Quadratic Equation Progression Trigonometric Identities Spherical Trigonometry

Form: AM ∙ HM = (GM)2 Squared Identities: Sine Law:

Ax2 + Bx + C = 0 sin sin sin
sin2A + cos2A = 1

Roots: Arithmetic Progression: 2

1 + tan A = sec A 2
sin
=
sin
= sin

s 2
d = a2 − a1 = a3 − a2
2
2 Cosine Law for sides:
− 4AC
−B±√B

1 + cot A = csc A

an = a1 + (n − 1)d cos = cos cos + sin sin cos

x=

2A

Sum & Diff of Angles Identities:

an = ax + (n − x)d Cosine Law for angles:
Sum of Roots:
n
sin (A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B

cos = − cos cos + sin sin cos

x1 + x2 =− Sn = 2 (a1 + an) cos (A ± B) = cos A cos B ∓ sin A sin B Spherical Polygon:

A

Harmonic Progression: tan A ± tan B

2

Product of Roots: πR E E = spherical excess

- reciprocal of arithmetic tan (A ± B) =

C progression 1 ∓ tan A tan B

AB = 180° E = (A+B+C+D…) – (n-2)180°

x1 ∙ x 2 = +
Double Angle Identities:
A
Geometric Progression: Spherical Pyramid:
1 minute of arc =
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A 3

r = a2/a1 = a3/a 2
1 πR E
1 nautical mile
Binomial Theorem 2 2
V= ABH =
1 nautical mile =
an = a1 r
n−1

cos 2A = cos
A − sin A
3
540° 6080 feet
Form: 2

cos 2A = 2 cos A −1

n
an = ax r
n−x
1 statute mile =
(x + y)

n cos 2A = 1 − 2 sin A
2 5280 feet
1−r n-sided Polygon
rth term: Sn = a1 2 tan A # of diagonals: 1 knot =

rth =nC m xn−mym

1−r tan 2A =
2
n Interior Angle, ɤ: 1 nautical mile

a1 1 − tan A d= (n − 3) (n − 2)180° per hour

S∞ = 2

where: m=r-1 1−r γ=

Deflection Angle, δ: Area = n ∙ ATRIANGLE

Worded Problems Tips Triangle Common Quadrilateral

δ=180°−γ

 Area = n ∙ R2sinβ

Age Problems 1
Square: Rectangle:
Central Angle, β: 2

A= bh A = s2 A = bh
→ underline specific time conditions

2 360° 1

 P = 4s P = 2a + 2b

Motion Problems β= Area = n ∙ ah

1 n 2

2 2
→a=0 A= ab sin C d = √2s d= √b + h

→ s = vt

Parallelogram: Polygon Names

 1 2 sin B sin C
A = bh
16 - hexadecagon
Work Problems A= 2 a
sin A
3 - triangle 17 - septadecagon
A = ab sin θ

Case 1: Unequal rate 4 - quad/tetragon 18 - octadecagon

1

work A = √s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c) 5 - pentagon 19 - nonadecagon

 rate = A = 2 d 1d2 sin θ 6 - hexagon/sexagon 20 - icosagon
time

a+b+c 7 - septagon/heptagon 21 - unicosagon

Rhombus:
Case 2: Equal rate s= 8 - octagon 22 - do-icosagon
2

→ usually in project management

A = ah 9 - nonagon 30 - tricontagon
→ express given to man-days or man-hours
2
A = a sin θ
10 - decagon 31 - untricontagon
11 - undecagon/
 Clock Problems Trapezoid 1 40 - tetradecagon
A= d1d2 monodecagon 50 - quincontagon

11M − 60H + if M is ahead of H 1 12 - dodecagon/ 60 - hexacontagon

θ= - if M is behind of H A= (a + b)h bidecagon 100 - hectogon

2 2

Ellipse 13 - tridecagon 1,000 - chilliagon

A
n 2 2
ma + nb 2 2 14 - quadridecagon 10,000 - myriagon
1

a+b

Ex-circle- 1 1 1 1 = ;w= √ A = πab C=2π√ 15 - quindecagon/ 1,000,000 - megagon

m m+n
2

+
A2 pentadecagon ∞ - aperio (circle)

In-circle =
1 2
+
3

Centers of Triangle-Circle Relationship General Quadrilateral

Triangle
Circumscribing Circle: Inscribed Circle: Cyclic Quadrilateral: (sum of opposite angles=180°)

INCENTER abc AT = rs
A = √(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d)

- the center of the inscribed circle (incircle) AT =

4R

of the triangle & the point of intersection of

opposite side Escribed Circle: Ptolemy’s Theorem is applicable:

the angle bisectors of the triangle. diameter = a+b+c+d

sine of angle AT = Ra(s − a) ac + bd = d 1d 2 s=

AT = Rb(s − b)

d= a = b = c
AT = Rc(s − c)
Non-cyclic Quadrilateral:

sin B sin C ε
sin A

2
A = √(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d) − abcd cos

Pappus Theorem
CIRCUMCENTER
- the center of the circumscribing circle Pappus Theorem 1: Prism or Cylinder Pointed Solid
(circumcircle) & the point of intersection of SA=L∙2πR V=A BH=A XL
1

V= ABH
the perpendicular bisectors of the triangle. v

Pappus Theorem 2: LA = PBH = PxL 3

A B/P B → Perimeter or Area of base

Reg. Pyramid
V=A∙2πR Right Circ. Cone

H → Height & L → slant height

A X/P X → Perimeter or Area of cross-

NOTE: It is also used to locate centroid of an area. section perpendicular to slant height LA = πrL LA= P L
2 B

Spherical Lune: Spherical Wedge:

Special Solids Spherical Solids
ORTHOCENTER 2 4 3

Sphere: A
lune 4πR πR

- the point of intersection of the altitudes of Truncated Prism or Cylinder: = V

wedge
3

4 2π
=
θ
rad

the triangle. V = ABHave V= πR3 θ

rad 2π

3 2

LA = PBH ave 2

2
LA = 4πR
Alune = 2θR V = θR
3

wedge

Frustum of Cone or Pyramid: Spheroid:

 Spherical Zone:
H V = 4 πabc

V= (A1 + A2 + √A 1A2) + b2 + c2 Azone = 2πRh

2
3 3 a

CENTROID LA = 4π[ ]

3 Spherical Sector:
- the point of intersection of the medians of
1

the triangle. Prolate Spheroid: V=

A
zone
R

V = 34 πabb V= πR2h

Prismatoid: a2
+b
2
+b
2
3

LA = 4π[ ] Spherical Segment:

3

V= (A1 + 4AM + A2) For one base:

6
Oblate Spheroid: about major axis 1

EULER LINE 4
V=
3
πh2(3R − h)

- the line that would pass through the V= πaab

3 For two bases:

orthocenter, circumcenter, and centroid of a2 +a
2
+b
2

the triangle. LA = 4π[ ] V= πh(3a 2 + 3b2 + h2)

3 6

about minor axis

Archimedean Solids Analytic Geometry Ellipse Hyperbola
- the only 13 polyhedra that are - the locus of point that moves such - the locus of point that moves such
Slope-intercept form: Distance from a point to another point:
convex, have identical vertices, and that the sum of its distances from that the difference of its distances

their faces are regular polygons. y = mx + b 2 2 two fixed points called the foci is from two fixed points called the foci
d = √(y2 − y1) + (x2 − x1) constant. is constant.
Nn Nn

Point-slope form:
E= V= Distance from a point to a line: General Equation: General Equation:
2

v y − y1

where: s m= |Ax + By + C| 2 2
Ax + Cy + Dx + Ey + F = 0
2 2
Ax − Cy + Dx + Ey + F = 0

x− x1 d=

E → # of edges

V → # of vertices √A + B
2 2
Standard Equation: Standard Equation:
N → # of faces Two-point form: (x − h)
2 2
(y − k) (x − h)
2
(y − k)
2

n → # of sides of each face Distance of two parallel lines:

+ =1 − =1

v → # of faces meeting at a vertex y

2 − y1 y − y2
a
2
b
2 a
2
b
2

|C1 − C2
= |

x2 − x 1 x − x2 d= (x − h)2 (y − k)2 (y − k)2 (x − h)2

2 2 − =1

Conic Sections Point-slope form: √A +B b2

+
2
a
=1
a
2 b
2

General Equation: x
y Angle between two lines:
+
= m2 − m1
1

Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

a b

Based on discriminant: tan θ =

1 + m 1m2

2
B − 4AC = 0 ∴ parabola

2
B − 4AC < 0 ∴ ellipse

Parabola
B2 − 4AC > 0 ∴ hyperbola - the locus of point that moves such that it is always equidistant from a

fixed point (focus) and a fixed line (directrix).

Based on eccentricity, e=f/d: Elements:
Elements:
General Equation:
= 0 ∴ circle Eccentricity, e: Elements: Location of foci, c: Same as ellipse:

y2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 Location of foci, c: Loc. of directrix, d: 2 2 2

Length of LR,

df
= 1 ∴ parabola e= =1
2
x + Dx + Ey + F = 0
2 2
c =a −b
2
d=
a
Eq’n of asymptote: Eccentricity, e

c =a +b
Loc. of directrix, d

< 1 ∴ ellipse
dd e

y − k = ±m(x − h)

Length of LR:
> 1 ∴ hyperbola Standard Equation: Length of latus Eccentricity, e: where:

2
(x − h) = ±4a(y − k) rectum, LR: 2
2b c m is (+) for upward asymptote;

m is (-) for downward

Circle (y − k) = ±4a(x − h) a a m = a/b if the transverse axis is vertical

2 LR = 4a LR = e= m = b/a if the transverse axis is horizontal;

- the locus of point that moves such

that its distance from a fixed point 1 revolution

called the center is constant. Engineering Economy
= 2π rad Unit Circle
General Equation:  Simple Interest:
= 360˚ Versed sine:
x2 + y2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 = 400 grads I=P n where:
vers A = 1 − cos A
F → future worth

Standard Equation: = 6400 mills Versed cosine: F = P(1 + n) P → principal or present worth

2 2 2
(x − h) + (y − k) = r i → interest rate per interest period

r → nominal interest rate

covers A = 1 − sin A  Compound Interest:
Tetrahedron n → no. of interest periods
Half versed sine: F = P(1 + )
n
m → no. of interest period per year
Line Tangent to Conic Section
1 − cos A t → no. of years
mt
r

hav A = ER → effective rate

To find the equation of a line 2 2 F=P(1+ )

 tangent to a conic section at a H = a√ m

Exsecant:
given point P(x1, y1): 3 I r m

exsec A = sec A − 1 ER = =(1− ) −1

In the equation of the conic 2

SA = a √3
P m

equation, replace:
  Continuous Compounding Interest:
Inflation:  Rate of return:
2
→ 1 √2 RR = F = Pert
V = a3 f= +f+ f annual net profit

2 1
2 capital r

→ 1
 Break-even analysis: Annual net profit ER = e − 1

→ cost = revenue
= savings – expenses  Annuity:

+1
– depreciation (sinking fund)

′
2 RP = n

+1 RR
F = A[(1+ ) − 1]
F → future worth

where:

P → principal or present worth

2

Depreciation A → periodic payment

1 + 1 (1 + )n′ −1 i → interest rate per payment

→ n → no. of interest periods

2 BVm = FC − D m P=A[ n ] n’ → no. of payments

(1
+ )

Differential  Straight-Line: CALTECH:

Calculus Mode 3 2  Perpetuity:

FC−SV x y

(BV
d= (time) ) A

Curvature: Radius of curvature: n

0 FC
P= = F(1 + )−n

y" n SV where:

k= [1 + (y′) 2]2 Dm = d(m)

C → capitalized cost

3 

ρ=
Capitalized Cost: FC → first cost

2
[1 + (y′) ]2 "  Sinking Fund: where: OM → annual operation

FC → first cost OM RC−SV

or maintenance cost

n
(1 + i) −1 −1
SV → salvage cost C=FC+ +
RC → replacement cost

Maxima & Minima (Critical Points):

d = (FC − SV) [ ] d → depreciation (1 + )n − 1
SV → salvage cost

per year

n → economic life AC → annual cost

(+) minima

′
(1 + i)m − 1
m → any year before n AC=C∙

=0

=y
(-) maxima D
m =d[ ] BVm → book value (RC − SV)

after m years

Dm → total depreciation AC=FC∙ +OM+

Point of inflection: (1 + i)n − 1

 Sum-of-the-Years-Digit (SYD):
2
n−m+1

CALTECH:  Single-payment-compound-amount factor:

= y" = 0 d = (FC−SV)[ ]
2

∑ years
x y (F/P, , n) = (1 + )n

m
Mode 3 3

n (time) (BV)
Integral Calculus-The Dm = (FC − SV)

n−m+
0 FC  Single-payment-present-worth factor:

Cardioid ∑

1 x
 [ ] −n
n n SV

∑1 x
n+1 SV (P/F, , n) = (1 + )

A = 1.5πa2
 Equal-payment-series-compound-amount factor:
 Declining Balance (Matheson):
P = 8a
m
CALTECH: n
(1 + ) ′ − 1

BVm = FC(1 − k) Mode 3 6 (F/A, , n) = [ ]

r = a(1 − sin θ) r = a(1 − cos θ)

SV = FC(1 − k)
n
k → obtained
x y

(time) (BV)

r = a(1 + sin θ) r = a(1 + cos θ) 0 FC  Equal-payment-sinking-fund factor:

D m = FC − BV m
n SV

(1 + )n′ −1 −1

 Double Declining Balance:

(A/F, , n) = [ ]

BVm = FC(1 − k)

k = 2/n k → obtained
 Equal-payment-series-present-worth factor:
Dm = FC − BVm (1 + )n′ − 1

FC → first cost (P/A, , n) = [

(1 + )n
]

where:

 Service Output Method: SV → salvage cost

FC−SV
d → depreciation per year  Equal-payment-series-capital-recovery factor:
Qn → qty produced during

d= economic life n′ −1

Q
n
Qm → qty produced during (1 + ) −1

up to m year (A/P, , n) =
[ n ]

D = dQm
Dm → total depreciation (1 + )

Statistics Fractiles Transportation Engineering Traffic Accident Analysis

Measure of Natural Tendency  Range Design of Horizontal Curve

Mean, x̅ , μ → average = −  Accident rate for 100 million vehicles
per miles of travel in a segment of a
→ Mode Stat 1-var

 Coefficient of Range
 Minimum radius of curvature highway:
→ Shift Mode ▼ s Stat Frequency? on =
− R= v2
R = A (100,000,000)
→ Input + g(e + f) ADT∙N∙365∙L

→ AC Shift 1 var x̅
R → minimum radius of curvature A → no. of accidents during period of analysis
 Median, Me → middle no.
n+ 1  Quartiles e → superelevation
Me th = 2
ADT → average daily traffic
1 n n
M th = [( ) + ( + 1)]
f → coeff. of side friction or
when1 n is even skid resistance N → time period in years
Q1 = n Q2 = 24 n Q3 = 34 n
4
v → design speed in m/s L → length of segment in miles
when n is odd g → 9.82 m/s2
 Accident rate per million entering
 Centrifugal ratio or impact factor vehicles in an intersection:
e
2 2 2 2
Impact factor = v A (1,000,000)

1 1 1

Q
1 = (n + 1) ; Q1 = (n + 1) ; Q1 = (n + 1)
4 4 4

gR R=
ADT∙N∙365

R → minimum radius of curvature v → A → no. of accidents during period of analysis

 Interquartile Range, IQR design speed in m/s g → 9.82 m/s2 ADT → average daily traffic entering all legs
Standard Deviation = −
Q3−Q1
N → time period in years
=

 Coefficient of IQR Power to move a vehicle

 Population standard deviation
→ Mode Stat 1-var
→ Shift Mode ▼ Stat Frequency? on → Input = − P = vR
SR = f∙i
+

→ AC Shift 1 var σx
P → power needed to move vehicle in watts
f∙i∙p
Q −Q
= 3 1 Q3+Q1 v → velocity of vehicle in m/s R → sum
of diff. resistances in N f → fatal
 Sample standard deviation  Quartile Deviation (semi-IQR) = IQR/2 i → injury
→ Mode Stat 1-var
Design of Pavement p → property damage
→
→
Shift Mode ▼ Stat Frequency? on
Input
 Outlier
→ extremely high or low data higher than or lower than the following limits:
→ AC Shift 1 var sx Q1 − 1.5IQR > x
Q3 + 1.5IQR < x
 Rigid pavement without dowels  Spacing mean speed, US:
3W
t=√

NOTE:  Decile or Percentile ∑d n

If not specified whether population/sample in a given i
m

m = 10 or 100 (n)
problem, look for POPULATION. Us = =
 Rigid pavement with dowels
Coefficient of Linear Correlation or Normal Distribution t = √3W t = √3W ∑t 1

Pearson’s r
2f 4f

(at the edge) (at the center)

→ Mode Stat A+Bx
Input

t → thickness of pavement
→

→ AC Shift 1 Reg r ∑( U )

W → wheel load
NOTE: f → allow tensile stress of concrete 1

-1 ≤ r ≤ +1; otherwise erroneous  Time mean speed, Ut:

 Z-score or  Flexible pavement ∑
d
Ut = t =
∑U

 Population standard deviation

1

W n n

standard score → Mode Stat t = √ f1 − r

Ʃd → sum of distance traveled by all vehicles Ʃt → sum

Variance f1 → allow bearing pressure of subgrade r → of time traveled by all vehicles Ʃu1 → sum of all spot
 standard deviation = σ radius of circular area of contact between wheel speed
 variance = σ 2
load & pavement
 relative variability = σ/x or variate → AC Shift 1Distr 1/Ʃu1 → reciprocal of sum of all spot speed n → no.
of vehicles
Mean/Average Deviation x−μ
left of z → P(  Thickness of pavement in terms of
expansion pressure  Rate of flow:
 Mean/average value 1 b
t=
expansion pressure

pavement density q = kUs

mv = b − a ∫a f(x)dx
z= σ
right of z → R(  Stiffness factor of pavement q → rate of flow in vehicles/hour k →
density in vehicles/km
 Mean value 3 Es SF = √Ep

1 b
bet. z & axis → Q(
uS → space mean speed in kph
RMS = √b − a ∫a f(x)2dx
ES → modulus of elasticity of subgrade EP→
x → no. of observations
modulus of elasticity of pavement  Minimum time headway (hrs) = 1/q
μ → mean value, x̅
→ Input

σ → standard deviation
 Spacing of vehicles (km)
= 1/k

Exponential Distribution P(x ≥ a) = e−λa

 Peak hour factor (PHF) = q/qmax
s
P(x ≤ a) = 1 − e −λa
−λa −λb
P(a ≤ x ≤ b) = e −e
Discrete Probability Distributions Walli’s Formula
π
 Binomial Probability Distribution
P(x) = C(n, x) px qn−x
[(m − 1)(m − 3)(m − 5) … (1 or 2)][(n − 1)(n − 3)(n − 5) … (1 or 2)]
where:
p → success
m n
q → failure ∫ 2
cos θ sin θ dθ = ∙α

 Geometric Probability Distribution

(m + n)(m + n − 2)(m + n − 4) … (1 or 2)

P(x) = p(qx−1)
0

 Poisson Probability Distribution

μ xe−μ NOTE:
P(x) = x! α = π/2 for m and n are both even

α =1 otherwise

Tip to remember:
Period, Amplitude & Frequency
Fibonacci Numbers
Period (T) → interval over which the graph of function repeats 2
− −1=0
Amplitude (A) → greatest distance of any point on the graph from a horizontal line
which passes halfway between the maximum & minimum values of the function
Frequency (ω) → no. of repetitions/cycles per unit of time or 1/T n n

Function Period Amplitude

1
an = [(1+√5 ) −(1−√5 ) ]

y = A sin (Bx + C) 2π/B A Mode Eqn 5

y = A cos (Bx + C) 2π/B A
y = A tan (Bx + C) π/B A

1±√5

√5 2 2
=

x = r cos θ
y = r sin θ
r= x2 + y2
θ = tan−1 yx
 measure lay-out too long
Measurement Effect of Curvature & Refraction
too long add subtract e Azimuth

Corrections too short subtract add CD = MD(1+ TL ) hcr = 0.067K

2
from South

Due to temperature: too short

(add/subtract); measured length Probable Errors e
h =h2 +
D
2

(h 1 − h2) − 0.067D 1D2

CD = MD(1− )

D1+D 2 Reduction to
C = αL(T2 − T1) Probable Error (single): TL

Sea Level
Due to pull:
Stadia Measurement Leveling
(add/subtract); measured length

∑(x − x̅ )
MD

CD

E = 0.6745√ Horizontal: =

(P2 − P1)L n− 1 Elev = Elev + − R+h

R

C=

EA D = d + (f + c) Inclined Upward:

Probable Error (mean):

Due to sag: error/setup = −eBS
+e
FS

Subtense Bar
(subtract only); unsupported length D=()s+C Inclined Downward:
E ∑(x − x̅ )

w2L3 Em = = 0.6745√ D = Ks + C error/setup = +eBS − eFS θ

C= 24P
2
√n n(n − 1) Inclined: Total Error: D = cot
2

eT = error/setup ∙ no. of setups

Due to slope: Proportionalities of weight, w:

D = Ks cos θ + C
(subtract only); measured length E=error; d=distance; n=no. of trials

H = D cos θ

2
C =S −h
2 2
1 1 Double Meridian Distance Method DMD

2
∝ ∝ ∝
V = D sin θ

Normal Tension: DMD = Dep

DMD = DMD −1 + Dep −1 + Dep

Area of Closed Traverse Area of Irregular Boundaries

0.204W√AE

DMD = −Dep

PN =

√PN−P Trapezoidal Rule: 2A = Σ(DMD ∙ Lat)

Lat = L cos α

Dep = L sin α

A=

2 [h1 + hn + 2Σh] Double Parallel Distance Method DPD

Error of Closure:

Parabolic Curves
Simpson’s 1/3 Rule:
DPD = Lat
= √ΣL2 + ΣD2

Symmetrical:
d DPD = DPD −1 + Lat −1 + Lat

Relative Error/Precision:
[h + h + 2Σh+ 4Σh ] DPD = −Lat
L Error of Closure A= 3 1 n

H= (g1 + g2) =

8 Perimeter Note: n must be odd 2A = Σ(DMD ∙ Dep)

L 2

x
2
( ) 1 acre = Simple, Compound & Reverse Curves Spiral Curve
2
L
= 1
 4047 m2
H
y

Unsymmetrical:

L1L2

H= (g1 + g2)

2(L1+L2)

g3(L1+L2) = g1L1 + g2L2

Note: Consider signs.

Earthworks

±
± L2 180°
±

I θ= 2RL s ∙
π

f w

A= (d +d ) + (f +f) T = R tan
2 2

2 4 θ Ls
R L R
L

I i= ;p=

Volume (End Area): E = R [sec 2 − 1]

3 24R

L I L3

Ve = 2 (A1 + A2) m = R [1 − cos ]

x= 6RLs
2

I 5
LT → long tangent

Volume (Prismoidal): L ST → short tangent

L = 2R sin 2 Y=L− R → radius of simple curve

L
40R2Ls2
L → length of spiral from TS to any point

π along the spiral

VP = (A1 + 4Am + A2) Lc = RI ∙ L I

Ls → length of spiral

6 180°
s
I → angle of intersection

Ts = + (R + p) tan Ic → angle of intersection of the simple

Prismoidal Correction: 2 2 curve

20 2πR

p → length of throw or the distance from

=
I
tangent that the circular curve has been

L
D 360°
Es = (R + p) sec −R offset

CP = (c1 − c2)(d 1 − d2) 2 x → offset distance (right angle

12 1145.916 distance) from tangent to any point on

R=
0.036k 3 the spiral

xc → offset distance (right angle

VP = Ve − Cp D Ls =
distance) from tangent to SC

R Ec → external distance of the simple

Volume (Truncated): 0.0 079k 2 θ → spiral angle from tangent to any

curve

Σh e= point on the spiral

V =A ∙H
T Base ave = A( ) R θS → spiral angle from tangent to SC

n i → deflection angle from TS to any point

A D L on the spiral

is → deflection angle from TS to SC

VT = (Σh1 + 2Σh2 + 3Σh3 + 4Σh4) =

y → distance from TS along the tangent

D L
to any point on the spiral
C s
n

Stopping Sight Distance Parabolic Summit Curve Parabolic Sag Curve Underpass Sight Distance L=2(S L=2(S

L>
v2
S = vt +
2g(f ± G)
a = g(f ± G) (deceleration)
L>S 2
A(S) )− )−
L>S S
v A
L= A
tb = g(f ± G) (breaking time) 200(√h1 + √h2) 2

A→
f
Eff = (100)
f
ave
L<S
v → speed in m/s
2

A→ algebraic
200(√h + √h )
L = 2(S) − 1 2

A 2 2
A(S) A(S) h1 + h2

t → perception-reaction time f → L → length of summit curve S algebraic difference

coefficient of friction → sight distance H=C−
difference of
G → grade/slope of road h1 → height of driver’s eye h1 L=
122 + 3.5S
L=
800H 2
of grades, grades, in
= 1.143 m or 3.75 ft L< in percent percent
h2 → height of object h2 = L<S S L→ L → length
0.15 m or 0.50 ft length of of sag
sag curve curve
122 + 3.5S 800H
 A(K

S → sight L
For
passengers
Horizontal Curve
distance )2
comfort,
where K is L>S S
2

speed in R=8M

L<S
=
KPH
R=L(2S−L)
8M

L → length of horizontal curve

395

S → sight distance
R → radius of the curve M →
clearance from the centerline of the
road
 Properties of Fluids Pressure Dams Stability of Floating Bodies
s 1
2 1 2

W = Mg p =p +p
F = ɤAh = ɤh ; F = ɤAh = ɤh

1
2 2 2
1 1

2 2

W M p = ɤh

ɤ= ; ρ= U1 = ɤh2B ; U
2 = (h1 − h2)ɤB

V V
s. g.1 2

h2 = h1 h2
pg

s. g.2

)
ɤ = ρg = RT RM = W1(X1) + W 2(X2)+. . . +W (X ) + F2 ( 3

h = s. g.1 h1
MG = metacentric height

s. v. = V = 1 OM=F ( )+U ( B)+U ( B) MG=MB ± GB

h 1 2

ρ 3 1 2
2 3 Use (-) if G is above BO and (+) if G is below BO.
M 1

Hydrostatic Forces
Note that M is always above BO.
ɤ ρ

Rx̅ = RM − OM

I
s. g. = = g ɤIg sin θ RM or OM = Wx

ɤ ρ
e= e= RM
μR

Aӯ F FS
=
& FS
=
= W(MG sin θ)

R
∆P 1
OM

EB=− β= On plane surfaces: B2 tan2θ

E
∆V
B
MB
= [1 + ]
̅ B

V
;
F = ɤhA
=
| − x̅ | Stresses/Hoop 12D
2

2 s
FT
On curved surfaces: vs I

R
B 6 pD

μ=τ =

MB = =
2

S
< ; q=− [1 ± ] t =
L F ℎ = ɤhA

6 B B 2t VD sin θ VD

2
L F =ɤV
μ

B 2R
2T

υ= =
Buoyanc
ρ T
> ; q= s= y sgm

A A
2 2 6 3x̅ pD
bel = tot

sgl
+F
F=√F ℎ

pd B R
St = tensile stress BF=W

σ= = ; q=− sg m
p = unit pressure

NOTE:

ħ = vertical distance from cg of

4
6 B D = inside diameter V
bel

=
V
tot

submerged surface to liquid surface BF=ɤ V sgl

t = thickness of
4σcosθ
̅ 2R
wall

h= h = ӯ (for vertical only)

s = spacing of hoops

ɤd = 0; q= B
T = tensile force Celerity (velocity of sound)

(rigid pipes)

Relative Equilibrium of Fluids Bernoulli’s Energy Theorem Major Losses in Pipes

EB
z = elevation head; P/ɤ = pressure head; v2/2g = velocity head

Horizontal Motion: Rotation: Darcy Weisbach Eq’n: c=√ ρ

w

P v2 P v 2

1 1 2 2

2
a ω x + + + + +H.L. 2
Lv

z
1 = z2 (non-rigid pipes)

tan θ = g tan θ = g ɤ 2g ɤ 2g H. L. = f D 2g E
B

2
2 2 2 with pump: c=√
EB D

y= ; =

Inclined Motion: ωx r
x
P1 v12 P2 v22
H.L.= 0.0826 f L Q
2
ρw (1 + Et
)

ah 2g h y

5
D
tan θ = g ± av z1 + ɤ + 2g
+ HA = z +
2
ɤ + 2g + H. L.
Manning’s Formula: Water Hammer
1

V= πr2h with turbine: ∆Pmax = ρcv

Vertical Motion: 2 10.29 n L Q

2 2

a π P v2 P v 2 16
2L
H.L.= /3

tc =
1 rpm = rad/sec 1 1 2 2 D

p = ɤh (1 ± ) 30
z1 + + − HE = z2 + + +H.L. c

g ɤ 2g ɤ 2g Hazen William’s Formula:

A. TIME of closure:

output QɤE rapid/instantaneous

1.85
efficiency = ; HP = 10.64 L Q

Series-Parallel Pipes ∆P = ∆P max

input 746 H.L.= C1.85 D4.87 Slow Closure

tc
Pump → Output & Turbine → Input

Series Connection:
1 atm ∆P = ∆P (
max tactual
)

H. L.T = H. L.1+ H. L.2 +. . . +H. L.n Fluid Flow Most Efficient Sections = 101.325 KPa
B. TYPE of closure:
Q = Av Rectangular: = 2166 psf Partial Closure (vf ≠ 0)
QT = Q 1 = Q2 = Q n

Q → discharge b = 2d = 14.7 psi ∆P = ρc(vi − vf)

Total Closure (vf = 0)

Parallel Connection: → flow rate = 760 mmHg

d = 29.9 inHg ∆P = ρcvi

→ weight flux
H. L. = H.L. = H.L. = H.L. R= 2

T
1
2 n volume flow rate → m3/s Open
weight flow rate → N/s Trapezoidal: Channel
QT = Q1 + Q2+. . . +Qn mass flow rate → kg/s

x = y1 + y2
Specific Energy: Manning Formula:

Constant Head Orifice Falling Head Orifice d E=

2
v
+d
C= 1
R1/6

R=

2g n

Without headloss: Time to remove water from h1 to h2 with constant cross-section:

Bazin Formula:

2As v = C√RS

Triangular: 87

v = √2gh t= (√h1 − √h2)

C=

CAo√2g b = 2d
Theoretically: m

1+

With headloss: 2

Time to remove water from h1 to h2 with varying cross-section: A =d 8g

√R

v = C v√2gh
h1 As dh θ=90° C=√
f

t= ∫

Kutter Formula:
h 2 CAo√2gh Semi-circular:
Q = CA o√2gh 1 0.000155

d = r (full) +23+
n
S

Time in which water surfaces of two tanks will reach same elevation:
r C=

n 0.000155

C = CcCv 2 (As1)(As2 ) R= 1+ (23 + )

2 S

a t= (√h1 − √h2) √R

If C is not given, use Manning’s in V:

c

C =
A
CA o√2g
(A + A )
s1 s2
Circular: TRAPEZOIDAL:
For minimum seepage:
Q max if d = 0.94D
 1

v
Hydrodynamic Vmax if d = 0.81D

Cv = s b = 4d tan 2 v= n R2/3S1/2

vt

Force on Curve Vane/Blade: Force on the Jet

2
v
1 (at right angle):

H.L.= 2g [ Cv 2 − 1]
∑ Fx = ρQ(v2x − v1x)
F = ρQv

H. L. = ∆H[1 − Cv 2]

∑ Fy = ρQ(v2y − v1y)

x2

Force on Pipe’s Bend & Reducer:

y=
4Cv2 h

(same as on Curve Vane/Blade)

for Specific Gravity of Solid:

Unit Weight: Perpend
(Gs + Gsω)ɤw
Haze icular ɤs

n flow:
ɤ= Form Casagr Gs =

ula ande: ɤ
w

1+e
k=c∙
k
Bulk Specific Gravity:
(Gs + Se)ɤ w D10 k = 1.4e 2k0.85 H
2

g = Gs(1 − n)
ɤ= e
Koze
1+e
ny- Samar Relative Compaction:
Carm asinhe
q=
When S=0:
an: : ɤd

h1 h2 hn R= ɤ
G sɤw 2 n

k d

e e + +...+

ɤd =
=
Relative Density/
1

Density Index:
k k k
C1 k = C3 ∙ 1 2 n

+
1+e

Volume Weight
e 1+ e
e
−e

When S=100%:
Dr =
Se = Gsω

e −e
(G s + e)ɤw

ɤ
Vv Ww W sat = 1 − 1

ɤd
ɤd

Vs Ws ɤ= V 1+e Dr =
e= ω=

1 1

ɤ =ɤ −ɤ
ɤd ɤd
−
sub sat w

V
v W

Dr (%) Description
0–20 Very Loose
n= 0 < e< ∞ n ɤ= (Gs − 1)ɤ w

20–40 Loose
d

40 – 70 Medium Dense
V e= V
ɤ
sub =
70–85 Dense
1−n 1+e
85 – 100 Very Dense
Vw ɤ

Gɤ
S= s w

e 1+ω

0<n<1 ɤd =

Pumping Test:
Unconfined:
ɤ =
zav

V
v n= 1 + Gsω
r
1

1+e

Permeability Stratified Soil r

∆h v
k=

v = ki ; i = ;v = n
2
π(h − h

2
)
L
1
2

Q = vA = kiA
Confined:
Constant Head Test: r1

Q
QL

k= Aht 2

Falling/Variable Head Test: k= 2πt(h − h 2 )

for Parallel flow: 1

aL h1

k= h1k1 + h2k2+. . . +hnkn

keq =

At h2
H
 m1 − m2 V1−V2

SL = − ɤ

m m
2 2

e m2

SL = G
; SR = Vɤ

s 2 w

Atterberg Limits G
=

PI=LL−PL SR
− SL

ω−PL GI = (F − 35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL − 40)]

+0.01(F − 15)(PI − 10)

LI=
LL−PL

LI State
SI=PL−SL
LI<0 Semisolid PI Description
LL−ω 0 < LI < 1 Plastic 0 Non-plastic

Liquid 1-5 Slightly plastic

LI>1
CI=
LL−PI 5-10 Low plasticity

10-20 Medium plasticity

PI q
u
Class
und Ac 20-40 High plasticity
Ac = ; St = AC < 0.7 Inactive
μ
q
u rem
0.7 < AC < 1.2 Normal >40 Very High plastic
μ = % passing 0.002mm AC > 1.2 Active

Sieve Analysis
Sorting
Uniformity Coeff. of Gradation
Coefficient:
Coefficient: or Curvature:

D
60 (D30)2 D
75

Cu = Cc = So = √
D

D ∙D D

10
60 10 25

Suitability Number:

3 1 1

Sn = 1.7√ + +
2 2 2

(D ) (D ) (D
)

50 20 10

Compressibility of Soil
Compression Index, CC: Swell Index, CS:
C c = 0.009(LL − 10%)
1

Cc = e − e′ Cs = 5 Cc
 ∆P + P o

Stresses in Soil Flow Net / Seepage

P

NOTE:
o

Quick For normally consolidated clay:

Effective Stress/ condition: Isotropic soil: e − e′

Intergranular Stress: Nf
Flow line ---- 1 2

S= 1+e H (for one layer only)

pE = 0
3 C cH ∆P + Po

q = kH
S=

pE = pT − pw
1+e P

Nd
4
o

Equipotential line ---- With Pre-consolidation pressure, Pc:

Pore Water Pressure/ Capillary Rise: when (△P+Po) < Pc:

C
Non-Isotropic soil: 1 2 3 4567 8 910
CsH ∆P + P o

Neutral Stress: S=

hcr = Nf
eD

10

pw = ɤwhw
q = √kxk zH

Nd Nf → no. of flow channels [e.g. 4]

Total Stress:
Nd → no. of potential drops [e.g. 10]

pT = ɤ1h1 + ɤ2h2+. . . +ɤnhn

Lateral Earth Pressure AT REST: Shear Strength of Soil P
Ө → angle of failure in shear 1 + eo o

Ø → angle of internal friction/shearing resistance C → cohesion of soil

Ø
ko = 1 − sin Ø
θ=45°+2

when (△P+Po) > pc:

ACTIVE PRESSURE: 1
TRI-AXIAL TEST:
σ1 → maximum principal stress
pa = 2 kaɤH 2 − 2cH√ka CsH Pc CcH ∆P + P o
→ axial stress
△σ → additional pressure
→ deviator stress

For Inclined:
→ plunger pressure

σ3 → minimum principal stress → confining pressure S= +

→ lateral pressure
2
ka = cos β cos β − √cos β − cos2 Ø cos β + √cos2 β − cos2 Ø → radial stress
→ cell pressure
→ chamber pressure

For Horizontal:
1 +e P 1+e P

ka =
1 − sin Ø  Normally consolidated:
1 + sin Ø sin Ø = σ3 + r
r

o c
If there is angle of friction α bet. wall and soil:

Cohesive soil:r
2
cos Ø
sin Ø =
x + σ3 + r Over Consolidation Ratio (OCR):
ka = pc
2

OCR = ; OCR = 1 (for normally consolidated soil)

sin(Ø + α) sin Ø

p
cos α [1 + √ ]

o
cos α

Coefficient of Compressibility:
PASSIVE PRESSURE:
∆e △e → change in void ratio

2
1
kPɤH
av =
△P → change in pressure
pP = + 2cH√kP

∆P

Coefficient of Volume Compressibility:

For Inclined: 2 2
kP = cos β cos β + √cos β − cos Ø 2 2

∆e

∆P

mv =

1 + eave

Coefficient of Consolidation:
Hdr → height of drainage path

H 2 T

→ thickness of layer if drained 1 side

dr v

Cv =
→ half of thickness if drained both sides

Tv → factor from table

t → time consolidation
Coefficient of Permeability:

k = mvCvɤw

DIRECT SHEAR
TEST:

cos β − √cos β − cos Ø

c

 Normally consolidated soil:

tan Ø =

σn → normal stress

For Horizontal:
x

 Unconsolidated-undrained test:
1 + sin Ø
k = σs → shear stress

If there is angle of friction α bet. wall and soil:

c=r
σS

 Unconfined compression test:

2
cos
Ø

σ3=0 tan Ø =
kP =
2

√sin(Ø − α) sin Ø
σ
cos α [1 − cos α ]

 Cohesive soil:
σS c

tan Ø = =
x+σ x

σS = c + σN tan ∅

Terzaghi‘s Bearing Capacity (Shallow Foundations) Soil Stability

 General Shear Failure  Bearing Capacity Factor  Analysis of Infinite Slope
(dense sand & stiff clay)
Factor of safety against sliding (without seepage)
Ø

C tan ∅

N = tan2 (45° + ) e π tan Ø

Square Footing: q
FS = +tan
ɤ H sin cos

β
2

qult = 1.3cNc + qN q + 0.4ɤBN ɤ

Factor of safety against sliding (with seepage) where:

aSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS N = (N − 1)cot Ø

C → cohesion
c q

C ɤ′ tan ∅ β → angle of backfill from horizontal

Circular Footing:
qult = 1.3cN c + qNq + 0.3ɤBN ɤ Nɤ = (Nq − 1)tan 1.4Ø

Strip Footing:  Parameters

qult = cNc + qNq + 0.5ɤBNɤ
qult → ultimate bearing capacity
 Local Shear Failure (loose sand & soft qu → unconfined compressive strength c → FS = + Ø → angle of internal friction

cohesion of soil
clay) c=
q
u
ɤ H sin cos ɤ tan H → thickness of soil layer
 Analysis of Finite Slope Factor of safety against sliding
θ
F +F

β
2 FS = f c

q = ɤDf (for no water table)

Square Footing:
W sin
q P
ult allow

q = =
FS A
qult = 1.3c′N c′ + qNq′ + 0.4ɤBN ɤ′
allow

q =
net
qult − q

FS
Maximum height for critical equilibrium where:
Circular Footing: Ff → frictional force; Ff = μN Fc → cohesive force

qult = 1.3c′N c′ + qNq′ + 0.3ɤBN ɤ′ (FS=1.0) Fc = C x Area along trial failure plane
W → weight of soil above trial failure plane

Strip Footing: ′ ′ ′ 4 sin cos ∅

qult = c′N c + qNq + 0.5ɤBN ɤ

Hcr = [ ]

ɤ 1 − cos( − ∅)

Stability No.: Stability Factor:

H H
− = BC
tan
EFFECT OF WATER TABLE: tan

C 1

m= ɤH SF = m

Capacity of Driven Piles (Deep Foundations)


Pile in Sand Layer  Pile in Clay Layer
 Qf = PAkμ

Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 q = ɤ(D f − d)+ɤ′d q = ɤD f q = ɤD f

where:
3rd term ɤ = ɤ′ 3rd term ɤ = ɤ′ 3 rd term ɤ = ɤave P → perimeter of pile
A → area of pressure diagram dc k →
coefficient of lateral pressure

for d ≤ B μ → coefficient of friction

ɤave ∙ B = ɤd + ɤ′(B − d)

Q
tip = peNqAtip Q
NOTE: (AKA Qbearing)
for d > B

where:
ɤ′=ɤ = ɤ−ɤ ɤave = ɤ
pe → effective pressure at
bottom Q TIP

Nq → soil
bearing factor
Group of  Alternate Equation
Atip → Area of
tip
Piles for Group
Critical depth, dc:

Efficiency (sand only) Loose 10

 Group Efficiency (sand or (size of
clay) pile)
Dense 20
2(m + n − 2)s + 4d (size of
Q
QT = Qf + Qtip pile)
des−group Eff = Q
T
Q
de
s
=
mnπD

whe
Eff =
Qdes−indiv
re: F
.
m → no. S

of .

columns
n→ no. of
rows
s→
spacing of
piles
D→
diameter
of pile
Qf = CLαP Q tip = cNcAtip QT = Qf + Qtip
QT
(AKA Qbearing) Q =

where:
des F. S.

C → cohesion where:
L → length of pile c → cohesion
α → frictional factor P → perimeter of pile
Nc → soil bearing factor Atip → Area of tip

Weirs Froude Number v

Critical Depth
NF =
√gdm

where:
v → mean velocity (Q/A)
g → 9.81 m/s2
For all sections:
dm → hydraulic depth (A/B)
B → width of liquid surface
Q2 ∙ Bc
NF = √
Ac3 ∙ g where:
Take note that it is only derived from the
critical depth equation. 2 3 Q → flow rate m3 /s

Critical Flow NF = 1 Q g → 9.81 m/s2

Subcritical Flow
Ac

NF < 1
Supercritical Flow NF > 1 =
A C → critical area

 Rectangular Bc
g B C → critical width

Considering velocity of approach: where:

Reynold’s Number NOTE:
Q=2 v
3
v
C√2g L [(H + 2g a)3/2 − (2g a)3/2] N = =
R υ
Dv Dvρ
E is minimum for critical depth.
W → channel width μ

Neglecting velocity of approach: Laminar Flow (NR ≤ 2000)

Q=2
3 C√2g L H
3/2 L → weir length For rectangular sections ONLY:
Z → weir height
Considering velocity of approach: v 3/2 v 3/2
H → weir head
Q = m L [(H + 2ga) − (2ga) ]

Neglecting velocity of approach: PARAMETERS: 3q

2
2

C → coefficient of discharge va →
velocity of approach m/s m → weir E
dc =
factor
c
√ =
g 3

 Triangular (symmetrical only)

Q = 8 C√2g tan θ H5/2 q=

where:

q → flow rate or discharge

v
2
per meter width

EC → specific energy at

E=
critical condition
+d

2g
vC → critical velocity

vc = √gdc

3/2
Hydraulic Jump
Q=mLH 15 2 hf = 64

Height of the jump: Power Lost:

5/2
Q=mH NR
Turbulent Flow (NR > 2000)
Francis Formula (when C and m is not given) When θ=90°
L
2
v hf = f D 2g
∆d = d2 − d1 P=QɤE

Considering velocity of approach: Q = 1.4H5/2

Length of the jump:
v 3/2 v 3/2 L = 220 d 1 tanh NF1−1
2
Q = 1.84 L′ [(H + 2ga) − (2ga) ]
 Cipolletti (symmetrical, slope 4V&1H) hf = 0.0826 f L Q D5 22

Neglecting velocity of approach:

3/2
θ

Q = 1.859 L H3/2
= 75°57’50”

Boundary Shear Stress Solving for Q:

Q = 1.84 L′ H τ=ɤRS

NOTE:  with Dam:

L’ = L for suppressed Boundary Shear Stress (for For all sections:
Neglecting velocity of approach: P −P =
ɤQ
(v − v )

L’ = L – 0.1H for singly contracted L’ = L Q = 1.71 L H3/2 circular pipes only) 2

P = ɤhA
1
̅
g 1 2

f
τ
o = 8 ρv
– 0.2H for doubly contracted For rectangular sections ONLY:
2
q 1
= (d
1 ∙ d2)(d1 + d2)
Time required to discharge:
g 2

2As
1 1

t= [ − ]

mL √H2 √H1

Strength Reduction Factors, Ø

(a) Flexure w/o axial load ……………………… 0.90

Load Combinations (b) Axial tension & axial tension w/ flexure .… 0.90 Working Strength Design (WSD)
→ choose largest U in design

(c) Axial comp. & axial comp. w/ flexure:

Basic Loads: (1) Spiral ……………………………….………. 0.75 or Alternate Strength Design (ASD)
= 1.4 + 1.7
(2) Tie …………………….…………….………. 0.70
(d) Shear & torsion ……………………….………. 0.85 Allowable Stresses (if not given):
With Wind Load:
= 0.75(1.4 + 1.7 + 1.7 ) = 0.9 + 1.3 (e) Bearing on concrete ……………….…,……. 0.70  Horizontal members  Vertical members
(i.e. beam, slab, footing, etc.) (i.e. column, wall, etc.)
fc = 0.45 f’c fc = 0.25 f’c
fs = 0.50 fy fs = 0.40 fy
= 1.4 + 1.7

where:
With Earthquake Load: Design Conditions Values f’c → compressive strength of concrete at 28 days fy → axial strength of steel

= 1.32 + 1.1 1+ 1.1 = 0.99 + 1.1

Structural Grade ASTM Gr.33 / PS Gr.230 fy = 230 MPa
Over-reinforced:
→ concrete fails first Choose Smaller Value/
With Earth Pressure Load: → fs < fy (USD) Round-down Intermediate Grade ASTM Gr.40 / PS Gr.275 fy = 275 MPa
(WSD)
→ Moment Capacity
= 1.4 + 1.7 + 1.7

→ High Carbon Grade ASTM Gr.60 / PS Gr.415 fy = 415 MPa

= 0.9 → Ms > Mc
= 1.4 + 1.7

Under-reinforced: →
With Structural Effects: → steel fails first
Choose Larger Value/ 424.3.2 for fy = 275 MPa; fs ≤ 140 MPa
= 0.75(1.4 + 1.7 + 1.4 )
(USD) Round-up
→ fs > fy
= 1.4( + )

→ Ms < Mc (WSD) →
→
for fy = 415 MPa; fs ≤ 170 MPa

Balance Condition: Modular Ratio, n (if not given):

→ concrete & steel simultaneously fail

→ fs = fy (USD) E
stronger
E
steel

(WSD) 200,000
→ Ms = Mc

n= = =

E E
weaker concrete 4700√f c′
424.6.4 n must be taken as the nearest whole number & n ≥ 6

424.6.5 for doubly, use n for tension & use 2n for compression

Internal Couple Method:

fc j=1−3k

Factor k: Moment Resistance Coefficient, R:

Factor j:
1

n
R= f kj

1
k= c
2

Moment Capacity:
n+ fs Mc = C ∙ jd = 12 fckdb ∙ jd = Rbd2 Ms = T ∙ jd = Asfs ∙ jd
 Solutions for Cracked Section (Singly): Solutions for Cracked Section (Doubly):
Provisions for Uncracked Section:
 Solve for inertia of gross section, Ig.  Solve
for cracking moment, Mcr.  Solve for actual
moment, Ma:
2
wL

Ma =
(for simply supported beam)
8
 Location of neutral axis, NA:
Ay̅ = Ay̅
 Location of neutral axis, NA:
Ay̅ = Ay̅
above NA below NA above NA below NA
x
x

bx (2) = nAs(d − x) bx (2) + (2n − 1)A ′s(x − d′) = nAs(d − x)

409.6.2.3. if Ma < Mcr, no crack; Ig = Ie x → obtained

if Ma > Mcr, w/ crack; solve for Ie  Solve transferred moment of inertia at NA: 3
bx

INA = 3 + nAs(d − x)2 INA → obtained  Solve transferred moment of inertia at NA:
 Solve for inertia of cracked section:
 Solve for Stresses or Resisted Moment: bx3

bx3
For concrete: For tension steel: INA = + (2n − 1)A′s(x − d′)2 + nAs(d − x)2
Icr = + nAs(d − x)2
Mc ∙ x fs Ms ∙ (d − x) 3

INA → obtained
3

fc = =
 Solve for Stresses or Resisted Moment:
 Solve for effective moment of inertia, Ie:
M M
I
NA
n
I
NA For concrete: For tension steel: For comp. steel:
cr cr

Solutions for Gross Section (Singly):

3 3

M ∙x f M ∙ (d − x) f′ M′ ∙ (x − d′)

c s
s s s

Ie = ( ) ∙ Ig + [1 − ( ) ] ∙ Icr

fc = = =

Ma Ma
I I I
NA NA NA
409.6.2.4. For simply supported, Ie = Ie (mid)
n 2n

For cantilever, Ie = Ie (support) Solutions for Uncracked Section (By Sir Erick):

I
e mid
+I
e support
 Location of neutral axis, NA:
Ay̅ = Ay̅
above NA below NA

Ie =
x d−x
bx ( ) = b(d − x) ( ) + (n − 1)A s(d − x)

2
 Location of neutral axis, NA: h 2 2
yt = 2 ; yt → obtained x → obtained

409.6.2.5. Factor for shrinkage & creep due  Solve moment of inertia of gross section at NA:  Solve transferred moment of inertia at NA:
bx3
I=

Ig → obtained
to sustained loads: bx3 b(d − x)3

time-dep factor, ξ:
 Solve for cracking moment:
I =
NA + + (n − 1)As(d − x)2

5 yrs + 2.0
3 3
Mcr ∙ yt INA → obtained

fr = 0.7√f c′ =  Solve for Stresses or Resisted Moment:

12 mos 1.4

6 mos 1.0
Ig
=
1 + 50 ′

3 mos 1.0 Mcr → obtained

 Solve for instantaneous deflection:

5wL4

δi =
(for uniformly distributed load)
384E cIe

 Solve for additional deflection:

δ =δ ∙
add sus

δadd = (% of sustained load)δ i ∙

Say, 70% of load is sustained after n yrs.

δadd = 0.7δi ∙

 Solve for final deflection:

δ =δ +δ
For concrete: For tension steel:
Mc ∙ x fs M s ∙ (d − x)

f= =

I I
NA NA
n

Ultimate Strength Design Steel Ratio

 Based in Strain Diagram:  Ultimate Moment Capacity: Steel ratio for balance condition: ′
0.85f β 600
ρ=
M = ∅M
u
2
n
c1

Mu = ∅Rnbd
Mu = ∅fc′bd2 ω(1 − 1017 ω)
εs 0.003 ω =ρ
fy

fc′
Maximum & Minimum steel ratio:
ρmax = 0.75ρb
A = 0.75A
=
 Coefficient of resistance, Rn:
s max sb

Rn = fc′ω(1 − 1017 ω)
M
u

d−c c Rn =
∅bd2
d−c
εs = 0.003 ( c )  Steel reinforcement ratio, ρ:
ρ = bdAs
Minimum Concrete Covers:
d−c 1.4 √f c′
fs = 600 ( c )

 a = β1c  Combined ρ & Rn:

0.85f ′ 2R
a → depth of compression block c → distance bet. NA & ρ = c [1 − √1 − n] ρ = ρ =
extreme compression fiber ′
fy 0.85f c
Provisions for β1:
0.65 ≤ β1 ≤ 0.85
20 mm → slab
min min

* 1992 NSCP ′ fy 4fy 40 mm → beam

β1 = 0.85 − 0.008(fc − 30)

* 2001 NSCP (choose larger between the 2) → column

β1 = 0.85 − 0.057 (fc′ − 30)

* 2010 NSCP 75 mm → column footing

β1 = 0.85 − 0.057 (fc′ − 28)
→ wall footing
Singly or Doubly ? → retaining wall
Singly Reinforced Beam (SRB)
ρ < ρmax (rectangular only)
As < Asmax (any section)
Balance Condition for Doubly
As′
Doubly Reinforced Beam (DRB) ρ
b

As′
=ρ
b
+
bd

ρ > ρmax (rectangular only)

As > Asmax (any section)
ρ = 0.75ρ + A = ρ bd
b bd s

Singly Reinforced Beam Singly Reinforced Doubly Reinforced Beam Doubly Reinforced Beam
INVESTIGATION Beam DESIGN Investigation INVESTIGATION
Computing MU with given As:
if SRB or DRB:
Computing As with given WD & WL: Computing MU with given As:
(1st) Compute for ab:
(1st) Compute for a: (1st) Compute ultimate moment, Mu: (1st) Compute for a:
C=T
WU = 1.4W D + 1.7WL Cc + Cs = T
0.85f c′ab = Asfs WUL2 d−c
MU = 0.85f c′ab + As′fs′ = Asfs
(assume tension steel yields fs=fy)
(for simply supported)

(assume tension steel yields fs=fs’=fy)

8

f = f = 600 [ ]
′
0.85f ab = A f

0.85fc′ab + As′fy = Asfy a → obtained

c sy

(2nd) Solve for coeff. of resistance, Rn:

MU
s y

Rn =
∅bd2
(3rd) Solve for steel ratio, ρ:
0.85f ′ 2R
c (2nd) Check if assumption is correct:
c n] a = β1c
(2nd) Check if assumption is correct: ρ= [1 − √1 −
fy 0.85f c′ Thus, 600d
c → obtained
d−c
a = β1c c=
600 + fy
Check:
fs = 600 [ c ]
c → obtained
fs → obtained
d−c c → obtained
=β c
fs = 600 [ c ]
ρ ≤ρ≤ρ
a 1
If fs > fy, tension steel yields; correct a. If fs <
min max
If ρmin < ρ < ρmax, use ρ. a → obtained
fs → obtained If ρmin > ρ, use ρmin.
If ρ > ρmax, design doubly.

If fs > fy, tension steel yields; correct a. If fs < fy, tension steel does not yield; compute for
fy, tension steel does not yield; compute for (2nd) Solve for Asmax: new a.
(4th) Solve for area of steel reinforcement, As C=T
0.85fc′a b = As fy As → obtained c − d′
new a. and required no. of bars, N: A
smax
= 0.75A
s
fs′ = 600 [

fs′ → obtained
c ]

(2nd) Solve for given As &

As = ρbd
If fs’ > fy, compression steel yields;
As ρbd
N= =
Ab π4 db2
(2nd-b) Recomputation: compare:
If A < A correct a.
C=T s smax
0.85f c′ab = Asfs
0.85fc′β1cb = As ∙ 600 [d−cc] c → obtained Solve the given beam using If fs’ < fy, compression steel does not yield;
a = β1c SRB Investigation compute for new a.
a → obtained

procedure.
If A > A
s smax
Solve the given beam using (2nd-b) Recomputation:
C=T

DRB Investigation
procedure.

(3rd) Solve for Moment Capacity:

Mu = ∅(C or T) [d − 2a]
Mu = ∅(0.85fc′ab) [d − 2a] or Mu = ∅(Asfs) [d − 2a]
Doubly Reinforced Beam (4th) Solve for # of tension bars:
DESIGN As A +A
s1 s2

Computing As with given Mu: N=

Ab
=
π 2

d
b
4

(1st) Solve for nominal M1:

′
0.85fc β1600
(5th) Solve for fs’:
ρb =

fy(600 + fy) c − d′

fs′ = 600 [ ]

ρmax = 0.75ρb c

As1 = 0.75ρ b ∙ bd If fs’ > fy, compression steel yields;

As’ = As2.
a

M = (A f ) [d − ]
If fs’ < fy, compression steel does not
1 s1 y

yield; Use fs’ to solve for As’.

(2nd) Solve for nominal M2:
(6th) Solve for As’:
MU

M2 = − M1 As′fs′ = As2fy

(7th) Solve for # of compression bars:

(3rd) Solve for As2:
A
s As′

M = (A f )[d − d′] N= =

2 s2 y Ab π 2

As2 → obtained 4 db
0.85f c′ab + As′fs′ = Asfs a = β1c
NOTE: Use fs & fs’ as a → obtained
Mu = ∅Cc [d − 2a] + ∅Cc[d − d′] Mu = ∅(0.85fc′ab) [d − 2a]
d−c
+ ∅(As′fs′)[d − d′] or
Mu = ∅T [d − 2a]
fs = 600 [ c ]

(3rd) Solve for Moment Capacity:

c−d′

fs ′ = 600 [ c ]
c → obtained Mu = ∅(Asfs) [d − 2a]

Design of Beam Stirrups T-Beam Thickness of One-way Slab & Beam

NSCP Provisions for effective flange width: NSCP Provisions for minimum thickness:

i. Interior Beam: ii. exterior Beam: Canti- Simple One Both

lever Support End Ends
(1st) Solve for Vu: L L
ΣFv = 0
Vu = R − wud
NSCP Provisions for max. b b
Slab L/10 L/20 L/24 L/28
V
wuL
f = f = bw +
u= −w d
2 u
stirrups spacing:
(2nd) Solve for Vc: 2V = √f ′b
1 Beams L/8 L/16 L/18.5 L/21
1 c 3 c wd 4
12
V = √f ′b
c wd
c 6
i. when Vs < 2Vc, f
y
(3rd) Solve for Vs: smax = 2 or 600mm
d s1 s2 s1

Vu = ∅(Vc + Vs)
Vs → obtained Factor: [0.4 + ] [1.65 − 0.0003 ]
b=b + + b=b +
ii. when Vs > 2Vc,
(4th) Theoretical Spacing:
dA f
smax = 4 or 300mm
d

f w f w 700

s= v yn
V
s

iii. & not greater than to: (for lightweight concrete only)
NOTE: 2 2 2

3A f bf = bw + 8tf bf = bw + 6tf
v yn

s =
max

b
Minimum Steel Ratio
For one-way bending:
k → steel ratio

i. fy = 275 MPa,
k = 0.0020

ii. fy = 415 MPa,

k = 0.0018

iii. fy > 415 MPa,

400
k = 0.0018 [ ]
f
y

For two-way bending:

ρ → steel ratio
fyn → steel strength for shear reinforcement Av → area of shear reinforcement n → no. of shear legs
π
Av = 4 d2 ∙ n

′
ρ =1.4 = √f
c

min min

f
y 4fy

(choose larger between the 2)

Design of One-way Slab

LONGITUDINAL OR MAIN BARS TEMPERATURE BARS/
(1st) Compute ultimate moment, Mu:
SHRINKAGE BARS
(6th) Compute steel ratio, ρ:
WU = 1.4WD + 1.7W L

2 As
(11th) Solve for As:

WUL

MU = bd
As = kb⫠h
ρ=

(7th) Check for minimum steel ratio: NSCP Provision for k:

(2nd) Solve for slab thickness, h: i. fy = 275 MPa, k = 0.0020

′
1.4 √f

See NSCP Provisions for minimum thickness. c

ii. fy = 415 MPa, k = 0.0018
ρ =
min
&ρ =
min
iii. fy > 415 MPa, k = 0.0018 (400/fy)
fy 4fy

(3rd) Solve for effective depth, d:

(12th) Determine # of req’d temp. bars:
d If ρmin < ρ, use ρ.
b

d = h − cc − If ρmin > ρ, use ρmin & recompute As. A

s
A
s

2 π 2
N= =

(8th) Determine # of req’d main bars: Ab

(4th) Solve for a: 4

d
b

As As

Mu = ∅(C) [d −
2
] N= A
b
= π 2 (13th) Determine spacing of temp. bars:

a 4 db b

M ′
= ∅(0.85f ab) [d − ] s=

u c

2 N

(9th) Determine spacing of main bars:

a → obtained

b
(14th) Check for max. spacing of temp. bars:

(5th) Solve for As: s=

N smax = 5h or 450mm

C= T

(10th) Check for max. spacing of main bars:

0.85f′ab = A f

smax = 3h or 450mm
c sy

As → obtained

Design of Column
P=PC+PS
P = 0.85f c′(Ag − Ast) + Astfy
A
ρ = st Ag

Thus, TIED
Ag =
P

0.85fc′(1 − ρ) + ρfy 0.01Ag < Ast < 0.08Ag COLUMN SPIRAL COLUMN

PN = 0.8P PN = 0.85P

Design of Footing
qA = qS + qC + qsur + qE PU = ∅0.8P ; ∅ = 0.7 PU = ∅0.85P ; ∅ = 0.75

P PU P = (0.7)(0.8)[0.85f ′
(A −A )+A f] P = (0.75)(0.85)[0.85f ′
(A −A )+A f]

qE = ; qU = U c
g st st y U c
g st st y

A
ftg
A
ftg No. of main bars: f
′ A
g volume of spiral

where:
qA → allowable bearing pressure qS →
A
st
Spacing of bars: ρs = 0.45 c [ −1]=

soil pressure s = 16d b fy

Ac volume of core

qC → concrete pressure qsur → N=

Ab

surcharge
qE → effective pressure s = 48dt

qU → ultimate bearing pressure

Ø = 0.85 N is based on Pu. s = least dimension π 2
(d sp) ∙ π(Dc−dsp) 4A sp

NOTE: If spacing of main bars < 150mm, use 1 tie per set. s=
4 π 2
(D c) ∙ ρs =
Dcρs

WIDE BEAM SHEAR PUNCHING/DIAGONAL TENSION SHEAR BENDING MOMENT

x

VU1 = qU(B)(x) VU2 = PU − qU(a + d)(b + d)

MU = qU(B)(x) ( )

√fc′ √f c′

** design of main bars and

V ≤ ∅V = ∅ Bd
U1 wb 6 VU2 ≤ ∅Vpc = ∅ 3
bd
o
temperature bars –
Same as slab.
τwb = VU1 τpc = VU2

∅Bd ∅bod

′ ′
√f f

c √ c

τ = τ =
wb(allw) pc(allw)

6
3
 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN FORMULAS AND PRINCIPLES BY: NTDEGUMA REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN FORMULAS AND PRINCIPLES BY: NTDEGUMA

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND TYPES OF PROBLEMS WORKING STRESS DESIGN (WSD) Stress of Concrete
where:
CONCRETE
a mixture of sand, gravel, crushed rock or other
1. Design - given the load, determine the size
aggregates held together in a rock-like mass with a paste DESIGN OF BEAMS FOR FLEXURE fc = Mc (kd) Mc - resisting moment
of cement and water. 2. Investigation - given the size, determine the load IN.A. of concrete
ADMIXTURES b b fc = 0.45 fc'
materials added to concrete to change certain C
characteristics such as workability, durability and time of
hardening. KD Stress of Steel
MODES OF FAILURE IN BENDING
JOSEPH ASPDEN
N.A.
an English bricklayer who obtained a patent for
H
Portland cement

JOSEPH MONIER
1. Crushing of Concrete - when the strain concrete D- KD fs = Ms (d - kd) where:
a Frenchman who invented reinforced concrete a received a
patent for the const. of concrete basins and tubs and reaches the ultimate strain of 0.003 mm/mm. T n IN.A. Ms - resisting moment
reservoirs reinforced w/ wire mesh and iron wire in 1867.
As Z nAs fc/n of steel

DESIGN METHODS:
2. Yielding of Steel - when the actual tensile stress of
1. WSD - Working Stress Design, Alternate Stress Design,or Beam Section Transformed Stress Diagram
Straight-Line Design
steel "fs" reaches the yield stress "fy"
2. USD - Ultimate Stress Design or Strength Design
Section
Compressive force of Concrete
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS:
CONCRETE: 3. Simultaneous crushing of concrete and
fc - allowable compressive stress of conc. Yielding of Steel where: C = 1/2 fc kd b

- 0.45 fc' ( beams/slabs/footings)

- 0.25 fc' ( columns) h = overall depth of the beam (mm)
fc' - specified compressive strength of conc.
at 28 days curing (MPa)
z = steel covering (measure from the centroid of bar)
g -
conc. unit weight of concrete
- 23.54 KN/m3 TYPES OF DESIGN
Ec - modulus of elasticity of concrete Tensile force of Steel
d = effective depth of the beam (mm)
- 4700 fc' (MPa)
1. Overreinforced - when failure is due to crushing of d = h -z
STEEL :
fs - allowable tensile stress of steel (MPa)
fs - 0.50 fy ( beams/slabs/footings) concrete. As = area of the reinforcement ( square millimeters) T = As fs
fs - 0.40 fy ( columns) fc' = compressive strength of concrete (MPa)

fy - yield stress of steel (MPa)

gsteel - unit weight of steel 2. Underreinforced - when failure is initiated by yielding fs = tensile strength of steel (MPa)
3
- 77 KN/m Moment Arm ( jd )
Ec - modulus of elasticity of concrete -
of steel. b = base of the beam (mm)
200,000 MPa n = modular ratio(always a whole number)
3. Balanced Design - when failure is caused by
 n=
Es /
Ec Only )
simu 3. U = 1.1DL + 1.3LL + 1.1E)
ltane
ous >(#1) Resisting Moment of Concrete:
crus U = 0.90DL + 1.1E Steel Ratio
hing d=
of
conc jd +
kd/ 4. U = 1.4DL + 1.7LL + 1.7H Mc = C(jd)
rete
and Location 3 > (# 1) As
yieldi of the j=1 U = 0.90DL Mc = fc/2 (b)(kd)(jd) r =
ng of neutral -
bd
steel axis (kd) k/3
Mc = (1/2)(fc)(kj)(bd²)
SM
N.A.

FACTORED =0

LOAD b(kd) C
(kd/2) - o
COMBINAT nAs (d - ns DL - Dead Load E - Earthquake Load
ION kd) = 0 ta
Resisting Moment of Steel:
( nt
(
N k LL - Live Load H - Earth Pressure
S )
C W - Wind Load
P Ms = T jd
C
1
0 Ms = As fs jd
1 k
d
- =
0 --
--
1 --
) --
k n ( For
Design
1. U = n Only )
= +
Moment of
1.4D fs/
Inertia of the
L+ Transformed fc
1.7LL Section

(
2. U = 0.75(1.4DL + 1.7LL + 1.7 W)
#
U I N.A.= (1/3)(b)
1 (kd)³ + nAs (d -
= >) kd)²
0. 2r
90 n
DL
+
+
1. (r - (For
Inve
3 k n) r stiga
W = ² n tion
CECC-3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 1/20 CECC-3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 2/20

REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN FORMULAS AND PRINCIPLES BY: NTDEGUMA REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN FORMULAS AND PRINCIPLES BY: NTDEGUMA

ULTIMATE STRENGTH DESIGN

(USD) 2. Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beam where:
(Reinforced in Tension/Compression) FOR SINGLY REINFORCED BEAM
A. BEAMS (FLEXURAL STRESS) a = depth of equivalent stress block
b 0.85 fc'
1. Singly Reinforced Rectangular Beam As = area of tension reinforcement, square millimeters
(Reinforced in Tension Only) C' A. Computing Mu with given tension
As' A
b = width of the compression face of member
b 0.85 fc'
C steel area (As)
C = 0.85 fc'ab D
c = distance from extreme compression fiber to N.A. (mm)
A
N.A. d = distance from extreme compression fiber to
C
T As
D
As centroid of tension reinforcement (mm) I. Solve for r=
N.A. Mn D-A/2
bd
As T = As fy d' = thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme
tension fiber to center of the bar or wire, (mm) II. Check if steel yields by computing rb
fc' = specified compressive stress of concrete (MPa)
r 0.85 fc'b1600

fy = specified yield strength of steel (MPa) b=

fy ( 600 + fy)
Mn = nominal moment, (N-mm)

Beam Section Elevation

b 0.85 fc'
C A/2
<
Mu = factored moment at section, (N-mm) If r rb steel yields , proceed to step III
r = ratio of tension reinforcement = As/bd If r > rb steel does not yield , proceed to
a = b1 c D-A/2

M r = balance steel ratio step IV

For fc' < 30 MPa , use b1 = 0.85 As1 u1 b

<
f = strength reduction factor III. r rb r fy

w=
fc'

For fc' > 30 MPa , Ru = fc'w ( 1 - 0.59w)

b1 = 0.85 - 0.008 (fc' - 30) Maximum and Minimum Steel Ratio
but should not be less than 0.65 0.85 fc' 2Ru r
max = 0.75rb
r = 1- 1- r
As fy
a= fy 0.85 fc'
0.85 fc' b As = r bd

r fy
w = Balanced Steel Ratio (r )
fc' b

2 0.85 fc'b 600

Mu = f Ru bd (Resisting Moment) rb = 1
fy ( 600 + fy)
 Mu = f fc'
C. SHEAR STRESS
T1 = As1fs
2
1st STAGE bd w ( 1 - Spacing of Stirrups: Es = 200,000
AND DIAGONAL 0.59 w )
Solve for fs from the strain diagram:
TENSION
IV. r > Av fy d
As' fs' D' fs) S= Vs fs/Es 0.003 d-c
V = ; fs = 600 c
As' C' = d-c c
V b 0.85 fc' 0.003 Solve for c by summing up forces along hor.
M D-D'
w C=
u2
h 0.85
NSCP/ACI Code Specs:
As2 e fc'ab T=C ; a = b1 c
r
e
<
2
If Vs 1/3 fc' bd ,Smax = d/2 or 600mm 600 As (d-c) = 0.85b f'c b c
T2 = As2fs' f 1

2nd STAGE If Vs > 1/3 fc' bd , Smax = d/4 or 300mm

= Use quadratic formula to solve for "c"
Av min = bS/3fy
0 Then, solve for fs and "a" with known "c"
1st STAGE 2nd STAGE .
8 d-c
Forces: Forces: 5 A
fs = 600 ; a = b1c
C1= 0.85 fc' ab C' = As' fs' Vn C c
c
T = As1fs T1 = As2 fs (d-d') = Vu = factored or ultimate shear
Resisting Moment: Resisting Moment: Vc Finally, solve for Mu:
MU1 = f 0.85fc'ab (d-a/2) Mu2 = f As'fs' (d-d') + M

MU1 = f As1 fs (d-a/2) Mu2 = f As2 fs(d-d') Vs D nD Vc = shear force provided by conc.
N
. - Mu = f 0.85fc'ab (d-a/2) or
TOTAL :
A Vn = nominal shear
T=T1+T2 AS = As1 + As2 . A/2
Mu = f As fs (d-a/2)
MU= MU1 + MU2 d-c
Avmin = area of steel to resist shear
Vf bd As T= e=
As fy fs/Es
=1/
c = 2 Asteel
6'

CECC-3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 3/20 CECC-3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 4/20
REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN FORMULAS AND PRINCIPLES BY: NTDEGUMA REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN FORMULAS AND PRINCIPLES BY: NTDEGUMA

B. Computing the required tension steel area

IV. Verify of compression will yield. VERTICAL STIRRUP DESIGN
(As) of beam with given Mu III. Verify if Compression steel will yield
b ec f c If fs' > fy, proceed to step V.
WHERE:
s-
I. Solve for rmax and Mumax d' If fs' < fy, proceed to step VI. es' = fs'/Es
' d
0.85 fc'b1600
c As' ='
r
c-d'

N.A. 6
max = 0.75 = 0
c-d
fy ( 600 + fy) 0c
Mumax = WITH CONSIDERED FACTORED LOAD
r fy es
w= = ________
As
fc'
2 Es = 200,000
Mumax= f fc' bd w ( 1 - 0.59 w )
 c - d' IV. Since fs' > fy, Vc =1/6 fc' bd
fs' = 600 c compression steel yields V. Since
I. Compute the factored shear force, Vu If Vu > f Vc , stirrups is necessary,
fs' < fy,
If fs' > fy, proceed to step IV. MU= MU1 + MU2 proceed to to Step III.
assump II. Calculate the shear strength provided by
If fs' < fy, proceed to step V. MU = f As1 fy (d-a/2) + tion is If Vu < f Vc , but Vu > 1/2 fVc
concrete, Vc
wrong proceed to to Step V
fAs' fy(d-d')
If Mu < Mumax design as Single Reinforced If Vu < 1/2 fVc , stirrups are not needed
then, proceed to step II. V. fs' > fy, then use fs' = fy 0.85 fc'
(compression steel yields) d' C2 = As'fs'
If Mu > Mumax design as Doubly Reinforced III. Calculate the shear strength Vs to be
As' = As2 a c provided by the stirrup.
C1
II. Solve for r VI. fs' < fy, then use fs' 1. Vn = Vu /f
NA
2 (compression steel will not yield) 2. Vs = Vn - Vc = Vu /f - V c
Mu = f Ru bd (Solve for Ru) d - a/2
C 2= T2
If VS < 2/3 fc' bW d , proceed to IV.
As' fs' = As2fy T = As fy
0.85 fc' 2Ru
r As' = ________ If VS > 2/3 fc' bW d , adjust the size
= 1- 1- = ____ c - d'
fs' = 600c of the beam
fy 0.85 fc'
From stress diagram.
IV. Spacing of stirrups:
As = r bd = _________ B. Computing Mu of a Doubly Reinforced [C1+C2 =T]
Beam with given As and As' Av fy d
0.85 fc' ab + As' fs' = As fy
Spacing, S =
FOR DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAM a = b1 c
b 0.85 fc' As' fs' Vs
c - d' If S < 25mm, increase the value of Av.
A. Computing As and As' of a Doubly
0.85 fc' b c b+ As' 600 = As fy either by bigger bar or shear area.
a/2 C' d'

Reinforced Beam with given Mu.

1 c
As' a C Maximum spacing, s:
b 0.85 fc' As' fs' Solve for c by quadratic formula
a/2 C'
Solve for fs' and "a" If Vs < 1/3 fc' bd ,Smax = d/2 or 600mm
Solve for Mu :
d'

As' C

If Vs > 1/3 fc' bd , Smax = d/4 or 300mm

MU = f 0.85fc'ab (d-a/2) + f As' fs' (d-d')
d d-d' V. If Vu < f Vc , but Vu > 1/2 fVc
d-a/2 Av min = bw S /3fy
d d-d' where S = d/2 or 600mm (whichever
T1 = As1 fy T2 = As fy
As is smaller
d-a/2
M
u2 I. Assume Compression steel yield
M
u1 (fs' = fy)
As T1 = As1 fs T2 = As2 fs' As2 = As' = _______
As1 = As - As' = _______
I. Solve for As1 = rmaxbd II. Solve for a and c:
II. Solve for "a" and "c": C1 = T1 [C1 = T1]

= As1 fy ; a = ____ 0.85 fc' ab = As1 fy ; a = ____

0.85 f'c ab
a= b1 c ; c = ______
a= b1 c ; c = ______
III. Solve for MU1, MU2 and As2
Mu1 = f As1 fy ( d-a/2 )
Mu2 = MU1 - MU
Mu2 = f As2 fy(d-d') ; As2 = ____
CECC-3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 5/20 CECC-3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 6/20
 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN FORMULAS AND PRINCIPLES BY: NTDEGUMA REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN FORMULAS AND PRINCIPLES BY: NTDEGUMA

TYPICAL RESISTANCE FACTORS ARE AS SHEARING STRESS OF RC BEAMS For members subjected to significant axial tension: For Interior Beam
FOLLOWS:
1 0.30N 1) b = L/4
SITUATION Nominal Shear Strength Provided by Concete:
u
2) b = 16t + bw choose the
Flexure, without axial load 0.90 smallest
Vn = V c + V s Vc = fc' bw d 1+ 3) b = S1 /2 + S2 /2 + b w
Axial tension and axial tension w/ flexure 0.90
where: 6 Ag
Shear and torsion 0.85 For End Beam
Vn = nominal shear strength of RC section where:
Compression members, spirally reinforced 0.75
Vc = nominal shear strength provided by concrete Nu/Ag = expressed in MPa 1) b' = L/12 + b'w
Other Compression members 0.70 Vs = nominal shear strength of the shear reinforcement Nu is negative for tension 2) b' = 6t + b'w choose the
Bearing on concrete 0.70 For shear reinforcement, fy < 414 MPa. smallest
Plain Concrete: flexure, compression, shear 0.65
For members subjected to shear and flexure only: 3) b' = S3 /2 + b'w
Distance of Stirrups from support:
and bearing
1
Vc = a. 0.50 S from face of column support b. For Symmetrical Interior Beam
fc' bw d
0.25 S from face of beam support
CODE PROVISIONS: FOR DESIGN OF 6 1) b = L/4
SINGLY-REINFORCED BEAMS For members subjected to axial compression:
T - BEAMS 2) b = 16t + bw choose the
1 smallest
3) b = center-center
To ensure yield failure: rmax = 0.75 rb Vc = fc' bw d 1 + spacing of beams
To avoid sudden tensile failure : rmin = 0.25 fc' > 1.4 6 14AgCode Requirements for T-beams
fy fy where: 4. Isolated beams in which T-shape are used to
To control deflection: r < 0.18 fc' Ag = gross area of section in sq.mm 1. In T-beam construction, the flange and web shall be built provide a flange for additional compression area
Nu = factored axial load occurring with Vu (- ) integrally or otherwise effectively bonded together. shall a flange thickness not less than 1/2 the
fy for compression, (+) for tension width of the web and an effective flange width
BALANCED STEEL RATIOS Nu/Ag = expressed in MPa 2. The width of slab effective as a T-beam shall not exceed 1/4 of not more than four times the width of the web.
the span of the beam, and effective overhanging flange on each B
For members subjected to shear and flexure: side of the web shall not exceed:
Vu d T
1. BEAM REINFORCED FOR TENSION 1 fc' + 120 r bwd

Vc = 7 w Mu
but shall not be greater than
0.85 fc'b 600 if r < rlim , compression steel yields fs = fy a) 8 times the
rb = 1
thickness and
fy ( 600 + fy) b) 1/2 the
clear
2. BEAM REINFORCED FOR COMPRESSION Checking distance to
w Vc = 0.30 the next web
Ductility
he fc' bwd
re
r r where: As' :
<
r = b+ ' r' =
3. For beams
bd
V1 with slab on
if r < r , tension steel yields fs = fy u. one side only,
d0 the
For compression steel Mu =
r factored
moment
effective overhanging
lim = 0.85 b fc' d' 600 + r' M
u ocurring
flange shall not
exceed:
r
w
=
a) 1/12 the
fy d (600-fy) simultan
span
A eously length of
s w/ Vu the beam,
 b) 6 times the bwd B1 B2
bwd slab thickness A
g S1 BW S2 S3 BW'
c) 1/2 the clear
For members subjected to axial distance to the Substitute Mm for Mu and Vud/Mu not limited to 1.0
compression: next web Interior Beam End Beam
BW
where, h = overall thickness of member
Mm = M u
B
- Nu 4h - d B '

8
t > bw/2 b < 4bw
but shall not be B B
greater than B1 2 3

T
Vc 10.30
= +N u
0.3
0
fc'

CECC-3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 7/20 CECC-3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 8/20
REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN FORMULAS AND PRINCIPLES BY: NTDEGUMA REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN FORMULAS AND PRINCIPLES BY: NTDEGUMA

A. Steps in determining the Tension Steel Area III. a > t B. Steps in Determining Mu of a T-Beam Solve for z:
As of a T-Beam with given Mu with given As.
Ac = Af + bw z
(see Steps I for values of Ac and Af)

I. Assume that the entire flange is in compression b 0.85 fc' I. Assume steel yields (fs = fy) and compute the
and solve for Mu1: t 1 C1 t/2 0.85 fc' Verify if steel yields:
Compression force in concrete: z 2 area of compression concrete, Ac
A

C = 0.85 fc' bf t d C2 a = t + z = _____

Mu1 = f C(d - t/2) D' d-t/2 C=T
Mu1 = f 0.85 fc' bf t(d - t/2) d'-z/2 c = a /b1 = ______ fs = 600(d-c)/c = _____
As
0.85 fc' Ac = As fy
bw T1 = As1fy T2 = As2fy
Ac = _____ If fs > fy, steel yields (correct assumption)
Mu1 Mu2
If fs < fy, steel does not yield (seldom happen)
Area of compression flange, Af = bf t
Mu1 = _____________
T = As fy
bf d
If Mu1 > Mu, then a < t, proceed to Step II If Solve for a: As
Mu1 < Mu, then a > t, proceed to Step III Mu = f C (d-a/2) If < rmax , design is OK!
Mu = f 0.85 fc' ab (d-a/2) bf d

II. a < t a = _______ As

b 0.85 fc' If > rmax , beam needs compression
T=C
a C =0.85 fc' ab bf d
As fy = 0.85 fc' ab
t steel (seldom happen)
As = _______
Solve fo rmin = 1.4 / fy and compare with
D Solve for rmax and compare with As As
d-a/2 bw d
 Mu = Mu1 + Mu2 If Ac < Af, a < t, proceed to Step II
As Mu1 = the same value in Step 1 Mu1 = f C1 (d - t / 2)
If > rmin , design is OK! Mu2 = Mu - Mu1 If Ac > Af, a > t, proceed to Step III
bw d Mu2 = f C2 (d'-a/2) Mu1 = f 0.85 fc' Af (d - t / 2)
As Mu2 = f 0.85 fc' bw z (d'-z/2) Mu2 = f C2 (d' - z / 2)
If < rmin , use r = rmin (seldom)
II. a < t
bw d z = _______
Mu2 = f 0.85 fc' bw z (d' - z / 2)
As = rmin bw d T=C b 0.85 fc'
t a C =0.85 fc' ab
As fy = C1 + C2 Mu = Mu1 + Mu2
D d-a/2
As fy = 0.85 fc' b t + 0.85 fc' bw z
T = As fy
As = _______
As ACI/NSCP Coefficients for Continuous
Solve fo rmin = 1.4 / fy and compare with Solve for a:
bw d Beams and Slabs
As
Ac = bf x a
Requirements:
If > rmin , design is OK!
bw d
a = ____
1. Two or more spans
As r r Mu = f As fy (d-a/2)
If < rmin , use = min(seldom)
2. Loads are uniformly distributed
bw d Verify if steel yields(this may not be necessary)
As = rmin bw d 3. Beams or slabs are prismatic
4. L - S < 20%S
Solve for Asmax . c = a /b1 fs = 600 (d-c) / c
b 600 d 5. 1.7 wll < 3.0

a=1 If fs > fy, steel yields (correct assumption)

600 + fy 1.4 wdl
If fs < fy, steel does not yield (seldom happen)
Asmax = 0.75 Asb
w (kN/m)
0.85 fc' ( bf t + (a-t) bw
Asmax = 0.75
fy L L
III. a > t L1 L2 3 4

If As < Asmax, value is OK

b 0.85 fc'
If As > Asmax, the beam needs compression wL1 /2 wL/2 wL/2 1.15wL/2
steel (seldom happens) t 1 C1 t/2

0.85 fc'
A

z 2 C2
d V-D
D' d-t/2
d'-z/2
-1.15wL/2 -wL/2 -wL/2 -wL 4 /2

As T1 = As1fy T2= As2fy

b
w
2 2 2 2
Mu1 Mu2 wL1 /14 wL2 /16 wL3 /16 wL4 /11
 - - Note:
w - - - w
- L L = the average span between adjacent
2 wL wL wL
L 2
/
2
/1
2 wL
/ / spans in shear and negative moment
/1 4 1 -wL / -wL 1
2 0 2 11 2 1 2 /24 16 11 /11 0
CECC-3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 9/20
 CECC-3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 10/20
REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN FORMULAS AND PRINCIPLES BY: NTDEGUMA REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN FORMULAS AND PRINCIPLES BY: NTDEGUMA

a) 40 mm for interior columns

COLUMNS b) 50 mm for exterior columns
2. SPIRAL COLUMNS
c) 1.5 times max. size of coarse aggregate
9. When there are more than four vertical bars, additional
Classification of column as to: ties shall be provided so that every longitudinal bar will be held firmly
in position. No bar can be located at a greater distance than 150 mm Minimum spiral steel ratio : rs
A. REINFORCEMENT clear in either side from a laterally supported bar. DC D

1. TIED COLUMNS r 2
S = spacing of spiral ties s = 0.45 [ (D/Dc) - 1 ] fc'/fy

PU r
longitudinal bars s = 4 A sp (Dc - db )
2
Applied Axial Load: s Dc

where:

Pu = 1.4 DL + 1.7 LL r
Applied Axial Load: Asp = area of the spiral reinforcement s = spiral
steel ratio
Dc = core diameter (mm)
Pu = 1.4 DL + 1.7 LL
Resisting Axial Load:
3. COMPOSITE COLUMN
Pu = f 0.80 Ag [0.85fc'(1-rg )+ rg fy)] Resisting Axial Load:

f = 0.70 for tied column Pu = f 0.85 Ag [0.85fc'(1-rg )+ rg fy)]

Steel
Note: Section
rg = gross steel area f = 0.75 for spiral column To be safe, Pu
To be safe, Pu act. < Pu res. act. < Pu res.
= As/Ag

As = total steel area ACI Code specs:

ACI Code specs: r B. SLENDERNESS
1. g= 0.01 - 0.06
db = bar diameter 1. Short Column
r 2.
3.
minimum diameter = 250 mm
min. vertical bars = 6-16 mm
1. g= 0.01 - 0.08 Klu/r < 34 - 12 M1/M2
4. minimum spiral = 10 mm
2. Minimum side cover = 40 mm 5. clear distance between vertical bars 2. Slender Column
a) 1.5 times bar diameter
3. Minimum vertical bars b) 1.5 times max. size of coarse aggregate Klu/r > 34 - 12 M1/M2
4 - 16mm dia. - for rec. section 6. spacing of spirals
a) not more that 75 mm C. SECTION
6 - 16mm dia. - for round section b)not less than 25 mm
4. Minimum lateral tie bar dia. 10mm c) not less than 1.5 times coarse aggregate 1. Square/rectangular
dia.- for < 32 db main bar 12mm d) not more than one-sixth
2. Round/Circular
dia.- for > 32 db main bar
5. Spacing of lateral ties (use the smallest) 7. Spacing of spiral tie: D. LOAD
a. 16 vert. bar diameter
s= 4Asp 1. Axially Loaded
b. 48 lateral tie bar diameter r 2. Eccentrically loaded
c. least column dimension s Dc
a. Uniaxial bending
6. Minimum side dimension of
column = 200 mm b. Biaxial bending

7. Clear distance between longitudinal bars

a) 1.5 times bar diameter
b) 1.5 times max. size of coarse aggregate
8. Minimum covering of ties
ECCENTRICALLY LOADED COLUMN ex
ey where:
Mx = Pey h = column dimension
P P parallel to Axially Load:
P eccentricity (mm)
ex
My = Pex My = Pex D = column diameter (mm) Pu = f 0.80 Ag [0.85fc'(1-rg )+ rg fy)]
ey x
A. Compression plus Uniaxial Pu = f 0.85 Ag [0.85fc'(1-rg )+ rg fy)]
Bending 1. e = 0
y Pu

PP P emin = 0.10 h for rectangular section c.g.

P P emin = 0.05 D for circular section

CECC-3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 11/20

CECC-3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 12/20
REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN FORMULAS AND PRINCIPLES BY: NTDEGUMA REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN FORMULAS AND PRINCIPLES BY: NTDEGUMA

Compression plus Uniaxial Bending: ACI Moment Magnifier Method

2. e = emin Pu Pn
e e Pu Factored Design Moment:
c.g. As
emin As'
Mc = dbM2b + dsM2s
pc

where:
Axially loaded (Neglect the effect of moment) pc
b = bending
Pn s = sidesway
Pu = f 0.80 Ag [0.85fc'(1-rg )+ rg fy)] B As E d = moment magnification factor
As'
Moment Magnifiers
Pu = f 0.85 Ag [0.85fc'(1-rg )+ rg fy)] D
0.85fc' Cm
T1 T2 db = > 1.0
0.85fc' where: 1 - Pu
C 2'
C1' Pn - nominal load cap.of column at

C ex and ey
f Pc
3. emin < e < eb T
P Very large moment and
C'
fs u
C
' = fy e negligible axial load
Pu A

C
e Eccentrically loaded fs = fy es
c.g. Column behaves like a es'
5. eb < e
d'
eb D -C C
c.g. Pu beam
Consider effect of moment e Gross Steel Ratio:
emin Eccentrically loaded rg = (As + As') / Ag
Ag = bh
Mn = Pn (e)
c.g. Consider effect of moment
Mu = f Mn
Failure by crushing of concrete
fs' = fy eb Mn = nominal moment
fs < fy
4. e = eb Mu = ultimate moment
Failure initiated by yielding

SHORT ECCENTRICALLY LOADED

Pu ROUND COLUMNS

of tension steel
e Column Interaction Eqtn: (Homogenous Mat'l.)

f
s = fy fa fbx fby
c.g. Eccentrically loaded 6. eb <<<
+ + < 1.0
e
Fa Fbx Fby
eb Consider effect of moment
 Pno - nominal load cap.of column 2. When Mu(A) > Pu(15 + 0.03h), use Mu = Mu(A)
at
Cm
Bresler's Eqtn: (Reinf. Conc.-Composite Mat'l.) es ds = > 1.0
1 es 2 e=0
Pn + Pn + Pn < 1.0 es' es'2 Pnx - nominal load cap.of
1 - SPu
Pnx Pny Pno 1 ec ey and ex fS Pc
Pny - nominal load cap.of column
at

D -C C e & e =0
Cm = 0.60 + 0.40 M1 /M2 > 0.40
SLENDER COLUMNS
(for braced without transversed loads)
A. Columns braced against sidesway
Cm = 1.0 (for all other cases)
1. When Klu/r < 34 -12 M1 /M2 , column is short.
2. When Klu/r > 34 -12 M1 /M2, column is M1 /M2 = smaller end moment
slender. bigger end moment
where: = + for single curvature =
B. Unbraced Columns - for double curvature
1. When Klu/r < 22, column is short.
2. When Klu/r > 22, column is slender.

Effective length factor, k Ec Ig / 2.5

Condition Value of k p2EI
pinned at both ends 1.0
fixed at both ends 0.5 Pc = EI =
fixed at one end, pinned at the other 0.7 (Klu)2 1 +b d
fixed at one end, free at the other 2.0
k 1.0 for braced frames, no sidesway
k > 1.0 for unbraced frames, with sidesway
k = 1.0 for compression members in frames braced where:
against sidesway unless a theoretical analysis shows that a
lesser value can be used.
Ec = 4700 fc' (MPa)
3
Ig = bh /12
For slender columns (to consider
PD - effect or secondary bd = factored axial dead load
factored axial total load
moment)
Klu/r = slenderness ratio
1. When Mu(A) < Pu(15 + 0.03h), use Mu = Pu r = 0.30h for rectangular
(15 + 0.03 h)
= 0.25D for round column Pu = Pdl + Pll

CECC-3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 13/20

CECC-3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 14/20
REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN FORMULAS AND PRINCIPLES BY: NTDEGUMA REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN FORMULAS AND PRINCIPLES BY: NTDEGUMA

D. TWO -WAY OR PUNCHING SHEAR

A. BEARING ON SOIL d/2

FOOTINGS c.
s.f
f Vc = f 1/6 fc' bd Applied Punching Shear Force:
or
Vp = qu [ L2 - (c + d) 2 ]
be
q = P / Af a
Types of Footing: m
sh
Resisting Shear force of Concrete:
ea
r Vp = vpc (Ap)
1. Spread Footing (Isolated Footing) To be safe, q < q all
2. Wall Footing DZ Resisting Shear stress of Concrete in Punching:
where: where:
vpc = f [ 1 + 2 / bc ] 1/6 fc' < f1/3 fc'
3. Combined Footing X f = capacity or
q = bearing stress on soil (MPa) strength reduction
To be safe, Vp < vpc
4. Mat and Raft Foundation L factor
q all = allow. bearing stress on soil (MPa) where:
5. Footing on Piles
L = side dimension of footing (m) c = column dimension
P = column load (mm)
SPREAD FOOTING Af = area of soil in contact with bearing qu = net upward soil bearing stress or pressure (MPa)

2
stress of soil (mm ) qu = 1.4 PDL + 1.7 PLL
Modes of failure: Af
B. BENDING OR FLEXURE
1. Bearing of soil
Applied Moment:
2. Bending or Flexure Ap = 4 (c + d) d
2
3. One-way Shear or Beam Shear Mu = qu ( Lx ) / 2
4. Two-way Shear of Punching Shear
CHECK DEVELOPMENT LENGTH
Resisting Moment of steel:

SPREAD FOOTING (ISOLATED FOOTING) Mu = f As fs (d-a/2) Ld = 0.02 Ab fy

reqd
P Resisting Moment of Concrete: fc'

Mu = f r fy bd2 [ 1 - 0.59rfy / fc']

DEVELOPMENT LENGTHS
To be safe, Mu act < Mu resist.

C. ONE -WAY OR BEAM SHEAR A. STEEL IN TENSION

d t
Applied Ultimate Shear: 0.02 Ab fy
q Ld =
Vu act = qu ( H z ) fc'
C+D
Vu act - critical shear force 'd" from the
c.s.for bending
face of support
d/2
H c+d c c.s.for punching shear Resisting Ultimate Shear Force of concrete
 For top bars:
fc' Ld = 0.02 Ab fy
Ld is multiplied by a factor 1.4 fc'

For 35 mmØ and smaller bars Minimum Ld = 300 mm Minimum Ld = 0.04 dbfy or 300 mm

For 55 mmØ bars

Ld = 0.02 Ab fy
fc' Ld = 40 fy
fc'
Minimum Ld = 300 mm
Minimum Ld = 300 mm
For 45 mmØ bars

Ld = 25 Ab fy B. STEEL IN COMPRESSION

= 0.85 for shear and torsion Minimum Ld = 0.06 dbfy or 300 mm

Vc = nominal shear force capacity

of concrete
b,d = beam dimensions (mm)

CECC-3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 15/20

CECC-3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 16/20
STEEL DESIGN FORMULAS AND PRINCIPLES BY: NTDEGUMA STEEL DESIGN FORMULAS AND PRINCIPLES BY: NTDEGUMA

EULER'S CRITICAL LOAD AND Maximum Allowable compressive stress of conc. 2. Average Shearing Stress in the Web 5. Allowable Shear Stress
STRESS fv
a. When h/tw < 998/ Fy
1

On full area of a concrete support

For Hinged-Ended Columns: bf
Allowable shear stress
Fp = 0.35 fc'
LOAD STRESS fv 2

On less than the full area of a concrete support tf

tw Fv = 0.40 Fy
p2EI p2E Fp = 0.35 fc' A2/A1 < 0.70 fc' tw
h d

d b. When h/tw > 998/ Fy

Pc = Fa =
2 B. BENDING OF BASE PLATE Allowable shear stress
L2 (L / r)
Fv = Fy Cv/2.89 < 0.40 Fy
For Fixed - Ended Columns:
fv ave

LOAD STRESS If m > n, If n > m,

3 fp m 3 fp n2 SPACING OF RIVETS OR BOLTS

4p2 EI
2
4p2E where:

Pc = Fa = fv = VQ1 Q=Q+Q
2 2 t= t =
L (L / r)
where: Fb Fb
cto 1 RI Ma
kL/r
1 F W
Ib S=
r w Q xim V
= 2 = QF
k = 1 for h um
m e
columns
a hinged at r Vert Q
x. both e ./Ho
sides : r. where:
ef
fe k = 0.50 Shea R
ct fixed- r
f
fixed
iv p f Stre =
k = 0.70 ss
e
hinged- va
sl fixed = ve
shear
e = VQ
n P f capacity
d /
er COLUMN v
2 of
n BASE A
+
es
s PLATE: B
2 each
ra F
ti m b bolts
o
3 V
k = (f
= v =
ef 0 1
0.95D
fe . - maximum
7
ct
5 f
iv shear
e
v
2
le m F
n
y ) of

gt n beam
h Q
0.80
fa
B SHEARI 3
NG . =
 stati
cal

mo
men
t

are
a

M
O
M fv h = I b
E
N A fn = net
flange area
T where: Dh
A fg =
V = maximum shear of D gross
tw
flange area
RED
UCT
ION

beam
DUE
TO
THE
PRE
SEN
CE
OF
HO
LE
IN
BOT

A h = Ag -
H
FLA

Q = statical moment area

NGE

I = moment of inertia Dh
area of
- holes in beam (mm^4) holes
tf
generally will reduce b = base sheared Area of hole =
its capacity. When the (Dh )(t f
holes are located in the )
beam web, it reduces D h = db +
its shear capacity 3 mm
while holes in the d b = diameter of
beam flanges reduce the bolt
its moment capacity.
A. BEARING ON CONCRETE
fv = 4. Shear flow
d tw 1. Reduction of hole is neglected
Actual/Applied Bearing stress:
VQ When 0.50 Fu Afn > 0.60 Fy Afg
where:
q=
P I 2. Reduction of holes must be considered
V = max. shear force
fp = Ap d = depth of the beam When 0.50 Fu Afn < 0.60 Fy Afg
tw = web thickness where:
Effective tension flange section:
where: q = shear flow (N/m)
P = column load (kN) 5 Fu Afn
Afe =

Ap = contact surface between the 6 Fy

base plate and conc. pedestal
Afn = Afg - area of holes

CECC-3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 5/16 CECC-3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 6/16

STEEL DESIGN FORMULAS AND PRINCIPLES BY: NTDEGUMA STEEL DESIGN FORMULAS AND PRINCIPLES BY: NTDEGUMA

C. BENDING/FLEXURAL MEMBERS 4. When Lb < Lc 2. When Lb > Lc and Lb > Lu 2. SHEARING STRESS
Fb = 0.66 Fy
Actual/Applied V Q V 703000Cb 3520000 Cb fV = x x ± y y
bending stress: Q
f Ix b Iy
200 bf Fy
Lc = l
Mc a F
Fy n y
g
3.USING
L e Fb 1170 x use bigger value
3
b = 10 Cb of Fb but should
fb = I (L be INTERACTION
= = 5. When Lb > Lu b/r < EXPRESSION
0.60 Fy
S t)2
u Fb = 0.60 Fy fbx fby
n 3
b
Fb 83 x 10 a.
r = Cb + < 1.0
ALLOWABLE a Lb(d/Af) Fbx Fby
STRESSES: c w
e h
d b. For compact
A. LATERALLY laterally
SUPPORTED supported
l shapes:
BEAMS: e
n
1. Compact Sections g
t
h

o
f

c
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
 fbx + fby < 1.00.66 0.60

Fb = 0.66 Fy 137,900 Af rt = radius of gyration of a section

Lu =
Fy d comprising the compression flange plus
For doubly symmetrical I and H shape members with compact flanges
1/3 of the compression web about the continuously connected to the web and
Flange width - thickness ratio 6. When Lb > Lc and Lb < Lu vertical axis.
2 bent about their weak axis, the allowable bending stress is 0.75
Fy.
Cb = 1.75 + 1.05 (M1/ M2) + 0.30 (M1/M2)
bf < 170 bf
bf
2tf Fy Cb < 2.3 Note: Consideration should be given to the question of lateral
Fb = Fy ( 0.79 - 0.00076 Fy support for the compression flange which will indicate
TW 2tf M1 = smaller end moment wether compact or non-compact sections.
M2 = bigger end moment
d
M1 /M2 = negative (-) for single curvature TENSION WITH BENDING
Web depth - thickness ratio B. LATERALLY UNSUPPORTED
tf
BEAMS: M1/M2 = positive (+) for double curvature
d < 1680
tw Fy
1. When Lb > Lc and Lb > Lu
BENDING IN BOTH AXIS
2. Non-compact Sections Beams Bending in Both Axis
703000Cb < Lb < 3520000 Cb
(Unsymmetrical Bending)
bf 170 T T
Fb = 0.6 Fy when > Fy rt Fy
2tf Fy 1. BENDING STRESS
a. If lateral loads pass thru the centroid of the beam section

2 Fy ( Lb/rt2) Fy T MC
3. Partially compact Sections
Fb = 3 - 10.55 x 10 6 Cb Mx Cx My Cy f= ±
bf fb = ± A I
Fb = Fy ( 0.79 - 0.00076 Fy
2tf 83 x 103 Cb
Ix Iy
Fb = Members subject to both axial tension and bending shall be
Flange width - thickness ratio Lb(d/Af) fb = Mx ± My Mx
proportioned at all points along their length to satisfy the following
equation:
bf > 170 Sx Sy
2tf Fy 1. BENDING IN ONE AXIS ONLY

Web depth - thickness ratio Use biggest value of Fb but should be b. If lateral loads applied at the top flange and does not passes
thru the centroid of the beam section fa fbx
bf > 250 < 0.60 Fy
P + < 1.0
2tf Fy
Ft Fbx
Mx ± My
fb =
Sx Sy/2 where:
Mx fa = computed axial stress Ft = allow. tensile stress
note: Only one half of the section modulus about fa = T/A = 0.60 Fy
the y-axis is considered
fb = computed bending stress Fbx = allow. bending
stress

CECC-3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 7/16 CECC-3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 8/16
STEEL DESIGN FORMULAS AND PRINCIPLES BY: NTDEGUMA STEEL DESIGN FORMULAS AND PRINCIPLES BY: NTDEGUMA

tw = thickness of wed
2. BENDING IN BOTH AXIS in mm
LOCAL WEB N = length ofWEB bearingCRIPPING
(not less than K for
YIELDING end
A. When the concentrated load is applied at a distance not
reactions)
fa fbx fby - occurs when heavy concentrated loads produces stress at less from
K = distance than d/2 from the end of the member.
outer face of flange to R
+ + < 1.0 web
Ft Fbx Fby the junction of the flange and web of the beam where toe of fillet in mm
the load is being transferred from the relatively wide
flange to the narrow web. K
where: 2.5K N 2.5K D
TW
Ft = allowable tensile stress
= 0.60 Fy
R
Fbx = 0.66 Fy (for compact section)
R
Fbx = 0.60 Fy (for non-compact section) WEB TOES

Fby = 0.75 Fy WEB TOES OF FILLETS 1.5

OF FILLETS N tw Fyw tf
R = 177.2 tw² 1+3
2.5K N 2.5K D d tf tw
TW

CRITICAL
where:
SECTION Fyw = specified minimum yield stress of beam web
N+5K
in MPa

R
B. When the concentrated load is applied at a distance
N 2.5K less than d/2 from the end of the member.

A. STRESS AT THE END OF THE MEMBER

D
R TW
< 0.66 Fy K
tw ( N + 2.5 K)

B. STRESS AT THE CONCENTRATED LOAD R

R N 2.5K
< 0.66 Fy
tw ( N + 5 K)
1.5
Bearing stiffeners shall be provided if the compressive stress R = 89.3 tw² 1 + 3 N tw Fyw tf
at the web toe of the fillets resulting from concentrated loads d tf tw
exceeds 0.66 Fy.
where:
R = concentrated load or reaction in Newtons
NSCP Specs: If stiffeners are provided and extend at least one half the web depth, equations A and B need not to ckeck.

SIDESWAY WEB BUCKLING

- the web will be subjected to compression if a compressive force

will be applied to braced the compression flanges as a result the
tension flange will buckle

BF
TF

DC H

TW

A. If the loaded flange is restrained against rotation and

DC/TW

is less than 2.30

L/BF

3
dc/tw
R = 46880 tw² 1+0.4
L/bf
h

B. If the loaded flange is not restrained against rotation

and
is less than 1.70

3
dc/tw
L/bf
CECC-3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 9/16 CECC-3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 10/16
 STEEL DESIGN FORMULAS AND PRINCIPLES BY: NTDEGUMA STEEL DESIGN FORMULAS AND PRINCIPLES BY: NTDEGUMA

1
BEARING PLATES AXIAL LOAD WITH BENDING AF = 1 - fa / Fe'

- beams maybe supported by connections to other structural

members or they may rest on concrete or masonry supports such as A. DESIGN FOR AXIAL COMPRESSION
walls. When the support is weaker than steel, it is usually necessary to AND BENDING
spread the load over a larger area so as not to exceed the allowable 12p2 E
bearing stress of the weaker material. P MC ( Bending in one axis only) 2
Fe' = 23 (KLb/rb)
f = A ± I
ALLOWABLE BEARING STRESS OF CONCRETE WALL:
P Mx Cx My Cy ( Bending in both axis)
On full area of a concrete f = A ± Ix ± Iy
support Fp = 0.35 fc'
B. NSCP SPECS FOR AXIAL
On less than the full area of a concrete
COMPRESSION AND BENDING
support Fp = 0.35 fc' A2 /A1 < 0.70 fc'

A. SMALL AXIAL COMPRESSION (fa/Fa < 0.15 )

A. MINIMUM WIDTH OF BEARING PLATE : (N)
1. Due to web yielding
fa fbx fby

R
+ + < 1.0
N= - 2.5K
0.66 Fy tw Fa Fbx Fby

2. Due to web yielding

B. LARGE AXIAL COMPRESSION ( fa/Fa >
0.15 )

fa Cm fb Cm fb
1.5
N tw Fyw tf
+ + < 1.0
R = 89.30 tw² 1+3 (1 - fa/Fe') Fb
d tf tw
Fa (1 - fa/Fe') Fb x y
Strength interaction
criterion:
where:
Fyw = Fy if not specified
fb
fa x fby
+ + < 1.0
B. THICKNESS OF BEARING PLATE:

0.60 Fy Fbx Fby

fp Amplification
t = 2n Factor
Fy
Magnification Factor ECCENTRICALLY LOADED COLUMNS
USING SECANT FORMULA
Cm
MF = 1 - fa / Fe' Critical Column Stress

P ec
Reduction Coefficient (Modification factor) smax = 1+ sec q
A r²
Cm = 0.60 - 0.40 (M1 /M2 )
L P
Cm = 0.85 - for members whose ends are restrained against
rotation in the plane of bending
q=
2r EA
Cm = 1.0 - for members whose ends are unrestrained against ec
rotation in the plane of bending
r² = eccentricity ratio
where:
M1 = smaller moment P = total axial load
M2 = bigger moment
I
r= (radius of gyration)

P P A
L = unsupported length of column
M2 M2

PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

fy fy

M1 M1
fy fy
Section Elastic Distribution Plastic Distribution
P P P of Stress of Stress
1
M1= 2M2 M1=M2 M1= 0
Plastic Neutral Axis
Cm = 0.40 Cm = 1.0 Cm = 0.60
- the plastic neutral axis of a section is the line that divide the
M1/M2 is positive M1/M2 is negative
section into two equal areas.
Reversed Curvature Single Curvature Yield Moment
- moment that will just produce the yield stress in the
where: outermost fiber of the section
fa = computed axial stress
fb = computed bending stress My = S Fy where:
Fa = allowable axial stress S = section modulus
Fb = allowable bending stress if bending moment
alone existed
Plastic Moment
K = effective length factor - moment that will produce full plasticity in a member cross
Lb = actual unbraced length in the plane of bending section and create plastic hinge.
rb = corresponding radius of gyration
Mp = Z Fy where:
Z = plastic section modulus

Shape Factor
Z
Shape factor =
S
CECC-3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 11/16 CECC-3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 12/16
 measure lay-out too long
Measurement Effect of Curvature & Refraction
too long add subtract e Azimuth

Corrections too short subtract add CD = MD(1+ TL ) hcr = 0.067K

2
from South

Due to temperature: too short

(add/subtract); measured length Probable Errors e
h =h2 +
D
2

(h 1 − h2) − 0.067D 1D2

CD = MD(1− )

D1+D 2 Reduction to
C = αL(T2 − T1) Probable Error (single): TL

Sea Level
Due to pull:
Stadia Measurement Leveling
(add/subtract); measured length

∑(x − x̅ )
MD

CD

E = 0.6745√ Horizontal: =

(P2 − P1)L n− 1 Elev = Elev + − R+h

R

C=

EA D = d + (f + c) Inclined Upward:

Probable Error (mean):

Due to sag: error/setup = −eBS
+e
FS

Subtense Bar
(subtract only); unsupported length D=()s+C Inclined Downward:
E ∑(x − x̅ )

w2L3 Em = = 0.6745√ D = Ks + C error/setup = +eBS − eFS θ

C= 24P
2
√n n(n − 1) Inclined: Total Error: D = cot
2

eT = error/setup ∙ no. of setups

Due to slope: Proportionalities of weight, w:

D = Ks cos θ + C
(subtract only); measured length E=error; d=distance; n=no. of trials

H = D cos θ

2
C =S −h
2 2
1 1 Double Meridian Distance Method DMD

2
∝ ∝ ∝
V = D sin θ

Normal Tension: DMD = Dep

DMD = DMD −1 + Dep −1 + Dep

Area of Closed Traverse Area of Irregular Boundaries

0.204W√AE

DMD = −Dep

PN =

√PN−P Trapezoidal Rule: 2A = Σ(DMD ∙ Lat)

Lat = L cos α

Dep = L sin α

A=

2 [h1 + hn + 2Σh] Double Parallel Distance Method DPD

Error of Closure:

Parabolic Curves
Simpson’s 1/3 Rule:
DPD = Lat
= √ΣL2 + ΣD2

Symmetrical:
d DPD = DPD −1 + Lat −1 + Lat

Relative Error/Precision:
[h + h + 2Σh+ 4Σh ] DPD = −Lat
L Error of Closure A= 3 1 n

H= (g1 + g2) =

8 Perimeter Note: n must be odd 2A = Σ(DMD ∙ Dep)

L 2

x
2
( ) 1 acre = Simple, Compound & Reverse Curves Spiral Curve
2
L
= 1
 4047 m2
H
y

Unsymmetrical:

L1L2

H= (g1 + g2)

2(L1+L2)

g3(L1+L2) = g1L1 + g2L2

Note: Consider signs.

Earthworks

±
± L2 180°
±

I θ= 2RL s ∙
π

f w

A= (d +d ) + (f +f) T = R tan
2 2

2 4 θ Ls
R L R
L

I i= ;p=

Volume (End Area): E = R [sec 2 − 1]

3 24R

L I L3

Ve = 2 (A1 + A2) m = R [1 − cos ]

x= 6RLs
2

I 5
LT → long tangent

Volume (Prismoidal): L ST → short tangent

L = 2R sin 2 Y=L− R → radius of simple curve

L
40R2Ls2
L → length of spiral from TS to any point

π along the spiral

VP = (A1 + 4Am + A2) Lc = RI ∙ L I

Ls → length of spiral

6 180°
s
I → angle of intersection

Ts = + (R + p) tan Ic → angle of intersection of the simple

Prismoidal Correction: 2 2 curve

20 2πR

p → length of throw or the distance from

=
I
tangent that the circular curve has been

L
D 360°
Es = (R + p) sec −R offset

CP = (c1 − c2)(d 1 − d2) 2 x → offset distance (right angle

12 1145.916 distance) from tangent to any point on

R=
0.036k 3 the spiral

xc → offset distance (right angle

VP = Ve − Cp D Ls =
distance) from tangent to SC

R Ec → external distance of the simple

Volume (Truncated): 0.0 079k 2 θ → spiral angle from tangent to any

curve

Σh e= point on the spiral

V =A ∙H
T Base ave = A( ) R θS → spiral angle from tangent to SC

n i → deflection angle from TS to any point

A D L on the spiral

is → deflection angle from TS to SC

VT = (Σh1 + 2Σh2 + 3Σh3 + 4Σh4) =

y → distance from TS along the tangent

D L
to any point on the spiral
C s
n

Parabolic Summit Curve Parabolic Sag Curve Underpass Sight Distance

A

Stopping Sight Distance

A

A→
L>
v2
S = vt +
2g(f ± G)
a = g(f ± G) (deceleration)
L>S 2
A(S) A→ algebraic
L>S S
v
L=
200(√h1 + √h2) 2

algebraic difference
tb = g(f ± G) (breaking time)
f
Eff = (100)
f
ave
L<S
v → speed in m/s difference of
2
200(√h + √h )
L = 2(S) − 1 2
A
A(S) 2 A(S) 2 h1 + h2

t → perception-reaction time f → L → length of summit curve S of grades, grades, in

coefficient of friction → sight distance H=C−
in percent percent
G → grade/slope of road h1 → height of driver’s eye h1 L=
122 + 3.5S
L=
800H 2
L→ L → length
= 1.143 m or 3.75 ft L< length of of sag
h2 → height of object h2 = L<S S sag curve curve
0.15 m or 0.50 ft S → sight For
passengers
distance
A(
122 + 3.5S 800H
L=2(S)− L=2(S)− L comfort,
K)
 2
L → length of horizontal
Horizontal Curve curve
where K is S → sight distance
=
speed in L>S R → radius of the curve M →
KPH
2
S

clearance from the centerline of

R=8M

L<S
395 R=L(2S−L)
8M the road

BY: NTDEGUMA THEORY OF STRUCTURES BY: NTDEGUMA

THEORY OF STRUCTURES (MODULE 2)
P w (N/m)
2

7w L

FIXED END MOMENTS OF COMMON LOADINGS a b M =-

Values of 6Aa and 6Ab of Common loadings: A 120
A L B A L
L L B
11wL
R =
40
R
2 2
P P Pa (3L -a) Pa
2
w (N/m) wa
MA = RL -
Beam Loading 6A1a1 /L 6A1b1 /L a b L/2 L/2 Mmax = - P(a) ; = ; = 2
max B
b wb3 (4L - b)
BL R =-
a 8L3
6EI 2EI

R
P L L w (N/m)

A B A B

M -PL/8
a b Pa ( L2 - a2 ) Pb ( L2 - b2 ) A
2
= -Pab / L
2
MA=
A

2 2
MB = Pba / L MB= PL/8
L
L B

L L w (kN/m)

w (kN/m) 4 3
wL 2 wL wL

Mmax = - ; max = ; B =

L 2 8 EI 6EI

A B A B FULLY RESTRAINED BEAM FORMULAS

A L B
M 2
= -w L / 12 M =
2
-w L / 30

MB = w L 2 / 12 2 2
A ML ML P Pba
P
w (kN/m) MB = w L 2 / 20 a b MA ; MB =
Mmax = - M ; max = ; B =

L 2
2EI EI A L B Pab 2 2

3 PL2
L L
L/2 L/2 3 PL2 A B M
2
MA = -5w L / 96 2
=Pb (3L - 4b)
a b w (N/m) P
MB = 5w L 2 / 96

L L/2 L/2 mid = 48EI

L 8 8

A B A L B

MA = Mb (3a/L - 1)/L A L B
w (N/m)
MB = Ma (3b/L - 1)/L ; MB =- PL

2 4 3
Mmax = - wL ; max = wL ; B = wL PL
wL3 wL3
6 30EI 24EI MA = 8 8

L 4 4
3
PL
PROPPED BEAM FORMULAS
max = 192EI

SIMPLE AND CANTILEVER BEAM FORMULAS w (N/m)

R 10
P 2 2
A L B
w (N/m)
P( b )
w (N/m) a + a b /2

w (N/m)

8wL3 7wL3 a b B
MA =- L2

A L B
A L B
A L R = Pa2 ( 3L - a)
60 60

3
L 2L w (N/m)
wL2 ;
max = 5wL4 ; wL3
R
A L B

Mmax = 384 EI max =

P

8 24EI
w (N/m)
w (N/m) L/2 L/2 MA =- 3PL

L/2

A
P
B
5wL3 5wL3 16
L/2
L

A L B R = 5P

L 32 32 R 16

A L B

w (N/m) MA = - wL2
a b 2 2 2 2
PL PL3 PL2

8
-M ( 3a - L ) + M ( 3b - L )
Mmax = ; max = ; max =

A L B R = 3wL
L L L
4 16EI

R 16

48EI P

w (N/m)

MA = -
A L B w L2

3 2
PL PL 15

B
Mmax = - PL ; max = 3EI ; B =

2EI A L R = wL
 4 2 2
7 wL wL wL
MA = wL2 ; MB=- wL2 MA =- ; MB=-

2 2 2
max = 30 0 5wL 11wL
12 12 MA = - ; MB = -
max = mid
= 192192

wL
4 MA=MB - 5wL2 ; mid = wL4 3840EI
wL
4 ma =
384EI 768EI

96 768EI

CECC-3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 5/12 CECC-3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 6/12