their practice of compadrazgo. Ask
them why they commonly seek godparents for their children and what is the basis of
their choice of prospective compadres and comadres.
50
CHAPTERS
The Spaniards ruled the Philippines with the assistance of the principalia, the pre-
hispanic datus. Throughout the colonial period, there was a paucity of Spanish
bureaucrats. Those who carne resided or spent much of their time in Manila, which was
the seat of the colonial government. As such, the provinces were, in most cases, run by
the principalia and the friars. Because the friars spoke the local languages and had
stayed for many years in their parishes, they were respected, and their opinions mattered
From Manila he goverued the islands through appointed local executive officials. There
were twelve provinces, each one ruled by a Spanish alcalde mayor, who was the supreme
executive, judicial, and military officer in the province and was directly responsible to the
governor-general and the Royal Audiencia, the highest tribunal. In many cases, the
Spanish bureaucrats lacked the qualification and commitment for the jobs. There were
cases wherein government offices were auctioned off to the highest bidder. The chosen
one was then expected to recoup his investment as well as earn a handsome profit which
would enable him to return to Spain and live comfortably. As expected, inefficiency and
Below the alcalde mayor was a whole retinue of chosen Filipino local officials.
From the start, the Spaniards did not destroy the indigenous ruling class. Instead they
52
and their eldest sons were exempted from tribute (tax) and polo (forced labor) enjoyed
Colonial Impositions
The Spaniards turned the Philippines into a fiscal nightmare. Increasingly, they
relied on exploiting the natives to run the archipelago. In the sixteenth century, the
islands were parceled into encomiendas. An encomienda was basically a right granted by
the King to the Crown or to a private individual to collect tributes or taxes on a specified
area or locality. Private encomiendas were usually awarded to conquistadors and crown
officials who had rendered distinguished service towards the conquest of the islands. The
encomienda became a source of revenue for the crown or the encomendero or holder of
it reverted back to the crown. Tribute in the amount of eight, later ten, reales, which is
equivalent to a peso, was collected by the cabezas from all adult males age 18 to 60. The
tribute was supposed to be paid as recognition of the King and for the temporal and
spiritual services the people received from the crown and the church. In reality, though,
with or without spiritual and temporal services, tributes were extracted. Worse,
encomenderos had the option of collecting the tributes in specie or kind. In most cases,
the encomenderos demanded the tribute in a scarce commodity which the encomenderos
Polo or forced labor was another colonial imposition which was initially a
response to the exigencies created by the Spanish-Dutch War. In the first half of the
seventeenth century, as a result of the Spanish-Dutch war, the Dutch periodically invaded
54
They were the rice regions, had excellent timber, and because of their proximity to
Although the Church censured the government for colonial abuses, its own clergy
heaped impositions and abuses on the people. Many friars used the pulpit and God as
justification for extracting alms and exorbitant payments from the people, both in kind
and species, in exchange for sacraments. Similarly, they coaxed parishioners to sell their
goods at a fraction of their cost. Although the Crown was duty-bound to pay for the
maintenance of the clergy, increasingly this burden fell on the people. They had to
furnish their parish priest with livestock and a rice stipend. Similarly they provided free
labor for the construction of the Church as well as serving as the parish priest's rowers
and porters.
Filipino Resistance
resistance took the form of rebellion. In 1660-1661, Francisco Maniago led the
Pampangans in a revolt over the abusive polo and vandala. They were forcibly taken to
work in the Cavite shipyard during the agricultural season. Similarly, at about the same
time, Andres Malong and Pedro Almazan led the uprising of the Pangasinenses and
Ilocanos. Both proclaimed themselves king, denouncing the colonial impositions as well
as the religious abuses. In fact some friars were killed, and churches were looted and
desecrated. In the Visayas, Juan Sumoroy led the Samarenos in rebellion over the
insistence of authorities to haul them to Cavite in Luzon as polistas in the shipyards. The
8-a
Suggested Readings:
Phelan, John Leddy. The Hispanization of the Philippines: Spanish Aims and Filipino
Responses, 1565-1700. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1959,
Chapter 7, pp. 93-104 and Chapter 9, pp. 124-135.
Cushner, Nicholas. Spain in the Philippines: From Conquest to Revolution. Quezon City:
Institute of Philippine Culture, Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1971.
Suggested Activities:
1. Multiple Choice
2. The Spanish official who exercised executive, judicial and military duties in the
province was the:
b. gobemadorcillo d. governor-general
3. The Spaniards did not destroy the indigenous ruling class and instead transformed
thern into a:
a.pueblo c. visita
b. barangay d. encomienda
5. A colonial imposition which was initially a response to the crisis brought by the
Spanish-Dutch War was the:
a. tributo c. polo
56
CHAPTER 9
THE CREATION OFA COLONUL SOCffiTY
One of the lasting impacts of Spanish colonial rule is the creation of a plural
colonial society. This was due to the entry of two new groups to the Philippines: the
Spaniards and Chinese. Each ethnic group was involved in a particular aspect of the
economy. Race, ethnicity, and economic specialization determined the social hierarchy
which ernerged during the Spanish period. Intermarriage among these ethnic groups
created the mestizo, or mixed class, which further compounded the social hierarchy.
Plural Economy
Edgar Wickberg claims that before the nineteenth century the colonial economy
a "native economy," and a "Chinese economy.',[4 The Spaniards despised manual labor
and thus relied on encomienda tributes and on revenue from the Manila galleon trade, the
only international trading sanctioned by the Spaniards until the nineteenth century. The
Spaniards earned handsome profits transporting Chinese luxury goods like silk, porcelain,
and carnelian beads to Mexico aboard the Manila galleon. On its return trip, the galleon
carried Mexican silver and European goods for sale in Manila. It was the Chinese junks
which carried Chinese goods to Manila for Spanish consumption and export to Mexico.
These same Chinese junks brought back Mexican silver to China. In effect, the Manila
14 Edgar Wickberg, The Chinese in Philippine Life, 1850-1898 (New Haven and London: Yale University
Press, 1965), p. 6.
58
those born in Mexico or the Philippines. Peninsulares were viewed as more socially
superior and they often looked down on the insulares. The term Filipino was originally
used to refer to the Spaniards born in the Philippines. The offspring of the intermarriage
between the Spaniards and the Chinese or the indios, the derogatory term used to refer to
the natives of the Philippines, produced the Spanish mestizo class. The Spanish mestizos
were perceived as lower in social status compared to the peninsulares and insulares.
Among the native Filipinos or indios, the principalia enjoyed a form of status.
Some of the principalia sons in the nineteenth century were able to acquire an education.
Priesthood was the usual profession to which principalias could aspire. The bulk of the
indios, however, remained landless, poor, and oppressed by the colonial order.
politically dangerous and without morals. Wickberg claims that colonial authorities
viewed the Chinese as necessary evils. Though the Spaniards despised the Chinese they
needed their services for which the indios were perceived as unsuited. Yet, the Chinese
were persecuted by colonial authorities since they were viewed as infidels and
preoccupied with vices, both of which might be harmful to the Christianized indios.
Similarly, the loyalty of the Chinese in the eyes of the colonial authorities was suspect
since they came from China. Thus, the Spaniards confined the Chinese in a ghetto called
Parian, which was located outside the walled city of Manila. To further control the
permission for travel to the provinces. They were levied the highest taxes in the land.
From 1594-1766, periodic expulsions of the Chinese were conducted to regulate their
8- c
6. The was the Spanish magistrate who was in charge of the province. Towns
governor.
IV Essay Writing
I. List down as many Filipino revolts and uprisings during the Spanish period as you
can find. Categorize them into causes, leaders and results. What was the nature of
the Spanish colonial role based on these rebellions?
2. Discuss the encomienda system during the Spanish period. Highlight the abuses
committed by the encomenderos to prove the maxim: "To the victor goes the spoils."
v. Creative Writing
I. Pretend to be a Filipino during the Spanish period. Write an entry in your diary of a
typical day in your life.
9- b
4. In the eyes of the colonial authorities the loyalty of the Chinese was suspect, thus,
the Spaniards confined them in a ghetto called:
a. Intrarnuros c. Tondo
b. Binondo d. Parian
a. affiuence
b. high education
I. In the second half of the nineteenth century, a middle class called emerged
2. The were viewed as desirable compared to their Chinese fathers since they
were reared by their mothers and their allegiance was to the Philippines
3. The Spaniards called the Filipinos " Among them were the principalia who
enjoyed some status and were able to acquire education in the nineteenth century.
A B
60
CHAPTER 10
mE UNHISPANIZED PHILIPPINES:
The Filipino Muslims in Southern Mindanao and the upland Igorots of Northern
Luzon were outside the Spanish colonial order. The failure to incorporate them was not
due to lack of effort on the part of the Spaniards; rather, it was due to the successful
resistance put up by these two groups. The Muslims, unlike the barangays in Luzon and
the Visayas, were successful in resisting the Spaniards because they were united under a
centralized political institution called the sultanate. In the case of the Igorots, the
geographical terrain of the Cordillera hampered colonial efforts to incorporate the region.
Sulu, such as the Maranao, Tausug, Samal, Ilanun, etc. On the other hand, the term
Igorot, which means "from the mountains" (golot), was a collective and generic term
used to refer to the various ethnic groups living in the Cordillera mountain in northern
Luzon. These upland groups are the Itneg, Isneg, Kalinga, Bontoc, Ifugao, Kankanay,
and !baloy. The Spaniards also called them tribus independientes, or independent tribes.
Colonial Motives
The Spaniards' desire to subjugate the Muslims and the Igorots was a
continuation of their religious crusade to spread Christianity to the heathen, and at the
same time to complete the conquest of the Philippines. They called the Muslims
"Moros," a term which, according to historian Samuel Tan, was weighted with colonial
62
to the south as far as the Moluccas to wrest control of the spice region from the
Muslims. In the same manner, the Spaniards launched expeditions to the Cordillera to
For three hundred years, except for a brief period of relative peace from 1663 to
1719, the Spaniards put all their energy and efforts into extending their colonial rule over
the Muslims. In the sixteenth century, Spain's thrust against the Muslims was fueled by
its rivalry with Portugal, which had ties with Ternate, a staunch ally of Maguindanao.
The first encounter between the Spaniards and the Muslims occurred in 1569, when a
Muslim fleet of twenty vessels from Sulu was waylaid by a Spanish fleet under Martin de
Goiti. The Spaniards divested the Muslims of their merchandise, seized the vessels, and
enslaved the crew. The Spanish fleet was determined to destroy the Muslim control of
Francisco Sande led a Spanish fleet of forty ships, with 400 Spaniards, 1,500 Filipinos
and 300 Bomeans, in a military expedition to the south as far as Borneo and the
Moluccas. In 1578, Captain Esteban Rodriguez led a punitive expedition to Jolo. The
following year, Captain Gabriel de Rivera and Juan de Arce Sardonil headed another
In all these expeditions the Muslims stood firm. The Muslim fleet was initially
able to contend with the Spanish warship. Their caracoa, or prahu, was suited to the
open sea as it was "light, swift, practical and very easy to maneuver." The Muslims were
able to engage in retaliatory attacks and even intensify their raiding of Christian
Sciences Review, College of Social Sciences and Philosophy, U.P., 1989), p. 72.
64
then keep up with the Spanish ships and weaponry. However, although Sulu bartered
slaves for the guns, artillery, and other weapons of the English traders, the Muslim's lack
of training on how to use the Western hardware failed to reverse its decline, which was
By the second half of the nineteenth century Sulu's fate was sealed when
steamboats and gunboats were introduced. Sulu's fleet was reduced from dominating the
seas to merely defending their shrinking homeland. The Spanish attacks in Jolo in 1846
and Balangingi in 1852 were devastating for Sulu. In 1876, the Sultan of Sulu was forced
to sign a treaty with Spain in which the Muslims recognized Spanish sovereignty in
exchange for a pension for the Sultan and his heirs. A weakened Sulu fleet contributed to
the demise of its trading and slave raiding. Fortunately for the Muslims, the Spaniards
were not able to complete the conquest of Muslim Mindanao partly because their
attention was once more drawn to Luzon, where popular resistance and the ilustrado
Augustinians from the Ilocos, and the Dominicans from Cagayan--and a few secular
priests from Abra. While Christianization was the major concern of the religious orders,
the conquistadores and crown officials mainly concentrated on occupying the Igorot gold
mines. During the first fifty years of Spanish rule the crown sent numerous and costly
expeditions to the Cordillera but all were failures. While the Cordillera terrain worked
66
lasted for ten years. For instance, in the Trinidad Valley north of Baguio, the
Spaniards successfully deflected every Igorot defense including rocks thrown from
above, bamboo "ground-spears," and sharpened stakes hidden in the grass and
camouflage pits. When the Spaniards finally reached the valley, they burned 180 Igorot
Starting in the mid-nineteenth century, the Cordillera was constituted into a series
expeditions crisscrossed the Cordillera to establish Spanish authority, curtail the tobacco
smuggling, and collect tribute. The Spanish military control of the Cordillera allowed
Spanish missionaries and even foreign travelers to roam the region. New agricultural
crops were introduced like coffee, cacao, and citrus fruits as well as new technologies
Igorots became literate and about 8,000 became Christians. Yet, the occupation also
resulted in untold devastation: houses were burned down, crops destroyed, and livestock
seized or slaughtered. The military raids also left a trail ofdead Igorots while many other
Igorots succumbed to smallpox, which the Spaniards had introduced. The Igorots who
survived for the first time lived under a colonial order symbolized by tributes and forced
labor. The Spanish domination of the Cordillera was short-lived because the Philippine
a. miners
b. fanners
c. slaves
d. military fighters
a.late 15th and 16th century c. late 18th and 19th century
b. late 17th and 18th century d. late 19th and 20th century
6. In 1876, the Sultan ofSulu was forced to sign a treaty with Spain in exchange for:
7. The Spanish attempts to subjugate the Igorots was initially and primarily due to the
desire to:
a. spread Christianity
developments such as the emergence of the ilustrado, or middle class, or the formation of
the Propaganda Movement. In the process, one tends to overlook that there is an
and early twentieth century. He explains popular movements and resistance within the
context of religious tradition and beliefs. The result is an underside history, which is as
Beyond the pueblos and visitas were uncontrolled areas which were inhabited by
what the Spaniards termed "bandits" and "illicit associations." According to Ileto:
the bandit often lacked a proper Christian name and lineage, or was known by an
alias signifying a certain character or physical trait. He was illiterate, yet held in
awe by the common folk for his bravery and invulnerability. 16
Viewed in the same manner were "illicit associations," which usually revolved around
kings, gods, goddesses, messiahs, and healers who promised peasants release and
redemption from diseases and a life of poverty and oppression. They inhabited
mountains believed to be sacred, like Mt. Banahaw in Quezon, or they revolved around
69
common during the Spanish period since they had a religious function which was the
Ileto claims that for reasons unknown the Cofradia de San Jose grew in
1840, the Church issued an order of excommunication against the Cofradia. Despite the
order, the Cofradia continued to attract support and persisted in collecting monthly dues
the association which barred Spaniards and mestizos from membership unless approved
by Apolinario. This was the last straw, and the Spanish authorities decided to crack
down on the cofradia. Apolinario and his followers were accused of heretical practices.
The Spanish accusation of heretical practices was due to the rituals and prayers of
the Cofradia. In his Pasyon and Revolution, Ileto examined the reasons why the
Cofradia appealed to the peasants. The Cofradia recited the Holy Rosary in full detail
and elevated St. Joseph as its patron and special intermediary. St. Joseph was revered,
for he underwent suffering for Mary and Jesus and was amply rewarded in heaven. He
was seen as the source of liwanag (light), which means a condition of perfect unity. The
Cofradia members were the recipients of such liwanag. Ileto claims that liwanag
radiated through brotherhood, or the union of men, through heavenly beings, and by
isip or good mind. An anting-anting is a lucky charm which many believed could ward
arrested and jailed in Bay, Laguna. But through the intercession of the wife of the alcalde
mayor of Tayabas who was a Cofradia member, Purgatorio and the men were released.
They fled to Igsabang, Lucban, where they met up with Apolinario. Thousands of
1841, the colonial troops numbering 300 men forcibly dispersed the congregation. About
3,000 Cofradia members fought back and won the skirmish. At dawn, they marched to
Aritao, Tayabas, and consolidated their ranks, now numbering 4,000, as they prepared for
surrounded by his trusted men, and he came out only at certain times amidst pomp and
ceremony. His followers rejoiced and called him the "King of the Tagalogs". They
believed that when cornered by Spanish authorities, they would be invincible to Spanish
bullets, that there would be invisible soldiers and angels who would sway the battle in
their favor, and that a big lake would open up and swallow the enemy.
The end of the Cofradia finally came on October 31, 1841. Government soldiers,
peasant volunteers, and the Spanish cavalry attacked the Cofradia. About three to five
hundred members were killed and another five hundred, including three hundred women,
were imprisoned. The remaining members fled to Mt. Banahaw. Days later, Apolinario.
de la Cruz was shot. His body was then mutilated; his head was put in a cage and
displayed in a pole stick along the roadside. Later on, two hundred of the prisoners were
executed as well. Such was the bloody ending of the Cofradia de San Jose. Popular
11 - a
Suggested Readings:
Ileto, Reynaldo. Pasyon and Revolution: Popular Movements in the Philippines, 1840-
1910. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1979, Chapter 3, pp. 93-
139.
Sturtevant, David. Popular Uprisings in the Philippines, 1840-1910. Ithaca and London:
Cornell University Press, 1976, Chapter 4, pp. 77-95.
Suggested Activities:
I. Multiple Choice
1. Hennano Pule organized the Cofradia de San Jose whose functions included:
a. reciting the Holy Rosary and elevating St. Joseph as its patron and special
intennediary
b. practice ofpiety
2. The Cofradia de San Jose was persecuted by colonial authorities who believed that
the organization:
samahan (association).
A B
_ _2. Manuel Sancho b. story of the life, suffering and death of Jesus Christ
IV Creative Activity
1. Listen to a tape on the Pabasa or the religious rite of reading the Pasyon. Leam to
sing stanzas of the Pasyon. Analyze the text and explain significant passages which
show how it could elicit damay or sympathy among some very religious people.
on political conditions in Spain, there were a few liberal governor-generals who were
assigned to the Philippines. One example was Carlos Maria de la Torre, who came to the
press and instituted administrative reforms. His term, however, was short-lived. In 1871,
It was during the term of Izquierdo that the three Filipino priests--Jose Burgos,
executed in the aftermath of the Cavite Mutiny of 1872. On January 20, 1872,
disgruntled Filipino soldiers in the Cavite arsenal staged a mutiny. The Spanish
authorities decided to crack down on Filipino liberals for alleged complicity in the
rebellion. Nine Filipino priests and thirteen lawyers and businessmen were deported to
the Marianas Islands. The three priests, Gomburza, were guillotined. Gomburza had
championed the cause of secularization of parishes, or the transfer of parishes into the
hands of secular instead of regular priests. Regulars were those who belonged to one of
the five religious orders while seculars were those whose function was to tend the
parishes. Unfortunately, the scarcity and unpreparedness of the seculars in the early
years of the Spanish rule resulted in the regulars becoming parish priests. So when the
76
annexation of the Philippines; 2) Philippine representation in the Cortes, the Spanish
legislature; 3) freedom of the press and freedom of association; and 4) Spanish and
The objectives of the Propaganda Movement were very limited and exclusive to
their class. Assimilation, equality, civil and political rights, and parliamentary
representation were not the concerns of the predominantly peasant, indio class in
Philippine society. The indios' demands would have been more basic and reflective of
their immediate need, which was independence and alleviation from poverty and
Movement contends that during the later stages of the movement assimilation became
only a front or a strategy. The real goal of such Propagandistas as Rizal, del Pilar, and
believing that the pen is mightier than the sword. They wrote books and newspaper
articles, held informal discussions, and made speeches where they identified the defects
in the colonial administration of the Philippines and the kind of reforms needed by the
prime vehicle in their call for reforms. La Solidaridad tackled political issues such as
18See John N. Schumacher, SJ., The Propaganda Movement, 1880-1895: The Creation of a Filipino
Consciousness, The Making ofthe Revolution, revised edition (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University,
1997).
78
Spanish. In Europe, he became the editor of La Solidaridad and continued renouncing
accomplish the assimilationist reforms it sought. But the movement was not a total
failure. Rather, it was successful in "damaging the prestige of the friars in particular and
of Spaniards in general with the Filipinos" and "in a positive way, it succeeded more
consciousness.,,19 This anti-friar and anti-colonial sentiment together with the growing
Filipino awareness of being one people was largely felt in Luzon. It was the ideas of
Rizal, del Pilar, and other Propagandistas which partly stirred Andres Bonifacio and
Emilio Jacinto who were the stalwarts of the Katipunan, the secret, mass-based
19 Ibid" p. 301.
12 -b
b. La Solidaridad d. EI Ilustrado
6. The aims of the Reform Movement were to reform. Which one of the following was
not its objective:
2. The goal of the Propaganda Movement was _ Two of its prominent leaders
were and _
3. The issue of secularization acquired a racial component since the regulars were
A B
The Philippine Revolution of 1896 is significant for many reasons. First, the
Revolution resulted in ending more than three hundred years of Spanish colonial rule.
Second, it was the first of its kind in Asia as the Philippine declaration of independence
in Kawit, Cavite, certainly precedes all other independence movements in Asia. Third,
the early stages of the Philippine Revolution of 1896 is one of the very few periods in
Philippine history where the nationalist movements of the masses and the ilustrados, or
elites, converge. Unfortunately, the Revolution was compromised by the ambitions and
self-serving interests of the elites which came to be fully exploited by the United States,
The Katipunan
based organization founded by Andres Bonifacio and a few other members of the
working class in Tondo, Manila, on July 7, 1892. Its full Tagalog name is Kataastaasan
Venerated Association of the Sons and Daughters of the Land). The founders performed
the traditional blood compact by signing their names with their own blood. Politically,
the Katipunan advocated separation of the Philippines from Spain. Its civic goal
revolved around self-help and the defense of the poor and the oppressed.
Andres Bonifacio was called the Supremo (Supreme) of the Katipunan while
Emilio Jacinto was regarded as the "Brains of the Katipunan." Philippine history books
81
popular stories was imprisoned in the caves of San Mateo only awaiting the day to
From the start the Katipunan drew inspiration from Jose Rizal, who in 1892 was
August 1896, the Katipunan was discovered by the Spanish authorities, prompting
Bonifacio and the Katipuneros to tear their cedula, an identification card which was the
Philippine Revolution. The Spanish execution of Rizal on December 30, 1896, further
emboldened the Katipuneros who saw Rizal's martyrdom as similar to the crucifixion of
Jesus Christ. In a country steeped with religious tradition Filipinos saw Rizal as the
brown Jesus Christ who died to redeem his people. His death elicited feelings of awa
Once the revolution started many ilustrados or elites condemned it. Some like
Rizal believed that it was not yet the proper time, since the people lacked education and
political maturity necessary for an independent nation. Many, however, did so out of
allegiance to mother Spain. But in due time, when the Katipunan appeared to be winning
battles, even the elites embraced the revolution. Unfortunately, their interest and agenda
differed from the objectives of the Katipuneros. The elites fought to preserve their social
The falling out between the masses and the elites during the Revolution began in
Cavite, the home province of General Emilio Aguinaldo, who eventually took on
83
expulsion of the hated Spanish friars and return of lands they had appropriated from
the Filipinos; Filipino representation in the Spanish Cortes; freedom of the press and
religious tolerance; equal treatment and payment for both peninsular and insular civil
servants; and equality for all before the law. This proclamation by Aguinaldo proved that
he and the elites were willing to return to the Spanish fold provided that the elites' self-
The standoff in the battlefield prompted both sides to call for the Truce of Biak-
na-Bato, the terms of which stipulated that Spain would pay financial remuneration to the
Filipino revolutionaries in exchange for the latter's surrender of arms and the voluntary
exile abroad of Aguinaldo and the other leaders. Distrust on both sides resulted in the
failure of the truce. It appeared that both sides were only biding time until they could
launch another offensive. Nevertheless, towards the end of December 1898, Aguinaldo
and other leaders went into exile in Hongkong. When given the initial sum of
The coming of the Americans marked the second phase of the Philippine
Revolution. In Singapore Aguinaldo met U.S. Consul Spencer Pratt, who persuaded him
to cooperate with the Americans. In February 1898, the American warship Maine was
mysteriously sunk in the waters off of Havana, Cuba. This incident was the immediate
cause of the Spanish-American War. Commodore George Dewey, who was stationed in
Hongkong, received a cable on April 25 announcing that war had commenced between
the two countries. He was ordered to retake the Philippines and on May I his fleet
13 - a
Suggested Readings:
AgonciIlo, Teodoro. The Revolt ofthe Masses: The Story ofBonifacio and the Katipunan.
Quezon City: University of the Philippines, 1955.
___. Malolos: The Crisis ofthe Republic. Quezon City: University of the Philippines
Press, 1960.
Ileto, Reynaldo. Pasyon and Revolution: Popular Movements in the Philippines, 1840-
1910. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1979, Chapter 3, pp. 93-
139.
Suggested Activities:
Multiple Choice
a. Binondo c. Tondo
3. The death of Jose Rizal was compared to Jesus Christ who died to redeem his people.
Historian Reynaldo Ileto claimed that his death elicited feelings of:
4. The falling out between the masses and the elite during the Revolution began in:
13 - c
ill Match Words and Meanings
A B
rule
IV Creative Writing
1. Research on the life of Andres Bonifacio or Emilio Aguinaldo. Write his biography.
3. Pretend you had an opportunity to meet any of the heroes of the Philippine
Revolution. Who would you rather meet? Write an account of what your meeting
would be like.
85
CHAPTER 14
because it involves issues of class, ethnicity, and gender. The elite class is acknowledged
as the main victor since the elite were able to preserve and even perpetuate their status
during and after the Revolution. But aside from class, the issue of ethnicity is significant.
Since the Revolution gave birth to the First Philippine Republic, ethnicity became central
in the imagining and forging of a new nation-state. The issue of gender is likewise
deserving of attention since women played significant roles during the Revolution.
Class Issue
At the outbreak of the Revolution, the ilustrado, or elite class reacted only in two
ways: ilustrados either denounced the Katipunan and pledged their allegiance to Spain or
they were content to sit on the fence. In a study of the municipal and provincial elites of
Luzon during the Revolution, Milagros C. Guerrero concluded that well-to-do Filipinos
along with municipal and provincial officials refused to join the Revolution during 1897
and early 1898. There was hesitancy even after they did. Aguinaldo's military advisers
persuaded him to issue a pronouncement during the Biak-na-Bato Republic that his
government was willing to return to the fold of law as soon as Spain granted political
provincial and town officials who were elected for the most part had been the same local
officials during the Spanish period. It was because the requirements for voting and
nomination to public office were restricted to candidates who were" citizens of 20 years
of age or above who were 'friendly' to Philippine independence and were distinguished
for their 'high character, social position and honorable conduct, both in the center of the
community and the suburb." 20 This meant that the elites maintained the same status as
they had held prior to the Revolution. Even worse, many of those elected had been
Spanish supporters if not sympathizers during the early phase of the Revolution. Since
the elite had exclusive control of the electoral process, the provincial and municipal
government. Guerrero claims that records of the period show that the composition of the
municipal elite was unaltered, for most of the local offices simply rotated within their
ranks.
But not all areas of Luzon came under the control of the elites during the
electorate who most probably did not meet the qualifications stipulated in Aguinaldo's
decree. Guerrero claims that the ilustrados of Solano in Nueva Vizcaya and Urdaneta in
Pangasinan complained of the election of the "uneducated and ignorant," who they
20Milagros C. Guerrero, "The Provincial and Municipal Elites of Luzon During the Revolution, 1898-
1902," Alfred McCoy and Ed de Jesus (editors), Philippine Social History: Global Trade and Local
Transformations (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1982), p.165.
89
In its early phase the Revolution raged mainly among the Tagalog provinces.
Outside the Katagalugan responses were varied. The Albayanos of Bicol were
exercising Tagalog hegemony over the non-Tagalogs. Pampanga, which was close to
Manila, was uninvolved in the Revolution from September 1896 to the end of 1897, thus
Tagalog affair. But what brought the Revolution to non-Tagalog areas was Aguinaldo's
policy of encouraging his military officials to return to their home provinces and mobilize
local support. For instance, the Revolution came late in Antique. It was due to General
Leandro Fullon, an Antiqueno principalia general of Aguinaldo, who went to his home
province to spread the Revolution. But even after the Revolution extended to the rest of
Luzon and the Visayas, there were still suspicions as to what the Tagalogs had in mind.
For example, the Iloilo elites in Visayas changed the name of their provisional
revolutionary govermnent to the Federal State of the Visayas because they did not want
to recognize the supremacy of the Tagalogs and Aguinaldo. What they wanted instead
was a federal system composed of the three main island groups - Luzon, Visayas, and
Mindanao.
wrote a piece entitled "Ang Dapat Mabatid ng mga Tagalog," or "What the Tagalogs
Should Know." In his memoirs, Aguinaldo had chapters entitled "The Beginning of the
Tagalog Govermnent" and "Long Live the Tagalogs." In the absence of a general
91
neighbors by curing their wounds and blurred vision.,,23 Her home was used by the
Katipunan for their clandestine meetings; it was later burned by the Spanish authorities.
Tandang Sora served the Revolution by rendering her "medical" expertise to wounded
Filipino rebels.
upon the death of her Katipunero husband, Gregoria Montoya y Patricio led the charge of
a thirty-man unit while holding a Katipunan flag on one hand and a shmp-bladed bolo on
another hand. She used a white piece of cloth commonly used during mass to ward off
bullets. Another Filipino revolutionary was Agueda Kahabagan who fought the
Spaniards armed with a rifle, brandishing a bolo and dressed in white. Teresa Magbanua,
on the other hand, earned the sobriquet "Joan of Arc" of the Visayas for the valor she
But Filipino women's participation during the Revolution was not confined to
brandishing bolos or firing weapons during the Revolution. Rosario Lopez, a scion of the
wealthy hacendero Lopez clan of Negros, donated firearms to Filipinos fighting the
The Filipino Red Cross which was established in 1863 became another venue for
women participating in the Revolution. In 1899, the Red Cross under the leadership of
the wife of Emilio Aguinaldo had thirteen chapters extending from Ilocos Norte to
23 Isagani R. Medina, "Melchora Aquino," Rafaelita Hilario Soriano (editor), Women in the Philippine
Revolution (Quezon City: Printon Press, 1995), pp. 11-16.
14 - a
Suggested Readings:
Guerrero, Milagros C. "The Provincial and Municipal Elites of Luzon During the
Revolution, 1898-1902," Alfred McCoy and Ed de Jesus (ed), Philippine Social
History: Global Trade and Local Transformations. Quezon City: Ateneo de
Manila University Press, 1982, pp. 155-190.
Soriano, Rafaelita Hilario Soriano (ed.) Women in the Philippine Revolution. Quezon
City: Printon Press, 1995.
Suggested Activities:
1. Multiple Choice
1. At the outbreak of the Philippine Revolution, all of the following were actions of the
majority of the ilustrados or elites except:
a fence-sitting
2. Despite the constant vacillation of the elites, their services were tapped in organizing
the Philippine Republic of:
3. The elected local officials of the Philippine Republic were mostly the same local
officials during the Spanish period because they:
IV Essay Writing
I. Write an essay on who among the Filipino revolutionaries (male or female) would
you want to meet and interview? Why? What kind of questions would you ask?
2. Discuss the early reactions of the non-Tagalogs concerning the Philippine Revolution.
93
CHAPTER 15
On February 4, 1899, Private Robert Grayson shot a Filipino soldier at San Juan
bridge. This shot signaled the start of the Philippine-American War that raged even after
the surrender of General Emilio Aguinaldo and the establishment of the civilian
As early as August 1898 the Filipinos started doubting the proclaimed altruistic
motive of the United States to liberate the Filipinos from Spanish colonial rule. At this
time the combined American and Filipino forces were poised to occupy Manila.
Previously, the Filipino revolutionary army had successfully driven the Spanish
colonialists from the countryside. Going behind Aguinaldo and the Filipinos,
Commodore Dewey, whose squadron was sent to the Philippines to destroy the Spanish
fleet in Manila, entered into an agreement with the Spaniards whereby they would stage a
mock battle in Manila Bay, after which the Spanish forces would surrender to the
Americans. The Spaniards insisted that Filipino forces be excluded from the battle and
the surrender. The American forces eventually occupied Manila and restricted
Another factor which made Aguinaldo and the Filipino leaders realize that the
United States had designs on the Philippines was the events surrounding the signing of
the Treaty of Paris of 1898. On December 10, 1898, the United States and Spain signed
the Treaty of Paris which ended the Spanish-American War. Conspicuously left out from
95
The outbreak of the Philippine-American War on February 4, 1899 coincided
with the confirmation hearings at the U.S. Congress over the Treaty of Paris of 1898. On
February 6, 1899, the U.S. Congress was scheduled to ratifY the Treaty by a two-thirds
vote. But the lawmakers were divided on whether the U.S. should acquire the
Philippines. When war broke out two days before the scheduled congressional vote on the
Treaty, the U.S. Congress was able to muster sufficient votes to ratifY the Treaty and
formally annexed the Philippines. Some historians allege that the war may have been
Even before the February 4 incident though, U.S. forces started moving outside of
Manila and were preparing to retake the rest of the country. The Philippine-American
War was a war of attrition. The Filipinos called it a war since the Philippines had already
declared its independence from Spain on June 12, 1898. On the other hand, the
Americans referred to the war as merely a Philippine insurgency, thereby denying that the
proclamation in 1898.
forgotten war in the annals of the United States. 24 American history textbooks contain
several pages on the Spanish-American War but only a paragraph or two on the
Philippine-American War despite the fact that the latter was more pronounced in terms of
the "water cure": after the victim was forced to drink excessive amounts of water he was
stamped on the stomach. These atrocities were suppressed by a blanket press censorship,
but were revealed in letters which American soldiers wrote home to their families. When
some of these letters were published in local newspapers, they became eyewitness
evidence of what really had happened in the "pacification" campaigns. The U.S. War
Reconcentration Campaigns
Towards the end of 1900 the Americans declared martial law. American troops
were waging wars in southern Luzon, Leyte, Samar, Panay, Negros and Cebu. The
herded into concentration camps to flush out guerrillas and to cut off their supply line.
However, in the process, whole towns suffered from hunger and disease. Villages were
burned and razed to the ground as crops were destroyed. Filipinos were taken away from
their sources of livelihood and lacked adequate food. People were confined in
In Batangas, for instance, the American troops under Major General Franklin Bell
wanted to break the resistance movement of Filipino General Miguel Malvar. The
Batanguenos were forcibly brought into reconcentration camps. Everything outside the
camp was confiscated or destroyed. Anyone outside the camp was automatically deemed
a guerrilla. U.S. goverurnent sources claim that the Batangas affair resulted in a casualty
The enormity of the war, though, was expressed by an American Congressman who said
that ''they never rebel in Luzon anymore because there isn't anybody left to rebel."
15 -b
2. The Treaty ofParis of 1898 ended the Spanish-American War. It was signed on:
4. The Filipinos started doubting U.S. altruism in liberating the Philippines from
Spanish colonial rule when the Americans restricted Aguinaldo's forces from
entering:
a. Manila c. Cavite
b. Malolos d. Bulacan
5. Which of these reasons was cited by President William McKinley as the motive
behind the American decision to annex the Philippines:
a. to establish a military base from which the U.S. could launch efforts to penetrate
China
b. to spread Protestantism
c. to discharge American duty and obligation as a white race to civilize and uplift
the conditions of the Filipinos
d. to expand American business interests and secure sources of raw materials for the
American industries
War. Concurrent in this post-war period were first, a cholera epidemic; and then the
The Americans perceived that part of transforming Filipinos into mature and
civilized colonial subjects involved educating them in the practice of good health and
hygiene. The Filipinos' lack of sanitation and unhygienic practices were regarded as
rooted in superstition and ignorance, which were at the heart of epidemic tropical
diseases such as cholera, smallpox, dysentery, malaria, and tuberculosis. This goal of
educating the Filipinos on good health and hygiene was dictated by the Americans' noble
mission to enlighten and bring their subjects to a civilized and healthful state.
But the American mission was not solely due to noble motives. The Americans
themselves were scared of tropical diseases in the Philippines, knowing that their health
and well-being depended on how swiftly and effectively they could bring medical
technology to their subjects. The Americans had a genuine unspecified fear of the
tropical climate with its accompanying diseases. An American in 1899 testified that the
tropical "climate seems to affect Americans especially with regard to their assimilation.
People who have lived here for a long time grow gradually pale...Women, especially,
102
Spaniards, and Chinese. But the lower classes were the hardest hit, especially in
certain districts of Manila because of the "overcrowding, poor sanitation, and poor
diet.,,28 By the time the epidemic ended about 109,460 had died, 4,386 in Manila alone.
The cholera epidemic gave way to what Ileto calls "germ warfare", another stage
of the Philippine-American War, which saw military surgeons as the next wave of
"pacifiers" after the cavalrymen and troops of the earlier years. Searches and
surveillance were conducted among Filipino homes to ferret out the sick for quarantine.
But the Filipinos refused to isolate the cholera victim from his network of social support,
particularly his family. Their universal response was evasion. As a compromise, tents
were set up near cholera hospitals so relatives and friends could visit the patients twice a
day.
Within the cholera combat zone colonial officials likewise broke up gatherings of
and churches. They even resorted to burning the houses of cholera victims or casualties
and even ordered the cremation of the deceased. These methods naturally evoked
resistance on the part of the Filipinos who resorted more and more to evasion and
concealment.
Another way of dealing with cholera was the introduction of prohibitions which
were aimed at containing the epidemic such as the display of a red flag in houses of
cholera victims in order to warn people. Filipinos refused to conform. Ileto claims that
27Ibid, p. 100.
28Reynaldo Ileto, "Cholera and the Origins of the American Sanitary Order in the Philippines," Rafael,
Discrepant Histories, p. 55.
16 - a
Suggested Readings:
Anderson, Warwick. "'Where Every Prospect Pleases and Only Man is Vile': Laboratory
Medicine as Colonial Discourse," Vicente L. Rafael, Discrepant Histories:
Translocal Essays on Filipino Cultures. Manila: Anvil Publishing, Inc., 1995, pp.
83-112.
Gates, John, Schoolbooks and Krags: the United States Army in the Philippines, 1898-
1902. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 1973.
IIeto, Reynaldo, "Cholera and the Origins of the American Sanitary Order in the
Philippines," Rafael, Discrepant Histories, pp. 51-82.
Suggested Activities:
I Multiple Choice
1. Who were the new wave of"pacifiers" during the cholera epidemic?
a.cava1ryrnen c. Thomasites
2. The Americans utilized all of the following strategies to combat the cholera epidemic
except for:
3. What were the concomitant effects of the cholera epidemic and the "scientific
medicine" method of pacification between the Filipinos and the Americans?
104
CHAPTER 17
power. But the Americans justified their rule over the Philippines by claiming that it was
their mission. They believed it was their duty to enlighten a "half-savage" race and guide
them toward a progress equal to that of the civilized nations. William McKinley, in
justifying American annexation of the Philippines, claimed that after God appeared to
him in his sleep he had no choice but ''to educate the Filipinos, uplift and civilize and
Christianize them, and by God's grace do the very best we could by them..." This
Benevolent Assimilation, Rudyard Kipling said it was the White Man's Burden, and
Self-Rule
From the start the Americans had made it clear that their goal was one of political
tutelage, i.e., to teach the Filipinos lessons on self-rule in preparation for eventual
rewarding the most loyal of them for their acceptance and cooperation in the enforcement
of American rule. In 1901, the ilustrados, or middle class, were allowed to organize a
political party called the Federal Party. This party was acceptable to the Americans
because it clamored not for independence but for annexation to the United States. No
other party was allowed to organize until 1906, and even then parties with platfonns
which called for immediate total independence were not sanctioned. In 1903, the
106
Literature during this period documents the Filipino elites' efforts not only to
learn lessons in self-rule but to work towards true Philippine independence. Manuel P.
Quezon and Sergio Osmena Sr. epitomized these efforts with their numerons
Independence Missions to the United States for the purpose of securing a bill which
would set the date of independence. Colonial historians like Norman Owen and David
Steinberg argue, though, that these elites were not really genuine champions of freedom;
rather they were allies or compadres (co-parent) of Americans in the process of colonial
rule. The Americans relied on ilustrado or elite support to implement their rule. In
return, the Americans imposed policies which had to have the tacit approval if not
endorsement of the elites. In a sense, the Americans had to compromise with the elites'
"education, civil service reform, public health, economic development and, above all,
Colonial Education
the Filipinos from ''haIf-savages'' to "civilized" people. In the eyes of the Americans, the
Filipinos needed to conform to their Western linear perception of progress from the
primitive stage to the modern enlightened era. Education was the tool which was to
United States' system. Thus, Filipinos learned about American heroes, presidents,
history, and the American way of life rather than Philippine nationalists, history, and
culture. What Constantino contends is that the Americans used education as a subtle
colonial tool to weaken Filipino nationalism and institute American ways in the minds of
a generation of Filipinos; that education was a more powerful colonial tool than the actual
use of force. This also explains why the Department of Public Instruction was never
Filipinized until the Commonwealth government was established in 1936. But by then,
education had brainwashed a new generation of "little brown Americans", who thought
and acted like Americans, who dreamed of snow, and who saw the United States as the
land of honey and gold. Education ushered in the problem of colonial mentality which
4. Who was the American governor general who implemented the Filipinization policy?
5. Which of the following was used by the Americans as an instrument to facilitate the
Filipinos' maturity and enlightenment?
I. The Americans ruled the Philippines with the collaboration of the . In return,
the American policies had the tacit approval if not endorsement of this group.
2. Norman Owen claims that American colonial rule was one of colonialism
3. Reynaldo Ileto claims that the Americans saw their mission as transforming the
5. Throughout the American period the only government office which was not
The willingness of the Filipino elites to cooperate with the new colonial
dispensation was amply rewarded when they were co-opted to run the national and local
government. Their reward was amplified by colonial economic policies which were to be
The nineteenth century was a period of economic growth for the Philippines. The
When the time the Americans came in 1898 the Philippine economy was entirely
agricultura1, with four crops--sugar, abaca, tobacco and coconut--accounting for almost
90% of the country's total exports. These crops, together with rice and com, made up
90% of cultivated crops. The demand in the world market for cash crops stimulated
agricultura1 production.
Before 1898, landholding was the foremost gauge of wealth. Many ilustrados or
middle class owned lands, but many also derived their wealth by merely serving as
inquilinos, or lessees of lands, who had their lands tilled by tenants. These ilustrados
were inquilinos to the various religious corporations who owned the bulk of the prime
agricultural lands. For instance, the Augustinians and Dominicans owned vast tracts of
independent small land holders, a new concept to Filipino peasants. But the Filipino
elites who were knowledgeable of the law used land titling as a way to annex
The Americans also encouraged frontier migration which would have provided
landless peasants in Luzon the opportunities to own public lands in Mindanao. But again
only a small number of Filipino families were informed enough to avail themselves of
this choice. Most Filipinos preferred to remain with their family on the land they had
Free Trade
The elite monopoly of land was perpetuated by American trade and tariff policies
which were to their own and to the elites' economic advantage. Free trade was formally
established with the passage of the Payne-Aldrich Act of 1909, by which an unlimited
amount of American goods could enter the Philippines free of tariff. Philippine exports,
on the other hand, entered the American market without tariff although quotas were
imposed on sugar and tobacco. The quotas were meant to protect American growers in
the U.S. When in 1913 the Underwood-Sinunons Act lifted quotas on Philippine exports
there was a tremendous increase in sugar and tobacco exports to the U.S. Unlimited or
total free trade was in effect until the passage of the Tydings-McDuffie law in 1935,
which once again imposed quotas on Philippine sugar and tobacco and also on processed
whom were political elites in the colonial government. Free trade oriented the economy
exclusively on agricultural production, mainly for the U.S. market. But by the 1930s,
U.S. was suffering from the Great Depression. Philippine agricultural goods were a
convenient alibi for problems of the U.S. market. Similarly, Filipino migration to Hawaii
and California was also being identified as a cause of American labor problems. U.S.
labor and agricultural interests thus lobbied for the granting of Philippine independence.
Landowners became far more strict, businesslike, and greedy in their dealings with their
tenants. With wealth and land concentrated among a few elites, agrarian unrest
especially in Central Luzon intensified in the 1930s. This agrarian unrest was part of the
1. Free trade was hannful to the Philippines since it encouraged the economy to
2. By the 1930s, the Philippines had a _ _ economy which was solely dependent on
4. Free trade was not an equal relationship since Philippine goods could enter the U.S.
butwith _
5. With the onset of the in the 1930s, Philippine goods were conveniently
blamed by the Americans for the problems besetting the U.S. economy.
1. Resolve: Was the free trade policy more beneficial or hannful for the Philippines?
IV Essay Writing
1. Critique the role of the elites, or i/ustrados, in Philippine economy in the nineteenth
century and throughout the American colonial period.
2. Write a reaction paper on the American economic policies in the Philippines. What
do you think were the successes and failures? If you could rectify these failures, how
would you go about doing it?
114
CHAPTER 19
The peasant perception and understanding of independence was vastly different from its
interpretation by the elites. The government and society in general adjudged these grass-
roots movements as nothing but fanaticism of ignorant peasants who had succumbed to
the rhetoric of a few local demagogues. Many view these protests as aberrations. The
Americans saw them as yet another proof of the ignorance, delinquency and immaturity
own terms. And as historian Reynaldo Ileto proved in his book, Pasyon and Revolution,
they are part of a long tradition of peasant reactions which date back to Apolinario de la
Cruz in 1840 and the Katipunan of 1896. The history of popular movements must be told
Macario Sakay
the Spanish period persisted throughout the American colonial rule. In the early years,
resistance was carried out by General Macario Sakay, who refused to surrender to the
Americans even after the arrest of President Emilio Aguinaldo. In 1902, Sakay declared
Although he called it a Tagalog Republic, he announced that it included the Visayas and
116
the Santa Iglesia, which became a popular movement in Central Luzon in the first
decade of the American rule. The Santa Iglesia, which had its center at Mt. Arayat in
Pampanga, became popular and gained the support of the peasants of the provinces of
Bulacan, Pampanga, Tarlac, and Nueva Ecija with its espousal of kalayaan
as soon as lands would be redistributed among peasants. Salvador was seen by his
followers as the resurrected Jesus Christ. His image was undoubtedly enhanced when he
was captured in 1902, but he later on escaped from the Bilibid prisons. Like Ricarte,
Salvador considered assistance from Japan, which was at this time a rising Asian power,
Ileto in his Pasyon and Revolution notes that significant events came about in
1910 which made that year seem auspicious for an uprising of the followers of Santa
Iglesia. The Philippine Assembly was set to convene, with its newly elected members
promising a new era. Meanwhile, the U.S. Congress had just rejected a proposal of a
huge American corporation to purchase the friar lands and transform them into sugar
plantations. The decision seemed like an indication that perhaps independence could
soon be attained. The year 1910 was also buzzing with news of Halley's comet. It was
believed that Halley's comet would start a war, interpreted by the peasants as a prelude to
independence. Thus, in 1910 rumors were ripe of an impending uprising by the Santa
Iglesia. Salvador, however, was captured in Pampanga and was later hanged for alleged
medals. Captured rebels claimed they wanted kalayaan (independence), which would
result in a redistribution of land and the elimination of abuses of the local policemen and
the Constabulary.
The leader of the uprising was Pedro Calosa, an Ilocano, whose parents had
rnigrated to Pangasinan. He worked in the sugar plantations of Hawaii but was deported
from the islands for organizing the sakadas. Upon his return to his native Pangasinan,
movement culminated with the Tayug uprising. The short-lived uprising was quelled,
Sakdalistas
By far the most popular movement in the 1930s was the Sakdalistas. Two events
triggered the birth of the Sakdal Movement in 1930. The first was the racial conflict
between the Filipinos and the Caucasian Americans in Watsonville, California Its root
was the perception that the Filipinos were taking over American jobs and American
women (see the lecture on Filipinos in California). In the first incident, a Filipino lettuce
picker was killed by a mob of 200 Americans. The second incident was over the walkout
and protest by students of Manila North High School as a result of insulting remarks
made by an American teacher. One of the leaders in the rallies and strikes that ensued
after this incident was Benigno Ramos, the founder of the Sakdal.
120
independence. Independence was interpreted as a state where no one would be poor.
In 1934, Ramos left ostensibly to go to the U.S. to secure a bill which would grant
complete, total and final independence for the country. But he disembarked in Japan and
stayed there until 1938. Like Ricarte, he saw the independence of the Filipinos as
government in May 1, 1935. About 68,000 of its members joined the rebellion which
was centered in Laguna. They believed that their amulets would protect them from
government troops. They also believed that Ramos and Ricarte were arriving with
weapons together with the Japanese navy. The Constabulary easily quelled the uprising
of what it called the "fanatics". When one of the survivors of the uprising, Salud
Alagabre, was interviewed years after the event and was asked about the failure of the
uprising, she claimed that "no uprising fails, each one is a step in the right direction!"
Despite the uprising's lack of success, the Sakdal movement continued. Ramos
came back in 1938 after he had met President Quezon who was visiting Japan. Upon his
return, Ramos was arrested on charges of insurrection and sedition. He was freed on bail,
but by 1939, he was imprisoned again due to charges of estafa and illegal solicitation of
money. When the Japanese came in December 1941, they freed Ramos, who
The 1930s was a period of peasant unrest. Aside from the Sakdalistas, the
peasants in Central Luzon banded into organizations to protect themselves from their
19 - a
Suggested Readings:
Guerrero, Milagros c., "The Colorum Uprisings, 1924-1931," Asian Studies 5:1 (April
1967): 65-78.
Ileto, Reynaldo Ileto, Pasyon and Revolution: Popular Movements in the Philippines,
1840-1910. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1979, Chapter 5:
"The Path to Kalayaan," pp. 197-244; and Chapter 6: "The Pasyon of Felipe
Salvador," pp. 259-309.
Jose, Ricardo T., The Philippine Army, 1935-1942. Manila: Ateneo de Manila University
Press, 1992.
Kerkvliet, Benedict, Chapter 1: "Origins of the Rebellion," The Huk Rebellion: A Study
of Peasant Revolt in the Philippines. Berkeley: University of California Press,
1977.
_-', "Benigno Ramos and the Sakdal Movement," Philippine Studies 36 (1988) 427-
442.
Suggested Activities:
I. Multiple Choice
1. Who among these leaders founded the Tagalog Republic and declared his resistance
movement as the new Katipunan?
2. Which of these peasant movements became popular in Central Luzon in the fist
decade of the American colonial rule?
a. Sakdalista c. Ricarista
19 - c
3. In the 1930s, Central Luzon peasants banded together to seek redress for their
grievances against powerful landlords. Among these peasant organizations were the
_ _, , and _
A B
1. How would you explain the persistence of messianic social movements in Philippine
history?
2. Research on one of the many messianic movements during the American period.
Explain its ascendancy, popularity, and decline.
3. Discuss the living conditions and social relations in Central Luzon in the 1930s.
122
CHAPTER 20
An important event during the American colonial period was the exodus of
Filipino laborers to the United States. The economies of Hawaii and California which
needed a steady supply of cheap labor encouraged the influx of Filipino migrant workers.
Even though these workers maintained close links with the Philippines they began to
forge equally strong and lasting ties with their new homeland. Their collective
During the first half of the twentieth century, Hawaii as well as California had an
labor. The economy of Hawaii was dependent on sugar and pineapple which could only
labor recruiters who established recruitment centers in Vigan, Ilocos Sur, and Cebu.
Filipino migration started in 1906 with fifteen Tagalog contract workers. The Filipinos
were at first reluctant to go to Hawaii because of the distance and the rumors about wild
animals roaming the islands and devouring people. These unfounded rumors clouded the
Hawaii. But recruitment campaigns persisted despite the initial lack of success in
attracting Filipino laborers. There was a pressing need to import Filipino workers to
124
Most of the Filipino migrant workers were Ilocanos. Since the nineteenth
century the Ilocanos had been migrating to different parts of the Philippines. The harsh
living conditions and the limited economic opportunities in Ilocos had forced the Ilocanos
to migrate out and seek better fortunes. In the twentieth century, Hawaii and California
The Hawaiian Sugar Planters Association (HSPA) preferred to hire Filipino workers for
2.) it was practical to simply hire Filipinos since the Philippines was a U.S.
colony and the Filipinos were technically U.S. nationals due to their colonial
and
3.) the Philippines was an agrarian nation with exposure to sugar plantation
The Filipinos who migrated to Hawaii were rural folk. They faced numerous
problems from the time they left the Philippines. While most of them were Ilocanos,
there were also a few Bisayans or Tagalogs. Upon reaching Hawaii they found that they
had to deal with more ethnic diversity. Linguistic differences hampered the workers'
126
issue an executive order which prohibited the exodus of the Japanese from Hawaii to
the mainland. In the islands the HPSA was in complete control. They armed a luna with
a black snake whip to force the workers to toil without release. They could use the
Islands' police force to break down workers' resistance. But the power of the HPSA went
beyond threats, coercion, and lobbying to more subtle forms of control. They exercised
out of concern but oftentimes designed to suit their economic ends. Medical care, for
example, was provided to workers to monitor their health and well-being and to
maximize their productivity. But "plantation patemalism was designed not only to
extract a good day's work from the laborers but also to weaken the power of workers to
different nationalities against each other for the purpose of keeping wages down. One
ethnic group was used as scabs to break the strike of another. Work assignments were
based on nationality and race. Racism was applied by discriminating color and
ethnically determined, and differential wages based on ethnicity and further by gender,
were imposed. The Caucasians, considered skilled workers, were higher paid and
assigned supervisory positions. The Japanese and the Filipinos, on the other hand, were
Response of Workers
30Ronald Takaki, Pau Hana: Plantation Life and Labor in Hawaii, 1835-1920 (Honolulu: University of
Hawaii Press, 1983), p. 65.
128
to be replaced by a larger class-based organization and resistance. The inter-ethnic
In general, the Filipinos found ways to cope with the hard plantation life. These
I.) They turned to townmates for mutual support and formed mutual aid
2.) They made a support network of the plantation since it was a self-contained
3.) They organized into labor unions and waged strikes for improved living and
working conditions.
The Filipinos were organized as a result of the efforts of two Filipino labor
Pablo Manlapit was born on January 17, 1891 in Lipa, Batangas, to a working-
class family. Melinda Kerkvliet in her study of Manlapit claims that his sojourn in
Hawaii covered roughly two periods. In the first period (1910-1919), Manlapit
experienced employment problems, started a family, and continued his education through
self-study. He became the first Filipino lawyer to practice law in Hawaii, an impressive
achievement considering that when he left the Philippines nine years before he had just
130
Philippines where he started a new life working In different capacities for the
Born in Zambales, Philippines, Carl Damaso came to Hawaii during the height of
the depression in the 1930s. He was 17 when recruited by the HPSA. In 1934, he joined
a strike of his fellow Filipino workers at Ola'a Sugar Plantation--also known as Puna
Sugar Company--on the island of Hawaii. The Filipinos, who made up 70% of the
plantation workforce, protested the company's decision to further lower wages and its
employment discrimination policy. The strike was defeated; Damaso was branded as a
labor agitator and placed on the list of "do not hire". He moved to Maui and found work
at the Wailuku Sugar Company but was soon fired for attempting to start a union. He
then moved to Molokai where he survived by fishing and playing pool. He became a
prominent labor leader after the war when he became an organizer of the International
Longshoremen's and Warehousemen's Union (ILWU) and was at the forefront of the
labor strikes.
Plantation Culture
foremost vehicle for the Filipinos' cultural survival. The Filipinos continued to
communicate with each other using their own language, which in most cases was Ilocano.
The huge number of Ilocano workers and the policy of segregation within the plantation
encouraged their continued use of Ilocano. But the plantation management also insisted
English evolved and became the language of communication among plantation workers.
20 -a
Suggested Readings:
Takaki, Ronald. In the Heart ofAmerica: Immigrants from the Pacific Isles. Adapted by
Rebecca Stefoff with Carol Takaki. New York and Philadelphia: Chelsea Book
Publishers, 1995.
_ _. Pau Hana: Plantation Life and Labor in Hawaii, 1835-1920. Honolulu: University
of Hawaii Press, 1983.
Suggested Videos:
Filipino Americans: Discovering their Past for the Future. [S.1.]: Filipino American
National Historical Society; Seattle: Distributed by Wehman Video Distribution,
1994. VHS, 54 min. UHM Videotape 9877.
Filipinos in Hawaii. Honolulu: KHET TV, 1991, color with black and white sequences.
VHS, 30 min. UHM Videotape 1858
Manong. Los Angeles, CA: Visual Conununications, 1978, color with black and white
sequences. VHS, 30 min. UHM Videotape 4097.
Pete Tagalog Talks ofEarly Days in Waipahu. Pearl City: Leeward Community College,
1977. VHS, UHM Videotape 3612
To A New Land. Lincoln, NE: GPN, 1977, color with black and white sequences. VHS,
28 min. UHM Videotape 7920
20 -c
b. to replenish the laborers who had gone back to the Philippines or had gone to the
U.s. mainland
II Enumeration
7-10 What were the problems faced by Filipino migrant workers in Hawaii?
A B
N. Research Work
132
CHAPTER 21
different from Hawaii's but working conditions were equally harsh. In a sense, the
experience of the Filipinos sakadas in Hawaii paralleled the plight of Filipino laborers in
California.
1. In Hawaii, Filipinos were tied to the land since jobs were confined to plantation
workers in California moved from farm to farm in response to seasons, crops, and
other demands. California was characterized by a fluid labor force since, unlike in
outsiders outside.
Migration to California
Filipinos in California were mostly students sent by the Philippine govemment to study
under the pensionado system. In the 1920s, there was a new demand for laborers on the
West Coast, particularly in California. Many Filipinos who came to California were
sakadas who had broken or served their three-year contract with the Hawaii Sugar
Planters Association. They became part of a large labor pool. The Filipinos came after
the "Yellow Peril", i.e., the influx of Chinese and Japanese coolies, and their arrival was
134
in rice harvesting; beet hoeing and topping; tomato and lettuce harvesting;
and other jobs classifiable as ranch labor. In California, the centers ofFilipino
laborers because they were perceived as good and fast workers, quick
industries like hotels and restaurants as bell boys, elevator boys, waiters,
janitors, etc. Filipinos earned the reputation of being clean, nice mannered,
3. Fishery workers. Some Filipinos found their way up the West Coast as far as
Alaska to work in the fishing and fish canning industries. In 1927, about
2,869 Filipinos worked in this sector and this increased to 4,210 in 1930.
bunkhouses and shacks which looked like chicken coops. They worked long hours, from
6 a.m. to 6 p.m., for six days a week. Work was very hard, and by the end of the day they
Racial Discrimination
Not only were Filipinos discriminated against, but in an unusual position. For
one, they had no sovereign government to speak for thern since the Philippines was a
136
Organizing and Unionizing
Labor Union was formed at Salinas to protect Filipinos from unfair employment
California, the most notable of which were the Filipino Labor Association of Stockton
and the Philippine Labor Chamber of Salinas. In 1939, the most effective Filipino labor
union was established in the Filipino Agricultural Labor Association, which later
1930, in the Imperial VaHey with Filipino and Mexican laborers walking out. Police
arrested 100 strikers. In 1933, the Filipino Labor Union in Stockton and Salinas went on
strike. About 4,000 fought low wages and racial discrimination. In the Salinas Valley
lettuce growing area, a Filipino strike occurred towards the end of August, 1934, as a
result of the burning of a $15,000 labor camp and the Filipino demand for decent wages.
They wanted 40 - 45 cents an hour wage and better working conditions. About 6,000
strikers walked out joined by white workers, but the latter decided to deal with the
growers separately.
Racial Riots
The first race riot occurred in Exeter on the night of October 24, 1929, when white
Americans were supplanted by Filipinos in harvesting Kadota figs and Emperor grapes.
A mob of 300 whites stormed a Filipino camp, stoning and clubbing about 50 Filipinos,
138
repatriation of the Filipinos. In 1935, the U.S Congress passed the Repatriation Act
calling for Filipino repatriation. However, only 2,190 returned to the Philippines.
By the 1940s and 1950s, a new generation of about 500 Filipino and part-Filipino
children in Stockton had emerged, more than half of whom were mixed-race. This
pattern eventually became the reality in many Filipino communities in the United States.
American acceptance of the Filipinos was slow. The active participation of Filipinos as
soldiers and as civilians involved in the mobilization efforts during World War II
I. Which of the following best describes the nature of work in California in the first half
of the twentieth century?
2. Filipinos came to California in huge numbers starting in the 1920s. Their arrival was
referred to as the:
a. Yellow Peril
c. Brown Peril
3. Most of the Filipinos who came to California during this period planned to:
a. as agricultural workers
___,5. divide and rule policy e. bent down kind of work such as
planting cauliflower or cutting
asparagus
___6.. Filipino Labor Union f. the most effective Filipino labor group
responsible for raising wages and
improving living and working
conditions
___7. Filipino Agricultural Labor g. paved way for the return of some
Association Filipinos back to the Philippines
1. Compare and contrast the experiences of Filipinos in Hawaii and California in the
1920s and 1930s in terms of the following:
a) nature of work
b) living conditions
V. Creative Writing
1. Watch a video on the early Filipinos in California or read any of the works of Carlos
Bulosan, a Filipino laborer in California in the 1930s who captured the experiences of
the Filipinos in the United States. Imagine yourself as a Filipino agricultural worker
in California during this period. Write your memoir.
139
CHAPTER 22
Cofradia de San Jose in 1840, Katipunan during the Philippine Revolution, Colorum in
the 1920s, and the Sakdal in the 1930s, was transported by Filipino migrant workers to
the United States. Pedro Calosa, an Ilocano sakada for ten years in Hawaii during the
1920s, was remembered by fellow Filipino sakadas as someone who brought from the
powers. Calosa eventually went home to the Philippines and became the leader of the
Tayug uprising in 1929. There were many other Filipino migrant laborers who came to
the U.S. imbued with their peasant consciousness and experience in millenarian
movements. One example is Hilario Camino Moncada, who founded the Moncadistas.
Their history shows the persistence of Filipino millenarian tradition and how it
Americans.
The Moncadistas
Filipino Federation of America (FFA), a mutual aid society which was formed to assist
Hawaii and California usually originated from hometown associations which later
evolved into Filipino communities. Among these mutual aid societies were the
141
to the mountains especially during the Holy Week was viewed as a way of activating
significant number. The Federation started with 12 members, had 12 objectives, and 12
divisions, each division with 12 lodges, and each lodge with 12 members. This
fascination with 12 was called "doce-doce ". Jesus Christ had 12 apostles, and Rizal was
viewed by his worshippers as having 12 disciples who were all ilustrados. Similarly,
Moncado as a second Christ was photographed with 12 disciples. His followers believed
that Moncado was the "new Rizal" and the "Filipino messiah." Rizal was revered by
many Filipino peasants following his execution by the Spaniards. They viewed his death
as spiritual martyrdom, a redemptive death to liberate the Filipinos from the colonial
oppressors. Moncado for his part promised his followers that he would secure Philippine
independence. He likewise appeared convincing as the new Christ because his six-foot
height made him different from most Filipinos. He had such charisma that people took
notice of him wherever he went. He claimed that he had been trained in mysticism in
juxtaposing their life and experiences with those of Jesus Christ and locating their
movement within the Pasyon tradition. The Pasyon is a religious text which narrates the
life, suffering and death of Jesus Christ. Ileto claims that the Pasyon, which is popularly
143
that the FFA was nothing but fakery. Various Filipino labor organizations branded
the Federation as made up of cowards since it tolerated the abuses in plantation life. But
the Federation did gain acceptance among the Filipino sakadas. In the 1930s, it had
about 800 members in Hawaii, although records of the Federation claimed as many as
11,000 members. In 1938, it was estimated that about 144 members of the Federation
were actively engaged in the sacripisyo and were even sporting long hair, perhaps
believing that long hair gave them spiritual potency. The Moncadistas attracted many
sakadas, and its huge membership was displayed in full force during the Rizal Day
colonies in Mindanao, which at this time was being promoted by the Philippine
establishing new settlements in Mindanao. Upon the death of de los Reyes in 1937, his
running as senator in 1934 and 1938, and as a presidential candidate in the 1941 and 1946
elections, all of which he lost. In his electoral campaigns, the Moncadistas in Hawaii and
California supported him. But Moncado's setbacks convinced him that he did not belong
in the Philippines, so he returned to Hawaii in 1948. When he was deported from the
Upon his death, the Federation was so wracked with infighting that the conflict
between the material and spiritual wings of the organization worsened. One spiritual
22 -a
Suggested Readings:
San Buenaventura, Steffi. "The Master and the Federation: A Filipino-American Social
Movement in California and Hawaii," Jonathan Okamura et. al (editors), The
Filipino American Experience in Hawai'i. Honolulu: Social Process in Hawaii
vol. 33, Department of Sociology, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1991, pp. 169-
193.
Suggested Activities:
I Multiple Choice
1. The Filipino Federation of America (FFA) was fonned on December 27,1925 in Los
Angeles by:
a Pedro Calosa
d. Geraldo Alvaro
3. Which of these practices indicate that the Moncadistas display features of Filipino
messianic, popular movements?
a. its leader, Camino Moncada, was seen as a second Christ and a new Rizal
A B
_ _I. Pasyon a. an Ilocano sakada in Hawaii who later led the
Tayug uprising in the Philippines
_ _4. Lorenzo de los Reyes d. a mutual aid society whose name was derived
from Rizal's pen name
IV Research Work
1. For those who are in Hawaii, visit the Moncadista church in Kalihi and interview
some of its members to get a firsthand account of what the movement meant for them.
What role did it play in the collective experiences of Filipino-Americans in the U.S.?
V Essay Writing
Pacific stage ofWorid War II. Simultaneously with the bombing of the Pearl Harbor, the
Japanese also bombed American installations in the Philippines, notably Clark Field in
Pampanga, and Sangley Point in Cavite. Their aim was to cripple the American forces in
the Pacific in order to pave the way for an easy Japanese conquest of Southeast Asia.
Historians have cited economic factors as the main motivation of Japan for going
to war. With Japan's population soaring, the inadequacy of resources had become
critical. The country lacked natural resources, particularly oil. Moreover, its land area
could not adequately supply its own agricultural needs, such as rice, sugar and rubber.
Likewise, at that time, its industries wanted new markets for its manufactured goods.
Japan realized that expansion must be justified and rationalized to the extent that
Asians would accept Japanese rule. Japan chose to claim that it was driving out the
imperialist whites from Asia under the slogan "Asia for the Asiatics." By the same
rationale Japan argued that since its economy was linked to those of East Asia and
Southeast Asia and it could promote a "Greater East Asia CO-Prosperity Sphere," or a
common prosperity for all economies of Asia. In the Philippines, part of the Japanese
propaganda was also meant to show how the Filipinos had lost their Asianess through
The battle raged in Bataan and Corregidor, the last stand of the combined Filipino
and American forces. Disease and lack of ammunition, food and water forced the
combined Filipino and American forces under the United States Armed Forces in the Far
East (USAFFE) to surrender after several months of battle. Bataan fell on April 9, 1942,
and Corregidor on May 6, 1942. Meanwhile, MacArthur together with Quezon and
Osmena left for Australia, upon MacArthur's prophetic pledge: "1 Shall Return!" The
The captives from Bataan, totaling 30,000 Filipinos and 10,000 Americans, were
made to march ISO kilometers from Mariveles, Bataan, to San Fernando, Pampanga, and
then loaded onto trains for Capas, Tarlac, where they were imprisoned. The infamous
march has been called the "Death March," because it was literally a march toward death,
with many dying of hunger and disease. The wounded were simply bayoneted by the
Japanese troops.
from white colonial rule, the Japanese promised independence to Asians in return for
their recognition of Japanese hegemony. The Filipinos were not deceived. They knew
that the coming of the Japanese did not mean independence, but simply a new colonial
order. Moreover, the Tydings-McDuffie Law which had created the Philippine
149
rubber-stamp, puppet government since it was the Japanese who ran the affairs and
decided on matters. The Japanese wanted Laurel to declare war against the United States
Japanese military free and unhampered use of the islands. Moreover, the Japanese were
allowed to utilize and exploit the economic resources of the country. In response to the
the United States maintained that the Quezon government in exile was the legitimate one.
For allowing themselves to be part of the Japanese rule, Laurel and company were tagged
d. December 5,1941
3. What was the aim of the Japanese in bombing major U.S. installations?
4. Which of these slogans was used by the Japanese to rationalize their expansion in
Asia?
5. Who was named Field Marshal by President Manuel Quezon and asked to defend the
islands?
2. With the fall of , the captured Filipino and American soldiers were forced to
march from Mariveles, Bataan to San Fernando Pampanga. This infamous incident is
2. Do further research on the Death March. Imagine yourself as one of the thousands of
soldiers who surrendered with the fall of Bataan. Form a group and re-enact the
surrender of Bataan or the subsequent Death March.
150
CHAPTER 24
Japanese occupation. David Steinberg claims that it was a critical period since the
loyalty of the Filipinos towards the Americans was tested, with a significant portion of
the elites transferring their loyalty to Japan. The bulk of the people though did not
transfer loyalty, due to their utang na loob (debt of gratitude) to the Americans. Alfred
was not a significant break in history. The Filipino elites remained loyal to the U.S. out
of a desire to protect their economic interests; after all they were landowners and traders
who profited with free trade. McCoy claims that Filipino society was made up of
prominent families and political leaders competing as factions. Thus, those who sided
with the Japanese did so in response to their opposing faction, who sided with the
Americans.
history. It was a time of death and destruction, which millions of Filipinos view with
sadness if not bitterness. The economy was in shambles and living conditions were
deplorable. People felt fear and uncertainty. The Japanese occupation split Filipino
society. Those who saw the Japanese as the liberators of the Asian race enthusiastically
supported them. The majority of Filipinos, however, saw through the Japanese
propaganda and realized that it was another imperialist rule, but this time by an Asian
state.
152
In most places in Luzon, the backbone of the Filipino guerrilia resistance
against Japanese rule was made up of the soldiers of the United States Armed Forces in
the Far East, or USAFFE, who fled to the mountains when Bataan and Corregidor feli. In
the Visayas and Mindanao, the USAFFE forces who refused to surrender started the
resistance was the peasant organizations of the 1930s which banded and formed the
inteliigence and surveillance activities which plotted the movement of Japanese troops.
The guerrilias, in turn, were supported by the rural people who gave them medicine, food,
and in some cases harbored them when the Japanese were in pursuit.
The Hukbalahap, led by Luis Taruc, was successful in resisting the Japanese in
the provinces ofBulacan, Nueva Ecija, Tarlac, and Pampanga. Many of the Hukbalahaps
were peasants by day, and guerrilias by night. Aside from engaging the Japanese in
random battles, the Hukbalahaps policed the rural areas and enforced their own brand of
justice. During the war there were Filipino opportunists, some of which were called
gerilyang kanin or rice guerrilias, who capitalized on the peoples' suffering and stole
from them. The Hukbalahaps executed these enemies of the people. Central Luzon
under the Hukbalahap was different from what it had been in the 1930s. During the war
the landlords, fearing for their safety, fled the towns to stay in Manila. And since the
Hukbalahaps became the power to reckon with in the rural areas, the peasants for the first
grandmother from Bulacan, became the first Filipina to speak out in 1992 and admit that
she had been a comfort woman. She narrated her plight as a young teenage guerrilla in
Pampanga from her capture to her nine months' imprisonment to provide sexual services
became comfort women. So far about 42 Filipinas have come out in the open. It is
believed, though, that there were perhaps 2,000 Filipina comfort women in Cebu alone,
since the city had one of the largest concentration of Japanese troops in the Philippines.
other Asian women. There is international pressure for the Japanese government to
publicly apologize, indemnify these women, rewrite their history textbooks to include
this atrocity, and to make accessible to the public important war documents held by the
government on this issue. In reply, the Japanese government has insisted that whatever
indemnification demanded has long been taken care of by the postwar compensation
agreements they had with various Asian countries. Meanwhile, a Japanese private
organization called the Asian Women's Fund has offered monetary settlements to the
Economic dislocation marked the occupation years. Many agricultural lands were
left idle or were not maximized due to the general disorder and death of many farm
animals. Since the Japanese insisted on converting many rice lands into cotton lands, rice
production suffered. But, in a sense, the peasants were better off during this period since
24- a
Suggested Readings:
Agoncillo, Teodoro. The FatefUl Years: The Japanese Occupation of the Philippines
Quezon City, 1965.
Karnow, Stanley. "Chapter 11: War and Redemption," In Our Image: America's Empire
in the Philippines. New York: Random House, 1989.
McCoy, Alfred W. Southeast Asia Under Japanese Occupation. New Haven: Monograph
no. 22, Yale University Southeast Asia Studies, 1980.
Steinberg, David Joel. Philippine Collaboration in World War II. Ann Arbor: University
of Michigan Press, 1967.
Suggested Activities:
I Multiple Choice
a. Kalibapi c. Makapili
b. Sakdal d. Kakampi
3. In Central Luzon, the backbone of the Japanese resistance was the peasant
organizations of the 1930s which banded and formed the:
a. Hukbalahap c.NPA
4. The Asian women who were forced to provide sexual services to Japanese soldiers
were recently offered monetary settlements by the:
a. Japanese Women's Fund c. Asian Women's Fund
24 - c
d. Makapili
e. USAFFE
IV Debate Topic
1. Resolve in a debate the issue: were the Filipinos who joined the Japanese sponsored
government guilty of collaboration? Why?
V Essay Writing
I. Compare the experiences of comfort women in the Philippines with comfort women
from South Korea, China, and other Asian countries. What do you think should be
done to give them justice and restore their dignity?
156
CHAPTER 25
In 1945, the Americans returned to the Philippines to liberate the Filipinos from
Japanese occupation. While the arrival of the Americans in the archipelago fifty years
ago--ostensibly to liberate the Filipinos from the Spaniards--had met with intense
resistance and even a war, in 1945, the Americans were welcomed now as liberators.
Their shared war experiences forged stronger ties between the Philippines and the United
States.
Liberation
After three dark years the country was "liberated" from the Japanese by the
Americans. The irony is that it was not a "liberation," but a replacement of former
colonial rulers. On October 20,1944, after defeating the Japanese in the Battle ofLeyte,
General Douglas MacArthur together with 200,000 troops landed in Palo, Leyte. With
MacArthur's return he fulfilled his now famous words "I Shall Return". MacArthur
returned not simply as a liberator but as a redeemer. The combined American and
Filipino forces under General MacArthur won battles in Surigao Strait, Samar and Cape
Engano. In January 9, 1945, the American forces successfully landed in Lingayen Gulf,
Pangasinan, thus signaling the graduailiberation of the island of Luzon. From Lingayen,
the American forces marched towards Manila by liberating the provinces of Tarlac,
Nueva Ecija, Pampanga and Bulacan. On February 3, 1945, Manila too was liberated.
Sanitarium in New York, his Vice-President, Sergio Osmena, Sr., took over as
158
ordered the arrest of all Filipino leaders who had served in Laurel's puppet
government. Manuel Roxas was the only high ranking government official of the Laurel
government who escaped persecution for collaboration. Scholars say it is because he was
a good friend of MacArthur and served as his aide-de-camp prior to the war. His non-
arrest was justified on the grounds that he had secretly headed the Manila Intelligence
Osmena, like most Filipinos, was torn on the issue of collaboration. Laurel,
Vargas, and other Filipino leaders defended themselves from the collaboration charges by
citing Quezon's instructions for them to do everything to protect the people from the
Japanese. They argued that protecting the people meant having to serve in the puppet
government. Laurel cited the good things that he had been able to extend to the people
by virtue of his actions. For instance, during the height of the rice shortage, he
established an agency which assured the people of a continuous supply of rice. On the
part of Osmena, he knew that ifhe and Quezon had been left behind, the Japanese would
have forced them to join a puppet government, and they probably would have done the
same thing. Moreover, his own son, Sergio Osmena, Jr., was tagged a collaborator as
well for having amassed great wealth during the occupation years by engaging in the buy-
and-sell business with the Japanese. The issue of collaboration dragged on until Roxas,
with the patronage of MacArthur, the ultimate patron and redeemer, won the presidency
of the newly independent Philippine Republic. Left with no option since he himself was
a "collaborator", Roxas declared amnesty for all the leaders of the Japanese-sponsored
republic. The nationalist Claro M. Recto, however, insisted on a collaboration trial since
160
granted the Americans parity rights. This meant that the Americans were offered the
same rights as the Filipinos to develop public utilities and to utilize, exploit, and dispose
of the country's natural resources, an authority which should have been exclusively for
Filipinos. A final concession was the Military Bases Agreement, which allowed the
United States to retain vast tracts of land for military bases in the Philippines, the biggest
of which were the Clark Air Base in San Fernando, Pampanga, and the Subic Naval Base
in Olongapo. Viewed at the time, the Military Bases Agreement appeared to be a logical
move in the light of the Cold War era and the genuine threat posed by the Huk Rebellion
A B
_ _3. Philippine Trade Act of 1946 c. allowed the U.S. to retain vast tracts of
land to establish military installations
_ _7. Manuel Roxas h. gave the Americans equal rights with the
Filipinos to develop public utilities and
exploit the country's natural resources
1. Imagine yourself as the Philippine president immediately after the war. Write a
program of action on how you will rehabilitate the country from the ravages of the
war.
2. Pretend that you are a biographer. Research on the life of one of the following:
Douglas MacArthur, Jose Laurel, Manuel Quezon, and Sergio Osmena, Sr. Write
your chosen leader's biography.
IV Debate Topic
1. Argue on whether the Philippine acceptance of the tenns and conditions of the
Philippine Trade Act was the right thing to do, considering that at that time the
country was rising from the ashes of World War II.
161
CHAPTER 26
The newly proclaimed Philippine Republic was immediately besieged by the Huk
rebellion which magnified the country's communist paranoia. This communist paranoia
was largely a result of the Cold War climate. But the rebellion was a peasant movement
rather than a communist movement. Its indigenous origin dated back to the centuries-old
The problem of land control can be traced to the Spanish colonial period when
lands became a monopoly of a few elites and the church. The advent of the cash crop
economy in the nineteenth century and the implementation of free trade during the
American period sealed the fate of the peasants. Tenancy conditions worsened and the
Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, and Tarlac--peasants banded together and formed organizations
to better their living conditions. These peasant groups eventually formed the Hukbong
Bayan Laban sa Hapon (people Resistance Against the Japanese), or Hukbalahap, which
became the backbone of guerrilla resistance in Central Luzon during the Japanese period.
The Hukbalahap was largely responsible for the failure of the Japanese to
consolidate their control of the region. The Hukbalahaps hounded the Japanese and
provided valuable information to the USAFFE (United States Armed Forces in the Far
East) on the movement of Japanese troops. In a sense, Central Luzon became a Huk
163
congressmen on the alleged grounds of massive poll frauds in Pampanga and Nueva
Ecija, where they had won. Tamc and company were unseated.
The refusal to seat Tamc and other DA congressman was due to their opposition
to the Parity Rights amendment to the constitution which Roxas was pushing for in return
for American rehabilitation aid. But the wide scale and systematic persecution of the
Huks immediately after the war was due to the belief that the Huks were communists.
This accusation was due to the fact that the highest leadership of the Huks was made up
In his study of the Huk Rebellion, Benedict Kerkvliet debunks this perception. 33
He claims that the Huk Rebellion was a peasant movement whose membership was made
economic oppression and landlord abuses, and definitely not by the communist ideology.
In particular, Kerkvliet, following the moral economy theory of peasant unrest, contends
that the Huks protested the end of the traditional landlord-tenant ties which were
characterized by patronage on the part of the landlord, and loyalty on the side of the
tenant. With the boom in cash crop economy and the subsequent implementation of free
trade, landlords became impersonal and businesslike in their dealings with their tenants.
Gone was the traditional patronage system, and with it was lost the security of a
subsistence existence for the tenants. Thus, according to Kerkvliet, the Huks' demands
were moderate. Contrary to popular belief, the peasants did not want to appropriate the
33See Benedict J. Kerkvliet, The Huk Rebellion: A Study of Peasant Revolt in the Philippines (Berkeley:
The University of California Press, 1977).
165
failed because the government refused to address the basic agrarian problem and
The 1949 presidential election, which was marred by fraud and violence, was the
last straw. The Huks believed that the legal parliamentary struggle was no longer an
option. Its communist intellectual leadership now called for the overthrow of the
government. Due to massive peasant discontent, the ranks of the Huks swelled. At its
height, it had a strength of 12,000-15,000 armed supporters, with a mass base ranging
Since the Huk Rebellion was already full blown, the United States decided to step
in, warning Quirino to accept its military advice or lose the American military aid it
received each year. The Joint U.S. Military Advisory Group, or JUSMAG, urged that the
war be fought not just by the constabulary police but by the Armed Forces of the
Philippines. U.S. military aid in the form of weapons and ammunitions poured in.
Agents of the U.S. Counter Intelligence Agency, or CIA, became the advisers of Quirino
and the Philippine military. They recommended the appointment of Ramon Magsaysay
as the Secretary of National Defense, and he was asked to lick the rebellion. Working
behind Magsaysay, however, was the CIA under Edward Lansdale. Magsaysay cleaned
up and reformed the armed forces of corrupt elements; gave cash incentives in exchange
for Huk bodies and for information leading to their arrest; undertook a massive
propaganda campaign against the Huks by spreading false information on the Huks and
fostering further Red scare among the people; and introduced psychological warfare,
26 - a
Suggested Readings:
Taruc, Luis. Born ofthe People. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 1973, c. 1953.
_-----=c'He Who Rides the Tiger: The Story ofAsian Guerrilla Leader. New York: F.A.
Praeger, 1967.
Suggested Activities:
I Multiple Choice
I. The Huk Rebellion had an indigenous origin which dated back to the old problem of:
a. a communist movement
2. Which became the backbone of the guerrilla resistance in Central Luzon during the
Japanese period?
a. Hukbalahap
c. Sakdal
3. When the Huk Rebellion became full blown, the United States wamed President
Elpidio Quirino to accept its military advice or:
1. Draw a map of Luzon and locate Central Luzon, the heartland of the Huk Rebellion.
Label the provinces which played significant roles in the Huk rebellion.
IV Essay Writing
1. Research the economy and geographical features of Central Luzon. Cite its relevance
to the factors which gave rise to the Huk rebellion.
2. Write a reaction paper on the role of the United States in the anti-communist
insurgency campaign in the Philippines. Contextualize it within the broader role and
commitment of the United States in preserving democracy amidst the cold war during
this time.
167
CHAPTER 27
Americans proclaim that the greatest legacy of the American colonial rule is
constitutional and representative democracy. The Philippines, they say, is the only
country in Southeast Asia with a democratic tradition. While democracy is indeed alive
in the Philippines, in reality it is a different kind of democracy from the American model
from which it was supposedly patterned. Filipino political culture has shaped a unique
breed of democracy. This democracy is elitist, with political and economic power held
by a small number of families whose wealth, power, and influence are derived from their
Anarchy of Families
Anthropologist Robert Fox wrote in the 1950s that the Philippines is an "anarchy
of families." Following this line, in the early 1990s, a group of Philippine specialists
wrote a book entitled An Anarchy afFamilies: State and Family in the Philippines, which
is an analysis of some of the key families in Philippine politics who for years have
controlled specific aspects of Philippine economy and dominated regional and national
politics. 34 Among these families were the Lopezes ofNegros, the Osmenas ofCebu, the
Duranos ofDanao City, and the Dimaporos ofLanao, Mindanao. These families, together
with the Laurels of Batangas, Cojuangcos and Aquinos of Tarlac and many more, are
traditional elites whose ascendancy can be traced to their economic wealth and positions
in government during the Spanish and American colonial periods. Since the Philippines
169
In Anarchy of Families, family does not simply refer to the household or
kinship; rather, it also includes all relations established and strengthened by blood,
marriage, and ritual and those which are mobilized by political alliances. The result is
strong family and a weak state. The state thus becomes a hostage to these powerful
and the routine use of violence, particularly during elections. The net result is "anarchy,"
or lack of order.
This critique, however, tends to obfuscate differences and see all prominent
political and economic families as homogenous, thus rendering the Filipino people as
mere victims and reactors. In Anarchy of Families, Resil Mojares' piercing analysis of
the Osmenas of Cebu offers an alternative view of political families. He claims that the
Osmenas "do not conform to certain stereotypes about political kingpins, or 'warlords.'
They do not exercise monopolistic economic control in their bailiwick [Cebu); they do
not maintain 'private armies' or engage in a rule of systematic direct repression; and they
are not glad-handing traditional patrons. ,,36 Moreover, their politics in Cebu are
constantly changing in scope and meaning. Mojares claims that the Osmenas, like many
political families, do not exist in a vacuum; they are constantly shaped and influenced by
the needs and demands of the community where they function. In a sense, their politics
3SIbid., p. II.
36Resil Mojares, "The Dream Goes On and On: Three Generations of the Osmenas, 1906-1990," McCoy
(editor), Anarchy ofFamilies, p. 312.
171
This is how Lande, McCoy, and other Philippine specialists subscribing to the
politics during the presidency of Manuel Roxas (1946-1948), Elpidio Quirino (1948-
law). One must note, though, that during this period the ultimate patron was the United
States whose endorsement and support was sought after by every national politician and
whose blessings and anointment were necessary to capture the presidency. Roxas and
Magsaysay were the ultimate American boys, and Marcos was the American friend and
Filipino Nationalism
The ills of Philippine society are conveniently blamed on traditional elitist politics
that perpetuate the rich and powerful families while consigning the majority of Filipinos
certainly has a grain of truth, it nonetheless cannot take all the blame for every
Moreover, colonial rule fosters elitism and segmentation of society, since in many cases
it thrives on a divide and rule policy and on co-opting a specific group or class in society.
In a sense, by attributing the ills of Philippine society to the country's unusual aberrant
brand of democracy, American apologists can exculpate themselves from the faults and
took the stand that a strongman was needed to restore order in society. Incumbent
President Ferdinand Marcos seemed to fit the bill. Marcos himself started entertaining
these thoughts, especially since he was on his second and last term as President of the
Philippines. The end result came in 1972, when Marcos declared martial law and thereby
5. Power is dispersed among local leaders and local factions based on:
1. Filipino nationalists denounced the United States whom they view as the Philippines'
ultimate patron. They called for the of the economy and an end to years of
Americans in the exploitation and utilization of Philippine resources; and the removal
2. President Carlos P. Garcia called for a policy to challenge the alien control of
the economy. For his part, President Diosdado Macapagal transferred the date of the
curricula at the tertiary level was likewise "nationalized", and it became mandatory to
3. According to Carl Lande, Philippine politics evolves around _ _ personal ties such
as between a and a _
A B
convenient excuse for President Ferdinand E. Marcos to pursue his ambition of remaining
in power beyond his second term. The communist paranoia which characterized the
national and international scene became an added justification for him to declare martial
rule. His pretext was a promise of peace and order and an end to the politics of elitism
In 1972, the Philippines was beset with a crisis. This crisis provided a rationale
for Marcos to declare martial law. But Marcos was partly responsible for creating the
martial law.
A genuine concern during this period was the communist insurgency, which was
led by the Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP) and the New Peoples Army (NPA).
The CPP was founded on December 26, 1967, by Jose Ma. Sison, a University of the
Philippines lecturer, together with a group of ideologues. On March 29,1969, the CPP's
military arm, the NPA, was founded by Sison together with Bernabe Buscayno, a former
Huk guerrilla leader known as Kumander Dante. The CPP-NPA, following the Maoist
line in China, saw the struggle in the Philippines as a protracted guerrilla war, which
would commence in the countryside but would eventually engulf the cities and topple the
176
subservience to the United States. It was undoubtedly spurred by wide-scale
opposition to the sending of Filipino troops to Vietnam, and by the unhampered use by
the Americans of their base facilities in the Philippines which were supplying American
needs in the Vietnam War. Students, many of whom mouthed communist ideologies and
among the demonstrators to foment violence and to create the image of a crisis. Bombs
exploded in the capital an act which Marcos blamed on the communists. Since some of
the captured perpetrators turned out to be military men, it was widely believed that
Marcos was behind this spate of bombings to hasten destabilization. Marcos' henchmen
were blamed for the bomb that wracked the 1971 Liberal Party senatorial campaign in
Plaza Miranda, Manila, which killed nine spectators and injured 100 others including
senatorial candidates.
rule. His second term as President was ending in 1973 and, under the 1935 constitution,
he was no longer eligible for a third term. In 1971, an elected constitutional commission
(Concom) was convened to draft a new constitution which would have supplanted the
colonial 1935 Constitution. Marcos was maneuvering Concom delegates through bribes,
threat, and intimidation to change the form of government from a presidential into a
parliamentary type which would allow him to remain in power. Sensing the opposition
of public opinion and many delegates, Marcos had to devise another option before his
178
emanated from him, and everyone in his government including the judiciary served at
Ironically, the Filipinos initially welcomed martial law. They were tired of the
political wrangling and political violence. Many wanted the end of traditional politics
and elite dominance. Martial law seemed to promise stability and change, even though
Marcos had conceived it for personal aggrandizement. The changes did not mean better
living conditions or more equality in society; rather they meant new institutions and
politics and society. He coined the tenn "New Society" to refer to a.new Philippines,
which he envisioned would be created by martial law. He viewed this revolution from
the center, i.e., the state, not the left as symbolized by the communists, nor right as
oligarchy, and the beginning of a more equitable society. The change, he claimed, would
interest, and passivity with action. To complement this rhetoric, Marcos initially ushered
in a period of reform. He promised to weed out corruption but in the end it actually
worsened. The centerpiece of his "New" Society was his land reform program which
eventually fizzled out, largely unsuccessful because it was half-hearted. Land coverage
was limited to com and rice lands. Its provisions allowed exemptions which landlords
capitalized to save their lands. On the whole, it lacked provisions for effective
son-of-a-bitch."
28 -b
b. introduction of authoritarianism
b. economic liberalization
c. moral rejuvenation
d. land reform
1. The authoritarian martial law of Ferdinand Marcos was legitimized under the pretext
of the 1973 _
2. The first casualty of martial law was democracy. Marcos suspended all democratic
3. The decision of Marcos to declare martial law received the acquiescence if not
support of the United States. In fact, the U.S. turned a blind eye on years of
A B
181
CHAPTER 29
Ferdinand Marcos was in power for twenty-one years, from 1965 to 1986. His
election to two terms made the first seven years of his presidency legitimate and
constitutional. After 1972, Marcos ruled as a dictator despite coating his governance
projecting himself as the father of the nation. He ordered the rewriting of Philippine
history textbooks to emphasize the grandeur of Philippine society prior to colonial rule
and to draw continuity between the barangay and the datu then, and the Philippine nation
and himself in the present. The Tadhana, a multivolume history of the Philippines, was
written in his name by various professors of the University of the Philippines. But while
he was rewriting the history of the country, his rule had changed course.
Increasingly, Marcos relied on the military to prop him into power. The military
increasingly played a prominent role under the pretext of restoring order and fighting the
CPP-NPA and Muslim insurgency. From 1972 to 1985, the size of the military increased
from 62,715 to 159,466 troops with its budget ballooning from P879.4 million to P6.132
billion. With its growth in size the military had an enlarged role in the state. From
simply being in charge of preserving law and order, the military now participated in
prison custodial services. Marcos exclusively relied on a small group of loyal generals
whose primary qualification was their being Ilocano. Marcos Ilocanized the military
183
insurgency emerged and strengthened due to local conditions and realities. At such, it
The declaration of martial law indeed witnessed the beginning of rapid growth of
the communist insurgency due to the massive human rights abuses by Marcos and the
absence of legal channels of dissent. With mass media muzzled and all Marcos
opponents jailed, radical nationalists had no option but to go underground and join the
communist insurgency. Moreover, the communist insurgency has been fueled less by its
ideology than by socio-economic and political realities during the Marcos years. It
attracted supporters due to an inequitable land distribution; a slow and unfair judicial
The growth of the military was justified on the grounds that it was fighting a two-
pronged war against the communist insurgents and in addition, the Muslim insurgency
movement. The Muslims who constitute only 5% of the Philippine population, are
concentrated on the southern islands of Mindanao, Basilan, Sulu and Tawi-Tawi. The
roots of Muslim insurgency date back to what Muslims perceived as the govemments'
lack of concern in uplifting their living conditions. To complicate matters, the Muslims
have long opposed and resisted the govemment policy of encouraging Christian
migration to Muslim lands. The declaration of martial law triggered the armed uprising
of the Muslims because the authoritarian and heavily centralized regime of Marcos
virtually alienated the Muslims since power had become fully concentrated in Christian
185
so objected to Marcos' referendum that negotiations between them and the
goverument soon broke down. Fighting resumed again, but by this time the MNLF was
split into three factions based on personal rivalries among its leaders and difference in
The loss of civil rights was the first casualty of Marcos' one-man rule. Marcos
violence. No one was spared since Marcos ordered the arrest and detention of his
political enemies, both middle class and commoners, who were accused of being
conscience," packed military jails. Most were physically and psychologically tortured to
By the late 1970s, human rights violations reached their peak. First, the quality of
the military and paramilitary troops had deteriorated. The paramilitary was made up of
civilians armed by the goverument and attached to the military for the sole purpose of
fighting the communists. The military and paramilitary viewed any opposition to the
goverument as "subversive".
Second, the CPP-NPA, having gained the support and assistance of increasing
numbers of people in the provinces, had blossomed into a full insurgency with acquisition
of high-powered weapons and young cadres. The support they received from rural folks
was, on the other hand, a reaction from the increased militarization of the countryside.
The military resorted to harassment, torture, political killings, or what was termed as
187
IT was the Church response to the poverty, inequality and oppression in the Third
World countries. Basically, it stated that the Church and the clergy had an obligation to
serve the poor not only spiritually but to overcome poverty and oppression. This
statement opened a radical interpretation of the Church and clergy's role in Latin
America and soon thereafter, in the Philippines. The late 1960s saw the spread of
liberation theology which adopted Marxist class struggle analysis to explain the causes of
poverty and oppression. Many interpreted it as providing the priests the right to help
liberate the masses from their sad plight, even to the point of engaging in social
revolution.
This liberation theology when applied during the martial law years meant social
activism and radicalism among many priests and nuns. This split the church into the
traditional older members and the young progressive, even idealistic ones. Some of these
radical priests joined the communist insurgency in the belief that this was the only
Originally, the Church through its charismatic leader, Cardinal Jaime Sin, adopted
a "critical collaboration" stance with Marcos in which it mixed dialogue and cooperation
with criticism and calls for reform. But by the late 1970s, because of the increased
human rights violations by the Marcos regime, the Church became more critical.
Through pastoral letters and the pulpit, the Church increasingly condemned Marcos for
a. 1972-1983 c. 1972-1986
b. 1965-1983 d. 1965-1986
2. Marcos was noted for appointing relatives and fellow Ilocanos in positions of power.
His infamous cousin and chief of staff was:
3. What institution became increasingly powerful during the Marcos years because it
propped his position of power?
4. In many cases what primary qualification should one possess to have been in the elite
circle of Marcos' officialdom?
c. fellow Ilocano
6. The growth of the military during the martial law years was due to:
1. Write a reaction paper on "Human Rights." What constitutes human rights? What
are the international declarations safeguarding human rights? What were the human
rights conditions in the Philippines during the Marcos years.
2. Research on the role of the Church in Philippine politics and society. How has the
role of the Church evolved from colonial times to the Marcos years?
3. How would you compare the Muslim insurgency and/or communist insurgency in the
Philippines with similar movements in other parts of the world?
188
CHAPTER 30
radical changes in Philippine society that would create a "New Society." This "New
Society" was to end oligarchy and create a fair and equitable society.
Marcos claimed that to end oligarchy he had to smash the self-serving traditional
elite and accomplished this by removing their economic power base. Knowing that their
political power was closely linked to their economic wealth, he stripped these traditional
families of their wealth, thereby depriving them of their basis of power and influence.
Marcos' hatred of the elite families partly stemmed not only from their arrogance but also
because the Marcoses were not part of the traditionally elite circle.
Two prominent elite families whom Marcos destroyed were the Lopezes and the
Jacintos. The Lopez family was involved in the sugar industry, mass media, and public
utilities. Marcos through his wife Imelda was able to convince one of the Lopezes,
Fernando, to run as his vice-president in his 1969 reelection bid. Even though the
Lopezes had partly bankrolled his campaign, Marcos knew that because of their vast
economic empire the Lopezes could make or break a president. Thus, upon declaring
martial law Marcos dispossessed the Lopezes of their empire, starting off with the Manila
metropolis. Marcos forced the Lopezes to sell Meralco to Imelda's brother, Benjamin
"Kokoy" Romualdez, for a paltry sum of $2,000, when the business cost $400 million.
190
including tobacco, plastics, textiles, electronics, and oil exploration. Nonetheless, he
gained notoriety over the controversial Bataan Nuclear Power Plant (BNPP) deal. The
Westinghouse secured the bidding by giving an $80 million kickback to Disini, with a
good portion to Marcos. The project reeked of corruption and proved a disaster because
it was built on such a highly unstable part of the earth's crust that it contained the
Besides Disini, Rodolfo Cuenca, who was a golfing partner of Marcos, was given
many government construction jobs. Ricardo Silverio became the leading car dealer and
sole distributor of Toyota. Antonio Floreindo was allotted a penal colony in Mindanao
for growing bananas. Jose Campos, the godfather of Marcos' son, enjoyed the exclusive
contract to sell pharmaceuticals to public clinics. Roman Cruz, Jr. was awarded control
over the Government Security and Insurance System (GSIS) and Philippine Airlines
(PAL), both huge and powerful government corporations. But the most important cronies
were Marcos' law classmates and fraternity brothers from the University of the
Philippines: Roberto Benedicto, Juan Ponce Enrile, and Eduardo Cojuangco. Benedicto
was given the monopoly on the sugar industry, from which he vaulted into hotels, real
estate, radio and television networks. Enrile and Cojuangco conspired and created a
coconut monopoly extending from planting and harvesting to processing the oil and
selling its final product. The presence of this new elite meant that under Marcos, the
Philippines was a heavily regulated corporate state. The term "crony capitalism" evolved
to describe Marcos' version of state capitalism in the Philippines. Belinda Aquino, who
192
Marcoses became an avenue to further corruption. The oil crisis in the rnid-to-Iate
1970s exacerbated conditions. Many of the foreign loans brought into the economy were
siphoned by Marcos into his private accounts. The fact that the Marcoses were in power
for twenty-one years provided plenty of opportunities for them and their associates to
Belinda Aquino lists ways in which the Marcoses and their cronies accumulated
invest in real estate, conceal profits and ownership of bank accounts, etc.
prime properties in the United States and elsewhere. For instance, General Ver's
cronies. When the Marcoses fled to Hawaii, gold bullion were found among the
possessions they brought. For years, the Marcoses stashed away gold bullion and
deposited them in Swiss banks. One possible explanation for the source of these
gold bars was the old tale of how Marcos stumbled upon the Japanese gold loot,
popularly called Yamashita treasure, during World War II. But the volume of
gold bullion stashed away seems to prove that this story is more of a myth. A
logical explanation is the fact that Marcos and his cronies raided the gold treasury
through the Binondo Central Bank, a syndicate involved in black market activities
in dollar trading. Its head was said to be Ver together with Col. Balbino Diego of
the Presidential Security Command (PSC), the elite bodyguard force of Marcos.
Millions of dollars were withdrawn by the syndicate using three banks controlled
by Chinese interests based in Binondo. The money was stuffed in suitcases and
corporation, the Philippine National Oil Company. Military men assigned with
beverage corporation.
projects such as the construction of the North Luzon Superhighway and Manila South
Expressway which linked the northern provinces and the southern provinces to Metro
Manila. In all the contracts he acquired from the government, kickback payments and
overpricing were the nonn with grease money undoubtedly reaching Marcos. Similarly,
his shipping company, the Galleon Shipping Corporation, was awarded exclusive rights
to operate container vessels from the U.S.'s West Coast to the Philippines. Because of
Marcos bailed out Cuenca with taxpayer's money and foreign loans for which the
a. elite capitalism
b. state capitalism
c. corporate state
d. kleptocracy
c. regime which exists for the sole purpose of plundering the wealth of the country it
governs
6. When Marcos was forced into exile in 1986, his hidden wealth was estimated at:
a. $3 billion c. $5 to 10 billion
b. $4 billion d. $3 to 5 billion
_ _8. Ricardo Silverio h. became the leading car dealer and sold Toyota
IV Essay Writing
2. Discuss how the Marcoses and their cronies plundered the Philippine economy.
V. Panel Discussion
1. What do you think are the effects on the Filipinos of the plunder of their economy by
the Marcoses and their cronies.
197
CHAPTER 31
The end of the Marcos regime was due to several factors. These factors included
the economic crisis brought about by mismanagement and massive corruption; the
erosion of Marcos' credibility and his regime's legitimacy; the emergence and
intensification of traditional and radical opposition, and the impact of the Aquino
Assassination.
In 1983, the Aquino assassination plunged the Marcos regime into a political and
economic crisis. Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino, Jr. had been the leading opposition leader
under Marcos. He was imprisoned by Marcos from 1972 to 1980 and was released to
undergo a heart bypass operation in the United States. During his three-year exile in the
U.S. with his wife, Corazon, and their children, he accepted a fellowship at Harvard
University where he continued to lambaste the Marcos regime. In 1983, rumors that
Marcos was dying from a kidney failure convinced Aquino of the need to go home, unite
the opposition, and prepare for a post-Marcos scenario. Against the advice of his family,
other opposition leaders, and even the Marcoses, he flew back to Manila on August 21,
Airport (later renamed Ninoy Aquino International Airport), Aquino was gunned down.
The Marcoses immediately pinned the assassination on the communists, who allegedly
used Rolando Galman, an alleged communist hitman, who was subsequently shot by
Aquino's military escorts. Evidence overwhelmingly proved, however, that Aquino was
199
machinery; and the vote buying, intimidation, and fraud committed by the Marcos
regune.
"mass-based" and "cause-oriented" groups, the latter so named because of their emphasis
and concern for particular causes or issues. These mass and cause-oriented groups were
federations, women's groups, and human rights' advocates. They all called for a full
investigation of the Aquino assassination; restoration of human and civil rights; the end
of U.S. support to the Marcos regime; and the stepping-down of Marcos. These groups
cronies resulted in an economic crisis in the 1980s, which further heightened Filipinos'
anger and loss of faith in the Marcos regime. Agriculture and manufacturing had
declined, balance of payments worsened, national finances were in shambles, and the
country was indebted to local and foreign lending institutions to the tune of $26 billion.
While living conditions deteriorated and poverty increased, Filipinos were confronted
with the news of how the Marcoses had plundered the country and had amassed billions
The United States was being censured for continuously supporting a morally bankrupt
regime. Rumors of Marcos' declining health served to further erode the legitimacy of his
201
a vigilance never before seen as they protected the ballots from Marcos' goons even
at the risk of losing their lives. The widespread and blatant cheating by Marcos' sides
persisted even during the counting of the votes. Several computer programmers of the
oversaw the elections, walked out after they noticed discrepancies between the votes they
inputted and data being shown on the monitor. Despite evidence that Aquino and Laurel
won the election, the Marcos-controlled national legislature went ahead and proclaimed
Marcos and Tolentino as the winners of the snap election. In response, Aquino on
February 16, called for a nationwide peaceful civil disobedience which was to include a
nationwide general strike and a boycott of all government and crony-owned businesses.
The call for civil disobedience did not materialize because on February 22
Defense Secretary Juan Ponce Entile, together with his men affiliated with the Reform
the Armed Forces Movement (RAM), launched a military revolt. This was in response to
General Ver's discovery that RAM, with Entile's knowledge and support, was planning
to launch a coup d' etat to force Marcos to step down in favor of a coalition govemment
to be led by Entile, Aquino, Sin, and other opposition leaders. Ver and Marcos had
learned of the plan and were going to arrest RAM members, and possibly Entile.
Preempting the arrest, Entile and the RAM members led by Colonel Gregorio "Gringo"
Honasan invited General Fidel Ramos to join the revolt and barricaded themselves in
Camps Crame and Aguinaldo. Ramos, disgruntled since he was bypassed in favor of
Ver, was perhaps disgusted with the way in which Marcos has manipulated the election,
and the subsequent tum of events. But what saved Ramos, Entile, and the RAM soldiers
203
party of fifty-five, fled the presidential residence, Malacanang, for Clark Air Base.
The following day, they flew to Guam, then on to Hawaii, which became their place of
exile.
There are several interpretations of the EDSA Revolution, sometimes called the
People Power Revolution or the February Revolution. Emile, Ramos, and the military
claim that it was they who liberated the Filipinos. But in reality, it was the Filipino
people who saved them from Marcos' guillotine. Emile and company, who were
capitalizing on the vulnerability of the Marcos regime, wanted to seize power via a coup
d'etat, but were checked by Marcos. If the people had not heeded Cardinal Sin's call for
people-power, Emile and company would have died, for they did not stand a chance
The EDSA revolution was a moderate uprising led by the middle class and
centrist forces. The radical left was isolated from the turn of events by their decision to
boycott the snap presidential election. The People Power movement never spread beyond
The United States played a significant role throughout the many years of the
Marcos dictatorship. Its role in helping to overthrow the Marcos regime is remembered
more than its complicity in perpetuating the dictatorship in the first place.
American pressure somehow forced Marcos to call the snap election. But Stanley
Kamow claims that up to the final days of Marcos, U.S. President Ronald Reagan, who
205
height of the crisis, rebel helicopters were allowed to refuel and load ammunition at
When it was time for Marcos to step down, it was the United States who flew him
out of the country and who offered asylum in Hawaii to its fallen friend. Such actions
ensured that somehow Cory Aquino would remember this debt in gratitude, especially
2. What was the innnediate cause of the fall of the Marcos regime?
3. The leader of the Reform the Armed Forces Movement (RAM) was:
4. The President of the U.S. who was a close supporter and admirer of Marcos was:
Two challenges faced the Filipino people in the post-Marcos era. First, to restore
democracy, but a different democracy from the pre-martial law years. The widespread
resistance to the Marcoses had bred cause-oriented and progressive groups which
radically changed parliamentary politics. Second, to reverse the economic crisis which
Marcos left as one of his legacies. The challenge, however, was not merely to attain
economic growth and development, but to make these benefits accessible to all.
Restoration of Democracy
Marcos, it is no wonder that Corazon Cojuangco Aquino's first acts as president were
aimed at restoring democracy in the Philippines. But the democracy she knew was the
kind of politics practiced prior to the declaration of martial law. It was that kind of
environment which she was committed to reestablish or restore. She restored the writ of
habeas corpus; freed all political prisoners, numbering about 500, including the
Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP) founder Jose Ma. Sison and the New Peoples
Army (NPA) founder Bernabe Buscayno; restored the independence of the courts and the
faith of the people for the Supreme Court by appointing members known for their
independent and judicious minds; unshackled the press, which was the freest in Asia prior
to 1972. She created the Commission on Human Rights (CRR) to investigate all human
rights abuses of the Marcos' dictatorship and the Philippine Commission on Good
208
start. There was absolutely no way she could appease both the military and the
When the ceasefire and peace talks with the communists failed, Sison went
underground again. Aquino was thus left with no option but to rely heavily on the New
Armed Forces, named "new' supposedly to differentiate it from the abusive and
inefficient nature of the "old". But the military itself was divided. Members of the
Reform the Armed Forces Movement (RAM), presumably with the encouragement of
Emile, staged a series of failed coups, some of which were bloody. Aquino's presidency
became a struggle for survival. In many ways, Aquino was able to stave off military
uprisings because of the loyalty of her Chief of Staff, Ramos, who would later on be
Restoration of Elitism
The Aquino presidency witnessed the rebirth of certain features of the pre-1972
elite politics. Old elite families came back to reclaim the lofty position they had held
prior to the Marcos dictatorship. The Lopezes reclaimed their business empire and
expanded it to include not only telecommunications and banking but even public utilities.
Politics also showed renmants of the Marcos years. Some of Marcos' cronies were able
to retain their status, such as Eduardo Cojuangco who to this day continues to own banks
and still enjoys sizable shares of the San Miguel Corporation. Finally, the post 1986
years also seem to have ushered in a new era in Philippine politics. Progressive forces
such as mass-based and cause-oriented groups have joined the political fray, espousing
for an equitable and just society, as promised by Aquino upon her ascension during the
February, or EDSA Revolution, were dashed. If she had been really committed to
enforcing agrarian refonn, she would have passed an executive order early on in her
presidency when the Freedom Constitution afforded her legislative powers. Such an
order would have been a popular decision supported by the people; it would have
capitalized heavily on her immense popularity after the EDSA Revolution. Instead, what
really happened lends credence to the claim of Alfred McCoy: that powerful families can
Economic Quagmire
Corazon Aquino will go down in history books for having restored democracy
and the peoples' civil and political rights, but her administration will also be remembered
for its lack of a sound economic policy and its economic failures. In all fairness, her
administration was faced from the start with a grave economic crisis. Before 1986, the
economy had been for years on a decline. A quarter of the labor force was either
level. Inflation was high. The country was saddled with a $26 billion foreign debt, and
the government was bankrupt. Aquino's early economic policy was aimed at reversing
the economic decline. She promised among other things to institute agrarian refonn;
reduce the government's role in business; remove all monopolies established by Marcos
and his cronies; attract foreign investment; promote labor instead of capital-intensive
like the Bataan Nuclear Power Plant. Other economists in Aquino's cabinet prevailed,
however, and were able to sway her towards a negotiated restructuring of foreign loans,
which meant a reduction in the interest rates and an extended maturity. Although an
agreement was reached with the foreign banks and lending institutions, Filipinos
International Monetary Fund (lMF) and World Bank (WB). During this period other
developing countries, particularly in Latin America, were also bled to death for paying
off foreign loans. But the Aquino administration was bent on showing that the Philippine
government intended to honor its obligations, thereby earning the confidence of foreign
Aquino failed totally reversing the economic crisis which she inherited from
Marcos. Long power outages during the years 1990-1992 were the main factor in the
country's economic recession during these years. The country was faced with the
severest energy crisis ever, with long daily electric outages which totally disrupted
government services, business, and the daily life of the people. It was up to Aquino's
successor to revive the economy and chart the country's course towards economic
development.
Fidel V. Ramos won the 1992 presidential election mainly on the strength of
the political front, Ramos strengthened political institutions by addressing the problem of
214
growth the government legislated a tax reform package meant to make tax collection
confidence in the Philippine government reached its highest in 1996 when the country
hosted twenty-one world leaders in the Asia Pacific Economic Council (APEC) summit
at Subic Bay, Olongapo. The Philippines was truly on its way to becoming Asia's
emerging tiger and fulfilling Ramos' vision of economic prosperity for Philippines 2000.
This prognosis, however, was suspect for two reasons. First, the economic benefit
accruing from the country's high growth rate has not trickled down to the common
people. The gap between the rich and the poor continues to widen, with the majority of
the populace living below the poverty level. Second, the economic gain so far achieved
is being threatened by the worst currency crisis ever suffered by the Philippines. Since
July 1997, the country has fallen victim to the same financial crisis as many other Asian
nations. The Philippine peso plunged from P26 to $1 in July, 1997, to P45.20 to $1 in
skyrocketed, inflation rate soared, growth rate slowed down, and mass lay-offs of
3. What was the avowed centerpiece policy of the Aquino administration which failed?
5. The agenda of the Ramos administration included all of the following except:
b. establishing peace talks with the Muslim insurgents, communist insurgents, and the
rebel soldiers
6. What were the setbacks in the economic policy of the Ramos administration?
b. economic gains threatened by the worse currency crisis besetting many Asian
countries
1. Unlike the Marcos years, the election during the Aquino period was _ _ and
32 -d
1. Is an effective agrarian refonn policy needed to democratize Philippine society?
Why?
215
CHAPTER 33
"The overseas contract workers are our modern day heroes." This statement by
President Corazon Aquino summarizes the government's recognition and gratitude to the
Filipino labor migrants or Filipino migrant workers, more popularly known as Overseas
Contract Workers (OCW) or Overseas Filipino Workers (OFW), whose earnings pump
some $7 billion yearly into the Philippine economy and sustain a quarter of the
population. These remittances supply the government with over $1.2 billion in foreign
currencies, thus making the exportation of human labor the third most profitable industry
Theme of Diaspora
their country of nationality with far reaching implications on the political and economic
development of both the sending and receiving countries. But the Philippines,
unfortunately, is the primary exporter of human resources among Third World countries.
Estimates of the total number of Filipinos working overseas range from 4.5 million to 6
million. Such a discrepancy is due to the fact that a good percentage of these workers are
illegal or undocumented.
Indeed the diaspora is a major theme in the history of the Philippines in the
twentieth century. The first Filipino labor migrants were the thousands of young male
Filipinos who were recruited to work in the sugar plantations of Hawaii during the
217
Deployment of Filipino labor abroad has long been a standing policy of the
government. It aims to address the country's twin problems of a high unemployment rate
1974 when President Ferdinand Marcos created the Overseas Employment Development
implement the overseas employment program. In the same year, Marcos created the
registered overseas workers. Through POEA and OWWA, Filipino migrant workers
were required to remit from 50-80% of their earnings through authorized banks. Both
official government position is that the export of human labor to alleviate unemployment
aggressively promoted labor migration with only a token concern for its long-term
nowhere near solving the unemployment problem and thus continues to promote labor
migration.
Since the 1990s, half the Filipino migrant workers have been women. This
femiuization of labor migration is expected to increase even more as demand for Filipino
women workers continues to outweigh their male counterparts. Most of the Filipino
women working abroad are domestic helpers (DB). In 1987 there were 81,000; in 1991,
219
and relatives are better off compared to those working in, say, the Middle East where
work in Japan and are called Japayukisan. Aurora Javate de Dios points out that the term
jobs, which usually mean socializing with patrons and serving drinks. Many dance and
sing in skimpy outfits or are forced to perform provocative acts on stage. Being
From the time of job application to actual deployment, Filipino migrant workers
fall prey to all sorts of problems and abuses. Illegal recruiters victimize desperate and
gullible applicants and may even stash away the applicant's placement fees. There are
migrant workers, both male and female, have to contend with constant violations of labor
contracts, physical and sexual abuse, long hours and poor working conditions, cultural
shock, and the sadness and depression of being in a foreign land away from family. In
Singapore, Filipino domestic workers are banned from having relationships with
Singaporeans and they are required to undergo pregnancy tests every six months. In
Hong Kong, employers can terminate the contract of domestic helpers at anytime, even
for the flimsiest excuse. In Saudi Arabia, many Filipino domestic workers who are
221
Contemplacion. The Singaporean government was largely viewed as autocratic and
its judicial system regarded as highly flawed and discriminating towards non-
Singaporeans.
Soon after the Contemplacion trial was the Sarah Balabagan case. Balabagan was
a fourteen-year old Filipino Muslim domestic worker in the United Arab Emirates. Her
papers had been falsified to show that she was of legal age and eligible to work as a
migrant worker. In 1996, Balabagan was sentenced to die for having killed her male
employer who tried to rape her. Having leamed from the comparable Contemplacion
incident, the Philippine government this time acted swiftly and fmnly in trying to find a
diplomatic solution. Its efforts paid off, as Balabagan received another trial; her sentence
was reduced to a year in jail upon payment of blood money to deceased employer's next
of kin.
Social Costs
Families left behind by Filipino migrant workers are not spared from the
spouses. The migrant worker, his or her spouse or both of them, may find themselves
getting involved with other partners due to boredom, anxiety and loneliness. Perhaps for
a migrant worker there is nothing more bitter than to leam that your spouse has taken a
lover and, worse still, is living off your earnings. Children also find it difficult to adjust
without their parents, particularly their mother. Children left to the care of inept
guardians, or even to fathers who are overwhelmed with the responsibility, may end up
maladjusted or become a problem in society. There has also been an increase in incidents
33 - a
Suggested Readings:
Beltran, Mary Ruby Palma and Aurora Javate de Dios (ed). Filipino Women Overseas
Contract Workers: At What Cost? Manila: Women in Development Foundation,
Inc. and Goodwill Trading Co., Inc., 1992
Gonzales, Joaquin L. ill and Ronald D. Holmes, "The Philippine Labour Diaspora:
Trends, Issues and Policies," Southeast Asian Affairs 1996. Singapore: Institute of
Southeast Asian Studies, 1996, pp. 300-320.
de Guzman, Arnel F. "'Katas ng Saudi ': The Work and Life Situation of the Filipino
Contract Workers in Saudi Arabia," Aurora Perez and Maruja Milagros Asis
(editors), Understanding Filipino Migration. Quezon City: College of Social
Sciences and Philosophy, University of the Philippines, 1993, pp. 1-56.
Rafael, Vicente L. "'Your Grief is Our Gossip': Overseas Filipinos and Other Spectral
Presences," Public Culture 9 (1997): 267-291.
Suggested Videos:
Migrante: Filipino Maids in Hongkong. Quezon City: Asia Visions Media Foundation,
1988. VHS, mainly in Tagalog with some English, 33 mins., UHM Videotape
5992.
Suggested Activities:
1. Multiple Choice
2. The first Filipino labor migrants were the thousands of young male Filipinos recruited
to work in:
c. Hawaii as sakadas
___6. Japayukisan f. refers to the offense levied against women for their
actions such as returning a greeting of a male friend
on the streets or talking to the opposite sex over the
phone
IV Creative Writing
I. Pretend to be an overseas contract worker. Write your diary of what life is like
working in a foreign country.
2. Research the number and extent of Filipinos employed as migrant workers throughout
the world. Then, write a story about the life and circumstances of an overseas
contract worker who is in search of a better life for himself or herself and the family
at horne.
V Panel Discussion
In 1998, Joseph Ejercito Estrada was elected the thirteenth President of the
Republic. His presidency had an auspicious start. His mandate was overwhelming. He
won forty percent of the votes, or a landslide margin of more than six million votes over
the second placed candidate in a multiparty election. It was also the perfect time to
assume the highest post. He was called the Centennial President since 1998 marked the
was also the millennium president as his term of office was to last until 2004.
The common people or "masa" had pinned their hopes on Estrada whom they
identified as one of them. Although born to the well-off, educated and prominent
Ejercito clan of San Juan, a town in Metro Manila, Estrada was the black sheep of the
family. All his siblings had college degrees and were professionals. For schooling, he
was sent to the expensive and highly regarded Ateneo de Manila University, although he
had been expelled from high school for being a bully. He eventually dropped out of
Robin Hood-type characters in his movies. For many Filipinos who found it difficult to
differentiate the real from the reel, Estrada was their idol, the champion of the masses,
who fought for their rights and took care of them. It was largely this perception that
catapulted Estrada in the political arena, first, as the Mayor of his hometown of San Juan
225
Mistresses, Cronies, and Vices
Early on, news reports surfaced of Estrada's "midnight cabinet", a group made up
of close friends and business associates who met at night, hence the name, and stayed up
until the wee hours of the morning drinking, gambling, and lobbying for government
favors. Estrada's cabinet members confirmed this practice, although they noted that he
was no longer a heavy drinker having given up liquor since he became President. His
aides also reported on his luxurious lifestyle, from expensive food and drinks to his
mistresses and illegitimate children. For the record, Estrada has publicly admitted siring
eleven children from six women. He even takes pride in being a good provider who has
taken very good care of his "extended" family. To a certain extent the public accepted
his lifestyle and his indiscretions seem to have added to his machismo image.
bank accounts, their association with Estrada enabled many of them to secure
government contracts that allowed their businesses to diversify and flourish. Laarni
Enriquez, a former movie actress who is said to be Estrada's favorite mistress, has several
bank accounts. In one account she had P3 million savings in 1998 when Estrada became
President. This ballooned to P63 million in 1999 and P239 million in 2000, a mind-
boggling increase especially if you consider that she is a non-wage earning housewife.
Estrada's sons and relatives also used their ties with him to promote their
interests. For instance, a cousin, Celia Ejercito Castro, bribed officials of the Department
227
Miguel, the largest beer, soft drinks, and food conglomerate in the country. It was
one of the companies sequestered by the government for being a crony finn that may
have benefited from the ill-gotten wealth during the Marcos regime. Forty-seven percent
It was also during the Estrada presidency that the government dropped its tax
evasion claims against Filipino-Chinese tycoon Lucio Tan, a known crony of Estrada.
The case, which the Ramos administration initiated, involved Tan's flagship company,
Fortune Tobacco Corp., which allegedly owes the government P25.27 billion in taxes.
Claiming that the evidence was weak, the government quashed any further attempt to
Another scandal that rocked the Estrada administration involved the stock market
crony, Dante Tan (no relation to Lucio Tan). Tan illegally amassed millions of pesos
from stock manipulation in blatant violation of the securities law. In the course of the
exonerate Tan, whom Estrada admitted was a supporter since he was a Senator.
Impeachment Trial
cronies and families, the public had had enough and was not willing to accept new
revelations that Estrada himself stole from the government coffers and collected
gambling pay-offs. Estrada's downfall came when Luis "Chavit" Singson, Jr. accused
him of collecting millions of money fromjueteng operations and pocketing P130 million
229
Manuel Villar, Jr., turned their backs on him. A total of seventy-seven
representatives signed the impeachment complaint, four more than the 73 that the
Speaker Villar formally read the indictment against Estrada and transmitted the articles of
presided by the highly regarded Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, Hilario Davide, Jr.46
The trial was unprecedented and historic. Never has there been any impeachment trial in
the Philippines or even in Asia. Millions of Filipinos religiously followed the soap
opera-like drama that was covered live by radio and television networks. The marathon
trial was conducted on weekdays from 2:00 to 8:00 pm., pitting the best legal minds of
the country against each other. The prosecutors comprised eleven lawyer-legislators
from the House of Representatives led by Joker Arroyo, a staunch nationalist who gained
prominence during the Marcos years when he opposed the dictator and was imprisoned.
They were assisted by a battery of private lawyers who offered their services for free. On
the other side, a former chief justice of the Supreme Court, Andres Narvasa, Jr., and a
45 The peso-dollar exchange rate is fluctuating. At the height of the impeachment trial the peso depreciated
to as low as P55 to a dollar. Since President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo assumed the presidency it has
somehow stabilized to P50 to a dollar.
46 The Senate actually consists of 24 legislators elected at large by the voting populace. However, there
were only 22 senators since one died while another one, Gloria-Macapagal-Arroyo, resigned after she won
the Vice-Presidency in 1998. But only 21 senators sat as jurors throughout the impeachment trial since one
was in the United States for serious medical treatment.
231
As the impeachment drama unfolded, the prosecutors paraded several
witnesses including Singson and his employees, who testified that they brought millions
claimed that he delivered PS million to Estrada every fifteen days which represented his
share of collectedjueteng money. Around P200 million was eventually deposited in the
purportedly to send Muslim scholars abroad for post-graduate studies. Its head was Raul
also Estrada's brother-in-law. It was revealed in the course of the trial that the foundation
was bogus since it had no employees, no office, and no scholars. Estrada admitted that
the P200 million was indeed deposited in his foundation but that the amount is intact. He
claimed that it was deposited without his knowledge after he rejected the amount when it
was first offered by Singson as bribery for jueteng. When questioned as to why he failed
to report the bribery attempt, Estrada claimed it was not his job since it was a police
matter.
Singson also accused Estrada of pocketing a share of the P200 million tobacco
excise tax that was released by the government for Ilocos Sur. He revealed that Estrada
demanded a total of P130 million: P70 million of which went to Estrada; P20 million to
his wife Luisa "Loi" Ejercito; PIS million to his son Jinggoy; and P2S million to Atong
The paper trail seems to corroborate these testimonies, since there were cancelled
checks issued by the povincial government of Ilocos Sur to bank accounts in Manila
233
automatically immaterial and irrelevant. The prosecutors, however, argued that the
Velarde account was material and relevant to the graft and corruption charges, and that
they would prove that the account was Estrada's and that it was inconsistent with his
1999 declaration of assets and liabilities. Finally, after a marathon deliberation, the
senator-jurors casted their votes. In a dramatic and stunning 11-10 vote, the Senate
stifled the truth and ruled against opening the sealed envelope.
Davide to issue a ruling on the Velarde envelope and instead forced the division of the
house merely twenty-three days into the trial. Analysts believe they did so to protect
Estrada. Others contend the senator-jurors probably wanted to see how the undecided
among their colleagues would vote. Perhaps they also wanted to test the waters and see
how the public would react in case of a favorable ruling for Estrada.
But the vote proved fatal for Estrada. It reinforced public perception that he was
guilty and that he had something to hide. It also confirmed their suspicions that Estrada's
political allies in the Senate had prejudged the case, and that the voting was a clear
indication of how they would decide at the conclusion of the trial. This perception was
probably valid since they were partymates of Estrada and some were even his compadres
and comadres. Also two of his senator-allies admitted accepting PI million each as
balato, or share, from Estrada's jueteng pay-off, which later they returned stating they
were unaware of its source. In the eyes of the prosecutors and many Filipinos the
a. Senate President
d. Vice-President
1. The House of Representatives indicted Estrada for graft and corruption, bribery,
A B
_ _1. Eduardo Cojuangco a. was involved in a textbook scam
_ _5. Dante Tan e. regained stewardship of San Miguel due to his links
with Estrada
PEOPLE POWER II
When the eleven senator-jurors suppressed the truth, they prematurely ended
Estrada's impeachment trial. The task of passing judgment on Estrada had shifted from
the halls of the Senate onto the streets, and the Filipino people had become the jurors.
Unfortunately, Estrada had long since lost in the court of public opinion when he insisted
that he would respond to the charges only in the proper venue and when the time comes,
i.e., when he presented his defense during the impeachment trial. But his senator-allies
deprived him of his day in court, and in the process they unwittingly hastened his
downfall. Renato Cayetano, one of the senator-jurors who voted to release the contents
of the Velarde envelope, called January 16 a Day of Infamy. As it turned out it was the
Day of Judgment, when the Filipinos adjudged Estrada guilty and vowed to remove him
Immediately after the Senate count, when the prosecutors walked out, the gallery
crowd booed. The ten senators who voted for truth wept and hugged each other in defeat,
and the Senate President, Aquilino Pimentel, Jr., resigned in disgust. On the other hand,
the senator-sister of Ninoy Aquino, Tessie Aquino-Oreta, who was a staunch defender of
Estrada appalled TV viewers when she danced and taunted the gallery. These images
enraged many Filipinos and thousands poured out on the streets in a spontaneous mass
demonstration. They protested, wept, yelled, burned tires, honked horns, and lighted
candles. Amidst calls by Cardinal Sin and Cory Aquino to launch People Power II, by
237
first day, the number of people increased to 250,000 the following day. When rumors
spread that the military would withdraw its support from Estrada if they could see a
million people supporting the uprising, many apparently believed it since 1.5 million
Filipinos gathered in EDSA on the third day. Those who came were not only from Metro
Manila, unlike People Power I where the mobilization was confined mostly to residents
of the metropolis. This time thousands came from provinces, some as far as I1ocos and
Baguio in the north. There were also simultaneous uprisings nationwide, particularly in
key cities such as Cebu, Iloilo, Davao, Bacolod, and Zamboanga. Even the overseas
Filipino workers, such as the domestic helpers in Hong Kong, staged rallies in capitals of
their host countries. It was evident that public outrage was widespread and it cut across
class and ideological lines. Although they all demanded Estrada's immediate resignation,
their post-Estrada scenario differed. The conservatives and moderates wanted to avoid a
constitutional crisis, and thus called for Arroyo to replace Estrada. On the other hand, the
militant and radicals wanted both Estrada and Arroyo to resign and for Davide to
Clearly, the biggest difference between the two popular uprisings was the
participation of the military. In 1986, a botched coup d'etat led to a military revolt which
instigated the uprising. From the start then the military was a major component of the
uprising. In fact, three of the key personalities were General Ramos, Defense Secretary
Enrile, and Colonel Honasan. In People Power II, the military was not a key player at all.
They were on the sidelines and only became a factor on the third day of the uprising
when the presence of millions of Filipinos in EDSA had convinced them that Estrada had
239
immunity from lawsuits. While Arroyo's political allies negotiated the tenns for the
peaceful transfer of power, the militant groups in EDSA issued an ultimatum to Estrada.
In the early morning of January 21, the fourth day of the uprising, thousands of
people marched to Malacanang. To avert bloodshed between the pro- and anti-Estrada
groups and to avoid the possibility of a political vacuum since the military and most of
Estrada's cabinet secretaries had resigned, the Supreme Court ruled that the welfare of
the people is the supreme law, thus paving way for Arroyo's assumption of the
presidency. At high noon of the same day and before the enthusiastic crowd at the EDSA
the Republic. An hour later, a disgraced Estrada and his family left Malacanang via the
While the United States was inaugurating a new President, so was the Philippines.
Both George W. Bush and Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo are children of fonner Presidents.
Arroyo's father, Diodado Macapagal, was the President of the country from 1961-1965.
Arroyo, who is an economist by training, only became a politician in 1992 when she was
elected senator. In 1998, she won overwhelmingly as vice-president, even garnering 1.9
million votes more than what Estrada received when he ran for president. She is only the
second woman president and, ironically, both she and Aquino were chosen by People
Power.
241
the president. Critics noted that Estrada was questioning the constitutionality of his
successor not because he believed he could reclaim the post; rather, it was to escape
criminal prosecution since under the constitution the president enjoys immunity from
lawsuit. In fact, Estrada filed a motion in the Supreme Court asking that the Ombudsman
be barred from filing criminal charges against him in the Sandiganbayan. The
while the Sandiganbayan is a special court that tries graft and corruption charges against
them.
On March 3, 2001, the Supreme Court justices, voting 13-0, unanimously ruled
that Arroyo and not Estrada was the legitimate president. In arriving at its decision, the
Supreme Court noted that Estrada "had effectively resigned by his acts and statements"
during the last hours of his administration. A detailed account of what transpired in
Estrada's camp during the popular uprising is contained in the published diary of
Edgardo Angara, the Executive Secretary of Estrada who remained loyal to him until the
end. Angara, who was Estrada's running mate in the 1998 elections, wrote that Estrada
had accepted resignation as his only option and his acts and statements during those final
days affirmed it. Angara's insight was reliable since the position of Executive Secretary
The much-awaited Supreme Court decision was expected since Chief Justice
Davide sought their unanimous support before he administered the oath of office to
Arroyo. Because of his role in the popular uprising, Davide together with Justice
243
Marcelo is Estrada's mother's maiden name while Velarde may have been taken from
the name of Estrada's well-known spiritual adviser. Estrada also allegedly maintained
"airplane" accounts, named as such because they are numbered after airplane types such
as Account No. 747, Account No. 737, Account No 727 for Boeing planes and Account
No. 300 and Account No. 301 after Airbus planes. He also had an account where it
since these accounts would attest that he did not declare his true net worth in his 1999
Statement of Assets and Liabilities as stipulated by law for all government officials and
employees. In that declaration Estrada placed his net worth at P35 million. In addition to
peIjury, Estrada is liable for plunder and the forfeiture of his assets since his salary and
other lawful income would not justif'y the existence of all these accounts. As President he
was entitled to an annual salary of P557,000 and the constitution barred him from
engaging in any other profession or business while holding the highest office in the land.
As Filipinos move on with their lives an issue that haunts their recent victory is
the legitimacy of People Power as an avenue for replacing a corrupt and hated President.
The Filipinos can take pride in claiming that they have created People Power, which has
spawned similar movements in Europe and Asia in the late 1980s and which other
countries now are trying to emulate again. Students and opposition groups in Malaysia
and Indonesia, for instance, have been vocal about their desire to duplicate the feat
achieved by the Filipinos and thus resolve their own political crisis.
Power was a peaceful popular uprising of the millions of Filipinos who took it upon
themselves to rectify a deplorable condition that had caused excessive damage to the
economy, political institutions, and moral fiber of the nation. It was democratic and
inalienable right to remove a dishonorable leader when it appeared that the legal
The Americans have identified democracy as one of their colonial legacies in the
relations puts it, the Philippines was created "in our [U.S.] image." Cynics note it is not
quite so since the Filipino political culture of patronage and clientism have rendered
the light of recent developments, what really renders Philippine democracy unique and
a. P4 billion c. PI 0 billion
2. President Arroyo faced two dilemmas when she assumed office. These were
_ _ _ and _
3. Two of the criticisms raised against People Power were and '
ill Enumeration
2. Identify the five assumed names or accounts allegedly used by Estrada to conceal his
stolen wealth
IV Essay
1. Pretend you are the prosecutor or the defense lawyer. Write a good case for or
against Estrada.
246
WORKS CITED
Books
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_ _ _. The Revolt ofthe Masses: The Story ofBonifacio and the Katipunan. Quezon
City: University of the Philippines Press, 1955.
_ _ _. Malolos: The Crisis ofthe Republic. Quezon City: University of the Philippines
Press, 1960.
Aquino, Belinda A. Politics ofPlunder: The Philippines under Marcos. Manila: College
of Public Administration. Occasional Paper, no. 87- I. Manila: University of the
Philippines Press, 1987.
Blount, James H. The American Occupation of the Philippines, 1898-1912. New York:
Putnam, 1913.
Bresnan, John, ed. Crisis in the Philippines. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986.
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(December 1986).
Buenaventura, Steffi San. "Filipino Immigration to the United States." Asian American
Encyclopedia (1995).
Hollnsteiner, Mary Racelis, ed. Society, Culture and the Filipino: A Textbook ofReadings
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the Institute of Philippine Culture, 1979.
Hutterer, Karl, ed. Economic Exchange and Social Interaction in Southeast Asia:
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1910. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1979.
Jenkins, Shirley. American Economic Policy toward the Philippines. Stanford: Stanford
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Jose, Ricardo. The Philippine Army, 1935-1942. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila
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Karnow, Stanley. In Our Image: America's Empire in the Philippines. New York:
Random House, 1989.
Kerkvliet, Benedict. The Huk Rebellion: A Study of Peasant Revolt in the Philippines.
Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977.
LeRoy, James. The Americans in the Philippines: A History of the Conquest and First
Years ofOccupation. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1914.
Lynch, Frank, SJ. and Alfonso de Guzman II, eds. Four Readings on Philippine Values.
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University Press, 1964.
Majka, Linda C. and Theo J. Majka. Farm Workers, Agribusiness and the State.
Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1982.
250
Salamanca, Bonifacio. The Filipino Reaction to American Rule, 1901-1913. Hamden CT:
Shoe String Press, 1968.
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Colonialism, Neocolonialism, Dictatorship, and Resistance. Boston: South End
Press, 1987.
Schumacher, John N., S.J. The Propaganda Movement, 1880-1895: The Creation of a
Filipino Consciousness, the Making of the Revolution. rev. ed. Quezon City:
Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1997.
Scott, William Henry. Barangay: Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Society.
Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University, 1994.
-----c::.The Discovery of the Igorots: Spanish Contacts with the Pagans of Northern
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_ _ _. Prehispanic Source Materials for the Study ofPhilippine History. Quezon City:
New Day Publishers, 1984.
Soriano, Rafaelita Hilario, ed. Women in the Philippine Revolution, 1898-1902. Quezon
City: Printon Press, 1995.
Steinberg, David Joel. Philippine Collaboration in World War II. Ann Arbor: University
of Michigan Press, 1967.
_ _ _. The Philippines: A Singular and Plural Place. 3d ed. Boulder: Westview Press,
1994.
252
Wolff, Leon. Little Brown Brother: America's Forgotten Bid for Empire Which Cost
250,000 Lives. New York: Krauss Printing Co., 1970.
Wurfe1, David. Philippine Politics: Development and Decay. Quezon City: Ateneo de
Manila University Press, 1988.
Newspapers
Angara, Edgardo. 2001. Erap's Final Hours Told. Philippine Daily Inquirer, 4-6
February.
Cueto, Donna S., Cathy C. Yarnsuan, and Andrea T. Echavez. 2001. Time's Up For Erap.
Philippine Daily Inquirer, 20 January.
Dones, Liberty and Romel Bagares. 2001. "A Time to Heal a Time to Build." Philippine
Daily Inquirer, 21 January.
Doronila, Amando. 2001. EDSA II Wories Western Media. Philippine Daily Inquirer, 29
and 31 January.
Javellana, Juliet L. 2000. Estrada Trial Starts. Philippine Daily Inquirer, 7 December.
Marfil, Martin P., Blanche S Rivera., and Donna Cueto. 2001. Estrada "Airplane
Accounts" Uncovered. Philippine Daily Inquirer, 26 January.
Yarnsuan, Cathy. 2001. It's 13-0 For Gloria. Philippine Daily Inquirer, 3 March.
THE PHILIPPINES:
A STORY OF A NATION
BY
HONOLULU, HAWAI'I
August 2001
ANSWER KEY TO "THE PHILIPPINES: STORY OF A NATION"
CHAPTER I
I Multiple Choice
I.D 6.D
2. C 7.B
3. B 8.D
4. B 9.B
5. C 10.D
CHAPTER 2
I Multiple Choice
I. C 5.B
2. A 6.B
3. B 7.D
4. D
1
CHAPTERS
I Multiple Choice
I. B 4.C
2. A S.A
3. D
CHAPTER 6
I. Multiple Choice
1. B 4.D
2. C S.A
3. A 6.A
CHAPTER 7
I Multiple Choice
1. B 4.A
2. D S.D
3. D
3
5. H 10. C
CHAPTER 9
I Multiple Choice
1. C 4.D
2. D 5.C
3. B
I. ilustrados, affluence
3. Indios, priesthood
1. C 6.0
2. B 7.E
3. D 8.H
4. A 9.J
5. I 10.F
CHAPTER 10
I Multiple Choice
1. B 6.B
2. B 7.B
3. C
5
4. B
5. D
CHAPTER 12
I Multiple Choice
1. B
2. D
3. C
4. C
5. B
6. A
3. mestizos
4. student, Europe
1. G 6.D
2. C 7.B
3. A
4. E
5. F
7
2. B
3. D
4. D
5. C
I. Tagalog
CHAPTER 15
I Multiple Choice
I. B
2. C
3. B
4. A
5. C
I. bandit
2. guerrilla warfare
9
III Matching Type
I. C
2. A
3. D
4. B
5. E
CHAPTER 20
I Multiple Choice
1. C
2. A
3. C
4. B
5. D
II Enumeration
2. It was practical to hire Filipinos since the Philippines was a U.S. colony; technically,
Filipinos were U.S. nationals and thus were excluded from laws against importing
other Asians; besides, Filipinos were a good alternative to the strike-prone Japanese
workers
4. They saw Hawaii as glorya, a place they equated with happiness and prosperity
13
II Fill in the Blanks
I. unions, Mexican
3. pensionados
I. G 5.A
2. C 6.D
3. E 7.F
4. H 8.B
CHAPTER 22
I Multiple Choice
I. B
2. C
3. D
4. A
5. D
I. H 6.D
15
CHAPTER 24
I Multiple Choice
I. D
2. C
3. A
4. C
5. C
I. Rosa Henson
3. Kempeitai, torture
III Identification
I. The comfort women were those forcibly conscripted by the Japanese military to
the Japanese) consisted of peasants of Central Luzon who fought the Japanese as
guerrillas.
3. The Kempeitai or the Japanese military police earned notoriety for torturing guerrillas
5. The USAFFE or United States Armed Forces in the Far East was a comb~ed
17
2. 0 6. A
3. C 7. E
4. B 8. H
CHAPTER 27
I Multiple Choice
I. B
2. 0
3. C
4. 0
5. C
2. Filipino First; July 4, 1946; June 12, 1898; Philippine History, Philippine Institutions,
course on Rizai
I. E 5. B
2. F 6. A
3. C 7. G
4. 0
19
3. B
4. C
5. B
6. D
3. human rights
I. G 5. D
2. B 6. E
3. A 7. C
4. F
CHAPTER 30
I Multiple Choice
I. B 5.C
2. B 6.C
3. C 7.D
4. B S.C
21
3. 0 6.0
I. 0 5. G
2. C 6. A
3. F 7. E
4. B
CHAPTER 33
I Multiple Choice
I. 0
2. C
3. A
4. C
5. A
2. brain drain
3. labor migration
23
CHAPTER 35
I Multiple Choice
I. C
2. B
3. A
4. D
5. C
3. glorified mob rule, undemocratic and thus can result to constitutionally questionable
succession
III Enumeration
I. People Power I was a time of fear and apprehension unlike People Power II, which
2. Unlike People Power I, it was mostly the youth that participated in People Power II.
4. The mobilization for People Power II went beyond Metro Manila to include major
provinces and key cities of the country and even overseas Filipino workers.
5. Unlike People Power I, the military was not a key actor in People Power II.
6. Jose Velarde
~.'
25