AIRFLOW RIG F6

ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

UNIVERSITY

AIRFLOW RIG
LABORATORY MANUAL

Department of Mechanical Engineering, 2020

Index to Exercises

Exercise A - Dispersion of a jet

Exercise B - Boundary layer growth in pipe flow

A full list of Teaching Exercises for this equipment is shown in Table

Exercise Description

Exercise A Dispersion of a jet

Exercise B Boundary layer growth in pipe flow

Exercise C Discharge measurement by orifice plate meter

Exercise D Head losses in bends and elbows

Exercise E Inlet nozzles used as flowmeters

Air Flow Rig

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Exercise A - Dispersion of a jet
Objective
To explore the dispersion of a free non-buoyant fluid jet by determining the velocity
distribution in the jet at various cross-sections different distances from the orifice and then
calculating:

a. the discharge

b. the momentum flux

c. the kinetic energy flux

in the jet at each cross-section investigated.

Equipment Set Up

Figure A1

Theory
When a free non-buoyant jet is established it can be shown that the jet dispersion
pattern is geometrically and kinematically similar. This experiment allows the structure of
this form of fluid mixing to be determined from velocity traverses of an air jet using a
total energy tube.

Readings to be taken
Select three or more cross-sections of the jet well spaced along its axial length. The
cross-section closest to the orifice will be fixed by the need to accommodate the total
head on the jet centre line (point of maximum velocity) within the range of the
manometer provided. The position of the most remote cross-section will be fixed by
considerations of accuracy in the measurement of total head with the manometer.

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 Exercise A

Figure A2

Determine the jet axis or centre at each cross-section selected by moving the total head
tube through the centre of the jet and stopping it at the point where the highest
manometer reading is obtained. If this process is repeated a couple of times traversing
alternatively in the horizontal and vertical directions, the jet axis will soon be located. Do
not assume that the centre of the jet occurs at the same y and z values at each
cross-section as it may be inclined in either the vertical or horizontal plane.

When the y and z co-ordinates of the point of maximum velocity have been located,
traverse the total head tube through this point recording the position and the manometer
liquid levels at each point. Enough velocity points must be taken to ensure a clearly
defined velocity profile. Pay particular attention to the edges of the jet continuing to take
velocity readings until well clear of the mixing zone at each section.

Results
Because the jet dispersion mechanism is essentially one of turbulent mixing at a free shear
layer, the flow being investigated will be highly turbulent. Point velocities therefore will
vary with time, especially near the edges of the jet, and mean (time averaged) velocity
values can only be obtained if the movement of the manometer fluid column is damped
either by partial pinching of the connecting tubes using the clamps provided, or by friction
in long tube lengths. The circular jet may well not be perfectly symmetrical and a further
averaging process can be introduced using the method described:

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 Figure A3

Figure A4

A free non-buoyant jet can be considered as consisting of a series of concentric annuli, of

which a typical one radius r and width r, is shown in Figure A3. The velocity
measurements are made across the jet along two perpendicular axis (Y and Z). In this way
four velocity values are obtained at 1, 2, 3 and 4 which are ideally the same. If however
the crossing of the axis is not exactly at the centre of the jet, the values at 1, 2, 3 and 4 will
vary slightly. To avoid this problem, the four corresponding velocity values should be
averaged and a single velocity profile plotted as in Figure A4. To do this it is necessary to
take velocity readings equidistant from the axis
origin. If this is not done then all velocity values must be plotted as points on Figure A4 (r
values relative to the axis crossing values of Y and Z) and the best fit curve drawn through
the four sets of points by eye.

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 Exercise A

Jet Discharge
The discharge (volume/second) value of the jet can now be obtained by using the
smoothed experimental data represented by the curve in Figure A4. Considering Figure
A3 we can say:

discharge through annulus : Q = 2rr.v

total discharge : Q = 2r.v.r = 2(rvr) (1)

In Figure A4 the shaded area represents the average condition in an typed annulus and
the area = (v.r) but from equation (1) above it will be seen that we need the product
(r.v.r) to obtain the discharge, so a second curve is prepared using the v ordinates of the
curve in Figure A4 and multiplying them by the radius r before re- plotting the (r.v) data as
a new curve shown in Figure A5.

Figure A5

We can now see that the discharge can be obtained by applying equation (1) to the
area under the curve in Figure A5 in which the shaded area represents:

Q = 2x (area under curve in Figure A5)

The area under the curve may be determined by counting squares once the (v.r)
graph shown in Figure A5 has been constructed from the velocity-radius data.

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Jet Momentum
The linear momentum possessed by the free air jet at any cross-section can be determined
from the same velocity traverses used to determine discharge in 'Jet Discharge'. Again the
smoothed and averaged velocity data shown graphically in Figure A4 may be used by
considering the momentum possessed by the flow through the annulus shown in Figure A3.

M = (mass flow rate x velocity)

M=2r r.v x v x 

M = 2rv2 r

For the whole jet momentum: M = 2(rv2 r)

Figure A6

now from graph Figure A6: shaded area = (rv2 r)

and so M = 2 x (area under curve)

The area under the curve may be obtained by counting squares once the (v2 r) graph
shown in Figure A6 has been constructed from the velocity-radius.

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 Exercise A

Jet Kinetic Energy

The jet kinetic energy based on mean velocity distributions may be determined for those
cross-sections for which velocity data is available. Again the smoothed and averaged
data shown in Figure A4 may be used as a basis for kinetic energy calculation as
follows:

The kinetic energy flux through an annulus as shown in Figure A3 is given by:

E = (mass flow rate x 1/2 velocity2)

E = 2r rv.1/2v2

E = (rv3 r)

Energy flux through whole jet: E = (rv3 r)

Figure A7

now from the graph of (v3.r) values plotted against r in Figure A7.

shaded area = (rv3. r)

Therefore: E = x (area under curve)

The area under the curve may be obtained by counting squares once the (v3.r) graph
shown in Figure A7 has been constructed from the velocity-radius data.

Conclusions
For a free non-buoyant jet the total discharge through any cross-section will increase as
the distance from the orifice increases. However, the momentum possessed by the jet
should remain the same at all cross-sections (law of conservation of
momentum applied to fluid flows). Because of turbulence and viscous dissipation of
energy in the dissipating jet, the kinetic energy possessed by the jet should
decrease, as the distance away from the orifice increases.

Plot a single graph showing the total discharge, momentum and energy of the jet (to
suitable scales) on the Y axis and the distance from the orifice on the X axis. Draw lines
through the discharge, momentum and energy data points and comment on their
trends.

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Exercise B - Boundary layer growth in pipe flow
Objective
A Pitot tube is used to explore the developing boundary layer in the entry length of a pipe
which has air drawn through it. The Pitot tube is used to determine the velocity
distribution profiles at a number of cross-sections in the pipe at different distances from
the pipe inlet. Because the air is drawn along the pipe (sucked) by connecting the fan
inlet to the pipe outlet the developing air flow in the entry length of the pipe is unaffected
by flow disturbances caused by the fan. The profiled bellmouth inlet ensures that
there is no flow separation from the pipe at inlet and the flow straightening vanes
there suppress any tendency for an inlet vortex to form. Velocities in the pipe are
determined by using the Pitot tube to measure the dynamic pressure of the moving air in
the pipe and comparing this with the static pressure in the pipe at the same cross-section
and flow velocity. The Bernoulli equation applied to the fluid impinging on the tip of a
Pitot tube gives the following relationship for the air velocity:

in which Op is the pressure difference between the Pitot tube and the wall pressure
tapping measured using the manometer bank provided. Alternatively, h is this same
pressure difference expressed as a 'head' of the fluid being measured (air),  is the air
density at the atmospheric pressure and temperature of that day and g is the
gravitational acceleration constant (9.81 ms-2). See Data Sheet 1 for a worked
example.

Equipment Set Up

Pitot tube assembly

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 Exercise B

Theory
When fluid flows past a stationary solid wall the shear stress set up close to this
boundary due to the relative motion between the fluid and the wall leads to the
development of a flow boundary layer, which may be either laminar or turbulent in
nature depending on the flow Reynolds number. In this experiment the boundary layer
undergoes a transition to turbulent flow quite close to the pipe entrance.

The growth of this boundary layer can be revealed by studying the velocity profiles at
selected cross-sections, the core region still outside the boundary layer showing up
as an area of more or less uniform velocity.

If velocity profiles for cross-sections different distances from the pipe entrance are
compared (see Data Sheet 2), the rate of growth of the boundary layer along the pipe
length can be determined. Once the boundary layer has grown to the point where it
fills the whole pipe cross-section this is termed "fully developed pipe flow".

Readings to be taken
Five mounting positions are provided for the Pitot tube assembly. These are: 54mm,
294mm, 774mm, 1574mm and 2534mm from the pipe inlet. Ensure that the standard
(large) inlet nozzle is fitted for this experiment and that the orifice plate, which can be
inserted at the pipe break line, is not in position.

Mount the Pitot tube assembly at Position 1 (nearest to the pipe inlet) and connect
the pressure tapping at the outer end of the assembly to a convenient manometer
tube. Connect the appropriate pipe wall static pressure tapping to the neighbouring
manometer tube. This should always be the one immediately upstream from the Pitot
tube position in use at that time.

Position the Pitot tube in the centre of the pipe and start the fan with the outlet throttle
closed. Now open the throttle slowly making sure that the fluid levels in the
manometer tubes do not approach too close to the top and bottom of the visible
tubes. This throttle should be set ideally so that with the Pitot tube in this position the
difference in level between the "dynamic" and the "static" manometer tubes should
be about 2/3 of the maximum available range. If this separation of the manometer
tube levels is not achieved with the fan discharge throttle fully open then the
manometer board should be inclined from its normal vertical position until this ratio is
achieved.

Carry out a velocity traverse of the pipe with the Pitot tube, being sure to record its
transverse position at each reading point using the short scale provided on the Pitot tube
assembly. Ensure that the Pitot tube traverses right across the pipe until it is in contact
with the far wall of the pipe; its recorded position here will enable the plotted velocity
traverse to be related to the position of the pipe walls and centre line. Read and record
both manometer tube levels and the transverse position scale at each measurement
station. Space the measurement stations more closely together in regions where the
velocity gradient is large.

Repeat the velocity traverse for the same air flow value at each of the other cross
sections. Replace the blanking plugs provided in the Pitot tube mounting holes not in
use. If the manometer is used in an inclined position, record its angle to the vertical so
that the manometer tube readings may be corrected later for this slope.

Record the air temperature and barometric pressure in the laboratory at the time of the
experiment so that the air density value may be obtained.

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Results
Calculate air velocity at each point using Equation (1) and referring to the worked
example in Data Sheet 1. Plot the transverse velocity profiles on a common graph as
shown in Data Sheet 2 indicating the origin of the velocity scale and the true position
of the measurement points relative to the pipe walls, remembering in this connection
to allow for the semi-diameter of the Pitot tube (3mm O/D tube).

Note that the boundary layer grows in the pipe to fill the whole cross-section - fully
developed pipe flow - by the third or fourth velocity traverse position.

Calculate the discharge of air in the pipe from one of the velocity profiles using the
method set out under 'Jet Discharge' in Exercise A - Dispersion of a jet and compare
this value with those obtained by other methods.

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