Chapter

12. Solutions

Student Objectives

12.1 Thirsty Solutions: Why You Shouldn’t Drink Seawater

 Define solution, solute, and solvent.

 Understand that water in tissue will combine with saltwater in order to dilute it, causing
dehydration.

12.2 Types of Solutions and Solubility

 Know and understand that common solutions can have a gas, liquid, or solid as either the solvent or
solute.
 Define entropy and know that it causes the mixing that results in solution formation.
 Know that the common types of intermolecular forces determine whether solutions will form when
components are mixed.
 Identify some common laboratory solvents.
 Identify organic substances as water soluble or fat soluble.

12.3 Energetics of Solution Formation

 Know and understand the components of solution formation and the energy changes associated with
them.
 Define and understand heat of hydration and heat of solution.

12.4 Solution Equilibrium and Factors Affecting Solubility

 Know and understand the differences among the states that describe solution equilibrium and
dissolution: unsaturated, saturated and supersaturated.
 Know the temperature dependence of the solubility of solids.
 Know that the solubility of gases is a function of both temperature and pressure.
 Use Henry’s law to calculate molar concentrations of gases in solution.

12.5 Expressing Solution Concentration

 Define the different expressions of solution concentration: molarity, molality, parts by mass, parts
by volume, mole fraction, and mole percent.
 Know how to prepare a solution of known concentration.
 Convert between the different units of concentration.

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 Chapter 12. Solutions

12.6 Colligative Properties: Vapor Pressure Lowering, Freezing Point Depression, Boiling Point Elevation,
and Osmotic Pressure

 Define colligative property.

 Understand dynamic equilibrium with respect to vapor pressure in solutions and the effect of a
solute on the rate of vaporization.
 Use Raoult’s law to calculate the vapor pressure of a solution.
 Understand vapor pressure for solutions containing two volatile components, and understand
deviations from Raoult’s law for nonideal solutions.
 Calculate the vapor pressure of a solution containing two volatile components.
 Understand the basis for freezing point depression.
 Calculate the freezing point depression of a solution from its molality and vice versa.
 Understand the basis for boiling point elevation.
 Calculate the boiling point elevation of a solution from its molality and vice versa.
 Understand osmosis and osmotic pressure.
 Calculate the osmotic presure of a solution.
 Use colligative properties to calculate the molar mass of an unidentified solute.

12.7 Colligative Properties of Strong Electrolyte Solutions

 Understand the difference between colligative properties of nonelectrolytes and electrolytes.

 Calculate the van’t Hoff factor from deviations in freezing point depression, boiling point elevation,
and osmotic pressure.
 Define hyperosmotic, hyposmotic, and isosmotic in relation to biological cells.

12.8 Colloids

 Define colloidal dispersion or colloid.

 Know the differences between the different kinds of colloid: aerosol, solid aerosol, foam, emulsion,
and solid emulsion.
 Understand Brownian motion in solutions.
 Know the structure of a soap molecule and a micelle.
 Know and understand the Tyndall effect.

Section Summaries
Lecture Outline

 Terms, Concepts, Relationships, Skills

 Figures, Tables, and Solved Examples

Teaching Tips

 Suggestions and Examples

 Misconceptions and Pitfalls

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Chapter 12. Solutions

Lecture Outline

Terms, Concepts, Relationships, Skills Figures, Tables, and Solved Examples

12.1 Thirsty Solutions: Why You Shouldn’t Drink  Intro figure: rowboat on an ocean, osmotic
Seawater pressure, Life of Pi (book)
 Life of Pi by Yann Martel  Figure 12.1 A Typical Solution
 solution  unnumbered figure: illustration of water
o solvent flow across a cell membrane
o solute
 spontaneous mixing
o two liquids
o solutions of different concentration
o saltwater in biological tissues


12.2 Types of Solutions and Solubility  unnumbered figure: photo and illustration
 Common types of solutions of dissolved CO 2 in soda water
o gas–gas  Figure 12.2 The Tendency to Mix
o liquid  Table 12.1 Common Types of Solutions
 gas–liquid  Figure 12.3 Spontaneous Mixing of Two
 liquid–liquid Ideal Gases
 solid–liquid  Figure 12.4 Intermolecular Forces Involved
o solid–solid in Solutions
 Solubility  Table 12.2 Relative Interactions and
o entropy Solution Formation
o intermolecular forces  Figure 12.5 Forces in a Solution
o solvents  Table 12.3 Common Laboratory Solvents
 Example 12.1 Solubility
 unnumbered table: solubility in water of
first five straight‐chain alcohols


12.3 Energetics of Solution Formation  unnumbered figure: separation of solute
 Energetics particles
o H solute  unnumbered figure: separation of solvent
o H solvent particles
o H soln = H solute + H solvent + H mix  unnumbered figure: mixing of solute and
 Aqueous solutions solvent particles
o heat of solution  Figure 12.6 Energetics of the Solution
o heat of hydration Process
 H hydration = H solvent + H mix  Figure 12.7 Heat of Hydration and Heat of
 H soln = H solute + H hydration Solution
 Figure 12.8 Ion–Dipole Interactions

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 Chapter 12. Solutions

Teaching Tips

Suggestions and Examples Misconceptions and Pitfalls

12.1 Thirsty Solutions: Why You Shouldn’t Drink  The flow of water out of tissue or cells may
Seawater not appear to be the same principle as
 The Life of Pi mention explains why drinking spontaneous mixing.
seawater is detrimental despite the fact that
the mixture is mostly water.
 Spontaneous mixing is closely related to
effusion and diffusion in gases.





12.2 Types of Solutions and Solubility  Solutions can involve solute and solvent from
 Solutions involve the intermolecular forces each of the three phases. Many students may
between solute particles, between solvent only have thought about liquids as solvents.
particles, and between the two kinds. This is  Solubility is a continuum. Many “insoluble”
a good opportunity to have the class predict compounds are soluble to a small extent.
the magnitude of these interactions.
 Predicting the solubility of vitamins
(Example 12.1) will require a consideration
of which bonds and (functional) groups are
polar.
 Conceptual Connection 12.1 Solubility







12.3 Energetics of Solution Formation  Heats of solution can be exothermic or
 Have the students predict which energies are endothermic, though students may presume
endothermic and exothermic. only the former from practical experience.
 Solubility can be predicted from knowledge
of the heat of hydration and the lattice
energy.
 Conceptual Connection 12.2 Energetics of
Aqueous Solution Formation









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Chapter 12. Solutions

Lecture Outline

Terms, Concepts, Relationships, Skills Figures, Tables, and Solved Examples

12.4 Solution Equilibrium and Factors Affecting  Figure 12.9 Dissolution of NaCl
Solubility  Figure 12.10 Precipitation from a
 Equilibrium and solubility Supersaturated Solution
o dissolution  Figure 12.11 Solubility and Temperature
o recrystallization  unnumbered figure: photo of rock candy
o solution states  unnumbered figure: photos of cold and
 unsaturated warm soda pop
 saturated  Figure 12.12 Soda Fizz
 supersaturated  unnumbered figures: illustration of gas
 Factors affecting solubility solubility as a function of pressure
o temperature  Table 12.4 Henry’s Law Constants for
o pressure Several Gases in Water at 25 oC
 Henry’s law  Example 12.2 Henry’s Law










12.5 Expressing Solution Concentration  Chemistry in the Environment: Lake Nyos
 Solution concentration units  Table 12.5 Solution Concentration Terms
o molarity (M)  Figure 12.13 Preparing a Solution of Known
o molality (m) Concentration
o mole fraction ()  Example 12.3 Using Parts by Mass in
o mole percent (mol %) Calculations
o parts by mass  Chemistry in the Environment: The Dirty
 percent (%) Dozen
 parts per million (ppm)  Table12.6 The Dirty Dozen
 parts per billion (ppb)  Table 12.7 EPA Maximum Contaminant Level
o parts by volume (MCL) for Several “Dirty Dozen” Chemicals
 percent (%)  Example 12.4 Calculating Concentrations
 parts per million (ppm)  Example 12.5 Converting between
 parts per billion (ppb) Concentration Units
 Making a solution of known concentration
 Interconverting units








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 Chapter 12. Solutions

Teaching Tips

Suggestions and Examples Misconceptions and Pitfalls

12.4 Solution Equilibrium and Factors Affecting  Saturation especially is a dynamic process in
Solubility which solute can reversibly enter and leave
 The representation of solubility as a dynamic the solution.
equilibrium helps explain saturation and the
process of recrystallization. This requires a
balance between dissolving and precipitating.
 Solubility can be manifested in two distinct
properties: the amount of solute that
dissolves and the rate at which the solute
dissolves.
 The phenomenon of supersaturation is
related to other ‘super’ phenomena: heating,
cooling, etc.
 Conceptual Connection 12.3 Solubility and
Temperature
 Conceptual Connection 12.4 Henry’s Law
 The solubility of gases is anomalous relative
to that of most substances but logically so
when considering H solute .




12.5 Expressing Solution Concentration  Students sometimes question the need for
 The most common solution concentration molarity and molality instead of one or the
terms are presented. It should be pointed out other. The issue there is conservation of
that molarity is most widely used by mass and thus concentration for molality but
chemists, but the others are common in other the opposite for molarity.
contexts and disciplines. Medicine uses a
variety of units including ones not included in
the text.
 Parts per million and parts per billion don’t
make much sense for large concentrations.
Give the students practical examples of these,
such as in the expression of ground‐water
contaminants.
 Environmental pollutants are often evaluated
at low or very low concentrations. Every
water plant in the U.S. must report certain
solutes and pollutants; the data for locality
makes for an engaging discussion, as does
detection limits and the meaning of ‘zero’
concentration.




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Chapter 12. Solutions

Lecture Outline

Terms, Concepts, Relationships, Skills Figures, Tables, and Solved Examples

12.6 Colligative Properties: Vapor Pressure  unnumbered figure: photo of road salting
Lowering, Freezing Point Depression, Boiling Point  Figure 12.14
Elevation, and Osmotic Pressure  unnumbered figure: illustration of dynamic
 Solute effect on vapor pressure equilibrium between liquid and vapor
o dynamic equilibrium  unnumbered figures: illustration of effect of
o solute effect on solvent–solvent solute on vapor pressure of a liquid
interactions  unnumbered figures: dilution in a closed
 Raoult’s law system
o Psolution   solvent Psolvent
o
 Example 12.6 Calculating the Vapor Pressure
 Vapor pressure of solution with two volatile of a Solution Containing a Nonelectrolyte and
components a Nonvolatile Solute
o ideal solutions  Figure 12.15 Behavior of Ideal and Nonideal
o nonideal solutions Solutions
 Freezing point depression  Example 12.7 Calculating the Vapor Pressure
o T f = m × K f of a Two‐Component Solution
 Boiling point elevation  unnumbered figure: phase diagrams of a pure
o T b = m × K b liquid and a solution
 Osmosis  unnumbered figure: photo of
o  = MRT antifreeze/coolant
 Table 12.8 Freezing Point Depression and
Boiling Point Elevation Constants for Several
Liquid Solvents
 Example 12.8 Freezing Point Depression
 Example 12.9 Boiling Point Elevation
 Chemistry in Your Day: Antifreeze in Frogs
 Figure 12.16 An Osmosis Cell
 Example 12.10 Osmotic Pressure




12.7 Colligative Properties of Strong Electrolyte  Table 12.9 Van’t Hoff Factors at 0.05 m
Solutions Concentration in Aqueous Solution
 Van’t Hoff factor, i  Figure 12.17 Ion Pairing
 medical solutions  Example 12.11 Van’t Hoff Factor and
o isosmotic Freezing Point Depression
o hyperosmotic  Example 12.12 Calculating the Vapor
o hyposmotic Pressure of a Solution Containing an Ionic
Solute
 Figure 12.18 Red Blood Cells and Osmosis
 unnumbered figure: photos of a nurse and
0.9% sodium chloride solution




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 Chapter 12. Solutions

Teaching Tips

Suggestions and Examples Misconceptions and Pitfalls

12.6 Colligative Properties: Vapor Pressure Lowering,  The vapor pressure of a solution is lower
Freezing Point Depression, Boiling Point Elevation, than the vapor pressure of the pure solvent.
and Osmotic Pressure The actual pressure is given by Raoult’s law.
 Models show the effect of a solute on  Solutions can be ideal or nonideal depending
solvent–solvent interactions. on the strength of solute–solvent
 Solutes reduce the vapor pressure of a interactions.
solution relative to the pure solvent. Vapor  The equations for freezing point depression
pressure lowering is the basis for the other and boiling point elevation give the change in
colligative properties. temperature but not the final temperature.
 Conceptual Connection 12.5 Raoult’s Law
 Freezing point depression and boiling point
elevation are easy to demonstrate and
explain with examples from the students’
experience. The equations provide a
quantitative measure of the effects.
 Conceptual Connection 12.6 Boiling Point
Elevation
 Plants and animals use several mechanisms
to protect themselves from freezing. In
addition to producing higher solute
concentrations that take advantage of
freezing point depression, some also have
proteins that inhibit ice crystal formation, a
different kinetic mechanism.
 Osmosis is an important concept in biology
and medicine. The last section shows the
form of cells upon being subjected to
different concentrations.




12.7 Colligative Properties of Strong Electrolyte  For strong electrolytes, the equations for
Solutions boiling point elevation, freezing point
 Freezing point depression, boiling point depression, and osmotic pressure are
elevation, and osmotic pressure depend on modified only by including the multiplicative
the number of particles produced by the van’t Hoff factor, i.
solute upon dissociation.  Strong electrolytes are considered to
 Conceptual Connection 12.7 Colligative dissociate completely only in very dilute
Properties solutions, hence the variation in values of i.







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Chapter 12. Solutions

Lecture Outline

Terms, Concepts, Relationships, Skills Figures, Tables, and Solved Examples

12.8 Colloids  Figure 12.19 A Colloid
 Types of colloidal dispersions  Table 12.10 Types of Colloidal Dispersions
o aerosol  Figure 12.20 Brownian Motion
o solid aerosol  Figure 12.21 Structure of a Soap
o foam  Figure 12.22 Micelle Structure
o emulsion  Figure 12.23 The Tyndall Effect
o solid emulsion  unnumbered figure: photo of the Tyndall
 Properties effect
o Brownian motion  Figure 12.24 Micelle Repulsions
o specific structure
 soap structure
 micelle structure
o Tyndall effect


































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 Chapter 12. Solutions

Teaching Tips

Suggestions and Examples Misconceptions and Pitfalls

12.8 Colloids  A colloid is a substance that is not a solution
 Colloids can be complex, but there are a but has a solute‐like substance evenly
number of common examples. It is not distributed or dispersed through the solvent.
possible to show the molecular‐level
representations since colloidal materials
involve macromolecular‐sized particles.
 The soap example is one that everyone has
experienced.
 The Tyndall effect can be demonstrated in
several contexts.

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Chapter 12. Solutions

Additional Problem for Henry’s Law (Example What pressure of nitrogen is required to keep the
12.2) nitrogen concentration in a bottle of water at 0.12 M
at 25 °C? Is this a reasonable value?

Sort Given S nitrogen = 0.012 M

You are given the solubility of nitrogen and asked to Find P nitrogen
find the pressure required to achieve this solubility.

Strategize Conceptual Plan

Use Henry’s law to find the required pressure from S nitrogen  P nitrogen
the solubility. You will need the Henry’s law
constant for nitrogen. S nitrogen = k H P nitrogen

Relationships Used

S gas = k H P gas (Henry’s law)

k H (nitrogen) = 6.1  104 M/atm (from Table 12.4)

Solve Solution

Solve the Henry’s law equation for P nitrogen and SN2  kH, N2  PN2
substitute the other quantities to compute it.
SN2
PN2 
kH, N2
0.12 M

6.1 104 M/atm
 197 atm
Check The units (atm) are correct. The magnitude of the
answer (197) seems correct, because the
concentration requested is the same as the one in a
previous example for carbon dioxide, but CO 2 is far
more soluble than nitrogen. The outcome is not a
reasonable pressure of nitrogen to use because it is
dangerously high.

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 Chapter 12. Solutions

Additional Problem for Calculating A solution is prepared by dissolving 114 g of glucose

Concentrations (Example 12.4) (C 6 H 12 O 6 ) in 0.500 kg of water. The final volume of the
solution is 590 mL. Calculate each value for this
solution: a) molarity b) molality c) percent by mass

d) mole fraction e) mole percent.

Molarity 1 mol C6H12O6

mol C6H12O6 = 114 g C6H12O6  = 0.633 mol
180 g C6H12O6
To calculate molarity, first find the amount of
glucose in moles from the mass and molar
amount solute (in mol)
mass. Molarity (M) =
volume solution (in L)
Then divide the amount in moles by the volume 0.633 mol C6H12O6
of the solution in liters. =
0.590 L H2O
= 1.07 M

Molality amount solute (in mol)

Molality (m) =
amount solvent (in kg)
To calculate molality, use the amount of
glucose in moles and divide by the mass of 0.633 mol C6H12O6
=
water in kilograms. 0.500 kg
= 1.27 m

Percent by Mass mass solute

Percent by mass =  100%
mass solution
To calculate the percent by mass, divide the
114 g
mass of the solute glucose by the sum of the =  100%
masses of the solute and the solvent (water) 114 g + 500 g
and multiply by 100%. = 18.6 %

Mole Fraction 1 mol H2O

mol H2O = 500 g H2O  = 27.75 mol
18.02 g H2O
To calculate the mole fraction, first determine
the amount of water in moles from the mass of
nsolute
water and its molar mass.  solute =
nsolute + nsolvent
0.633 mol
=
0.633 mol + 27.75 mol
Then divide the amount of glucose in moles by
the total number of moles. = 0.0223

Mole Percent mol % = n solute x 100%

To calculate the mole percent, multiply the = 0.0223 x 100%

mole fraction by 100%.
= 2.23%

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Chapter 12. Solutions

Additional Problem for Boiling Point A solution is prepared from 445 g of ethylene glycol
Elevation (Example 12.9) (C 2 H 6 O 2 ) and 500 g of water. This solution represents
one that is 50% by volume ethylene glycol. At what
temperature will the water in this solution boil?

Sort Given 445 g of ethylene glycol

You are given the mass of the solute ethylene 500 g of water
glycol and the mass of the water solvent. You
are asked to find the new boiling point. Find boiling point of water in solution

Strategize Conceptual Plan

You need the molality of the solution to calculate
the boiling point elevation. First, calculate the
number of moles of ethylene glycol using its
mass and molar mass.
Next, calculate the molality of the solution using
the moles of solute and mass of solvent water.
  g C 2 H 6 O 2               mol C 2 H 6 O 2                molality 
              1 mol C2H6O2                mol C2H6O2  
62.07 g C2H6O2 kg H2O
  molality               T b                 boiling point 
              T b  = m  K b         bp = 100 °C + T b       
Relationships Used

Calculate the boiling point elevation and add it to 1 mol C 2 H 6 O 2  = 62.07 g C 2 H 6 O 2 

the normal boiling point of water. T b                  = m  K b          
K b  (water)       = 0.512 °C/m 
bp                   = 100 °C + T b   
Solve Solution

Follow the conceptual plan. 1 mol C2H6O2

mol C2H6O2 = 445 g C2H6O2  = 7.17 mol
62.07 g C2H6O2

Calculate the number of moles of ethylene glycol amount solute (in mol)
Molality (m) =
and then the molality. amount solvent (in kg)
7.17 mol C2H6O2
=
0.500 kg
= 14.3 m

Determine the boiling point elevation and add it Tb = m  K b

to the normal boiling point of water.
0.512 oC
= 17.3 m 
m
= 8.86 oC

bp = 100 °C + 8.86 °C

= 109 °C

Check The units are correct. The magnitude of the answer

(109) seems to make physical sense.

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 Chapter 12. Solutions

Additional Problem for Calculating the Vapor
Pressure of a Solution Containing an Ionic
Solute (Example 12.12)
A solution contains 0.481 mol of Na 2 SO 4 and
10.0 mol water. Calculate the vapor pressure of the
solution at 25 °C. The vapor pressure of pure water
at 25 °C is 23.8 torr.

Sort Given 0.481 mol Na 2 SO 4

You are given the number of moles of each 10.0 mol water
component of a solution and asked to find the vapor
pressure of the solution. You are also given the Po water = 23.8 torr at 25 °C
vapor pressure of pure water at the desired
pressure. Find P solution

Strategize Conceptual Plan

Use Raoult’s law to solve this problem. Calculate  water & Po water  P solution
 solvent from the given amounts of solute and
solvent. P solution =  water  Po water

The key to the problem is to understand the Relationships Used

dissociation of sodium sulfate.
P solution =  water  Po water

Solve Solution

Write an equation for the dissociation of sodium Na 2 SO 4 (s)  2 Na+(aq) + SO 4 2(aq)

sulfate.
nH2O
H O =
2
nH2O + (3  nNa2SO4 )
Since one mole of sodium sulfate dissociates into 10.0 mol
three moles of ions, the total number of moles of =
10.0 mol + (3  0.481 mol)
solute must be multiplied by 3 when computing the
= 0.874
mole fraction.

Use the mole fraction of water and vapor pressure P solution =  water  Po water
of pure water to compute the vapor pressure of the
= 0.874  23.8 torr
solution.
= 20.8 torr

Check The units of the answer (torr) are correct. The

magnitude of the answer (20.8) makes physical
sense since water dominates the mole fraction.
The vapor pressure of the solution is very similar to
pure water.

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