A SHORT OVERVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR

PASSIVE + INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS

Study the list of infinitive forms given in the table below:

Simple Infinitive to study

Continuous Infinitive to be studying
Perfect Infinitive to have studied
Perfect Continuous Infinitive to have been studying

1. The four types of passive + infinitive constructions are based on the type of the infinitive
which is being used:

TYPE 1
a. People say that Auguste Comte is the father of sociology.
Auguste Comte is said TO BE over one hundred years old.
(Passive + Simple Infinitive)

TYPE 2
b. They believe that he is hiding in the USA now.
He is believed TO BE HIDING in the USA now.
(Passive + Continuous Infinitive)

TYPE 3
c. They claim that Pythagoras lived in a cave.
Pythagoras is claimed TO HAVE LIVED in a cave.
(Passive +Perfect Infinitive)

TYPE 4
d. People think that he was suffering from an unknown disease.
He is thought TO HAVE BEEN SUFFERING from an unknown disease.
(Passive + Perfect Continuous Infinitive)

2. General patterns of use:

a. to refer to the present or future we use the Simple Infinitive:

They expect that the research will yield significant results.

The research is expected TO YIELD significant results.

They don’t think that this is the original document.

This is not thought TO BE the original document.

b. to refer to an activity in progress at the moment of speaking we use the Continuous

Infinitive:

They believe that he is trying to hide his true identity.

He is believed TO BE TRYING to hide his true identity.

c. to refer to the past we use the Perfect Infinitive:

They claim that Plato wrote The Republic around 380 BC.
Plato is claimed TO HAVE WRITTEN The Republic around 380 BC.

They claim that The Republic was written around 380 BC. (passive)
The Republic is claimed TO HAVE BEEN WRITTEN around 380 BC. (passive perfect infinitive)

d. to refer to an activity in progress in the past we use the Perfect Continuous Infinitive:

People believe that Diogenes was walking with a lantern in search of an honest man.
Diogenes is believed TO HAVE BEEN WALKING with a lantern in search of an honest man.

3. An overview of possible combinations:

ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE + INFINITIVE

1. They think/claim/believe/say that he He is thought/claimed/believed/said
+ +
the Present Simple Tense TO + INFINITIVE
or (Simple Infinitive)
the Future Simple Tense
2. They think/claim/believe/say that he He is thought/claimed/believed/said
+ +
the Present Continuous Tense TO + BE + verb-ING
(Continuous Infinitive)
3. They think/claim/believe/say that he He is thought/claimed/believed/said
+ +
the Past Simple Tense TO + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE
or (Perfect Infinitive)
the Present Perfect Simple Tense
4. They think/claim/believe/say that he He is thought/claimed/believed/said
+ +
the Past Continuous Tense TO + HAVE + BEEN + verb-ING
or (Perfect Continuous Infinitive)
the Present Perfect Continuous Tense

An overview of the relevant modal verbs is given in the table below:
Modal Function
to show ability
to suggest a possibility or
give an option
Can
to ask for or to give
permission
to show impossibility
Could
to show past ability
to ask a polite question
to show possibility
to show uncertainty or
weak possibility
to suggest a
possibility/opportunity or
give an option
May to ask for or give
permission (formal)
to show possibility
*may expresses stronger
possibility than might
Might
to show weak possibility
Should
to show advisability
to show obligation
to show expectation
Must to show strong possibility
or logical assumption
MODAL VERBS
Form in the present Form in the past
I can type without looking at I could type without looking at
the keyboard. the keyboard when I was just 10
Come on, keep trying, you can years old.
do this!
Students can apply for this
scholarship until the end of
September.
Can you give me a call after
the meeting?
You can leave those files on
my desk.
This cannot (can’t) be the
original document. I’m sure
it’s a copy.
I could type without looking at
the keyboard when I was just 10
years old.
Could you give me a call after
the meeting?
This could happen to you too. That could have happened to
you too. (but it didn’t)
This could not (couldn’t) be Those events could not have
the right. The dates are all happened simultaneously.
mixed up.
You could apply for that You could have applied for that
scholarship. scholarship.
May I call you after the
meeting?
He doesn’t speak English so He may not have understood
he may not understand everything you said.
everything you say.
He might not understand He might not have understood
what you are saying. what you were saying.
You should apply for that You should have applied for
scholarship. that scholarship.
I should renew my library I should have renewed my
membership card. library membership card.
You should receive their reply You should have received their
in two days. reply two days ago.
This must be a mistake. I’ll They apologized and said that it
check once again. must have been a mistake.
 to show personal
obligation
to show prohibition
Have to to show external
obligation
to show lack of necessity
Will to make a promise or show
willingness
to ask a polite question
Would
to ask a polite question
to indicate a repeated
action in the past
to indicate future time in
the sentence that is in the
past (reported speech)
Would
rather to show preference
I must send this e-mail I had to send that e-mail
immediately. immediately.
Whatever you do, you must
not (mustn’t) touch that
switch. It’s very dangerous.
We have to attend classes When I was a student, we had to
regularly. attend all classes regularly.
I am glad I do not have to do He offered his assistance so I did
all the work myself. not have to do all the work
myself.
I will help you with this
research project.
Will you help me with this
research project?
Would you help me with this
research project?
He would work during the day
and then study for the exams
afterwards.
He promised he would help me
complete that research project.
I would rather stay at home
than go out with friends
tonight.

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

Conditional sentences describe the result of something that might happen (in the present or
future) or might have happened but didn’t (in the past). There are four types of conditional
sentences:

1. Zero Conditional
2. First Conditional
3. Second Conditional
4. Third Conditional

THE ZERO CONDITIONAL

The sentences of the Zero Conditional are general facts or things that are always true and the
consequence always follows the event. The Zero Conditional is formed of:

IF-CLAUSE (PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE) … MAIN CLAUSE (PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE)

as the following sentences illustrate:

If you heat ice, it melts.

If you lie, you lose credibility.
If you tell the truth, you don’t have to remember anything.

In statements like this, IF means the same as WHEN(EVER) or EVERY TIME.

THE FIRST CONDITIONAL

In the First Conditional the speaker sees the event as a real possibility where the future events
are very likely to happen. The if-clause states the condition and the main clause states the result.
The First Conditional is formed of:

IF-CLAUSE (PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE) … MAIN CLAUSE (WILL + INFINITIVE)

as the following sentences illustrate:

If we work hard (condition), we will finish this project on time (result).

If I get up early tomorrow (condition), I will not (won’t) be late for class. (result).
If you actively participate in class (condition), you will get additional points (result).

In the First Conditional we can also use the imperative or modal verbs (may, must, can, etc.) in
the main clause instead of will + infinitive:

If you need my help, give me a call. (imperative)

If I finish work on time, we can meet at 5.30. (modal verb)

THE SECOND CONDITIONAL

The Second Conditional is used to refer to an action or state we imagine or when the speaker sees
the event as a remote (or an unlikely) possibility. The Second Conditional is formed of:

IF-CLAUSE (PAST SIMPLE TENSE) … MAIN CLAUSE (WOULD + INFINITIVE)

as the following sentences illustrate:

If this weren’t so expensive (condition), I would buy it (result).

(But it is expensive and I will not buy it)
If he lost his job tomorrow (condition), he would move back to his parents’ house (result).
(He does not think that he will lose his job, but he understands the possible consequences)

In the first sentence we are talking about the present and imagining a situation that is different
from reality. In the second sentence we are talking about a possible event in the future. The Past
Simple Tense form of the verbs in the if-clauses represents the attitude of the speaker towards the
condition - it does not represent time.

In the Second Conditional it is also possible to use could instead of would:

He would/could apply for this job if he had the appropriate qualifications.
We do not use would in the if-clause:
If he would have the appropriate qualifications he would apply for the job.
But, in the sentence:
We would be very grateful if you would send us the application form as soon as possible.
would in would send is a modal verb and represents a more polite form of will. It introduces the
idea of our being willing to do what is suggested.

THE THIRD CONDITIONAL

We use the Third Conditional to imagine how things could have been different in the past, i.e.
to talk about something in the past that did not happen. The Third Conditional is formed of:

IF-CLAUSE (PAST PERFECT) … MAIN CLAUSE (WOULD + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE)

as the following sample sentences illustrate:

If you had told me I would have remembered. (but you didn’t tell me and I didn’t remember)
If he had not (hadn’t) been so tired, he would not (wouldn’t) have made such a mistake. (but
he was tired and this is why he made such a mistake.)
If I had known that overtime work wasn’t paid, I would have quit that job right away.
(but I didn’t know that overtime work wasn’t paid and this is why I didn’t quit that job right away)

In the Third Conditional it is also possible to use could instead of would:

If I had known that the deadline was postponed, I would/could have applied for that job.

INDIRECT (REPORTED) SPEECH

When we report someone’s words we can do it in two ways. We can use direct speech with
quotation marks (‘I work in a museum’, she said.), or we can use reported speech (She said that
she worked in a museum).

STATEMENTS

We report statements using the reporting verb SAY. The tenses usually ‘move back in time’ as
illustrated below:

Direct speech Indirect (Reported) speech

Present Simple Tense
“I have an exam tomorrow.”
Present Continuous Tense
“I am studying for the upcoming exam.”
Past Simple Tense
Past Simple Tense
He said that he had an exam the following day.
Past Continuous Tense
He said he was studying for the upcoming exam.
Past Perfect Simple Tense
 “I had an exam yesterday.” He said that he had had an exam the day before.
Past Continuous Tense Past Perfect Continuous Tense
“I was studying for the exam.” He said that he had been studying for the exam.
Present Perfect Simple Tense Past Perfect Simple Tense
“I have seen this documentary many times .”
He said that he had seen that documentary many times.
Present Perfect Continuous Tense Past Perfect Continuous Tense
“I have been studying a lot lately.” He said that he had been studying a lot lately.
Past Perfect Simple Tense Past Perfect Simple Tense
“I had just graduated before my trip to the
He said that he had just graduated before his trip the
USA in 2019.” USA in 2019.
will/can/may would/could/might
“This document will/can/may some provideHe said that this document would/could/might provide
additional information.” some additional information.
First Conditional Second Conditional
“We will finish the project if we work hard.”
He said that they would finish the project if they worked
hard.
Second Conditional Third Conditional
“I would apply for the job if I had the He said she would have applied for the job if she had
appropriate qualifications.” had the appropriate qualifications.

Apart from the shift in tenses, reported speech requires other changes as well:

Direct speech Indirect (Reported) Speech

now then, at that time
today that day
yesterday the day before yesterday / the day before
last week the week before / the previous week
next week the week after/the following week
tomorrow the next day / the following day
now then, at that time
this the/that
these those

COMMANDS AND REQUESTS

We report the commands and requests using TELL or ASK and the INFINITIVE WITHOUT TO.
An indirect negative command or request is expressed by a NEGATIVE INFINITIVE:

Direct Command Reported Command Direct Request Reported Request

“Tell me the truth!” She told him to tell her the “Be quiet, please.” He asked us to be quiet.
truth.
“Don’t lie to me!” She told him not to lie to “Please don’t shout!” He asked us not to shout.
her.

WH-QUESTIONS
Reported WH-questions contain the WH-question word (i.e. WHO, WHERE, WHICH, WHY,
WHEN, HOW, HOW MUCH, etc.) and the word order changes from VERB → SUBJECT to
SUBJECT → VERB:

Direct WH - question Reported WH - question

“What do you think about this proposal?” She asked me what I thought about that proposal.
“What are you doing?” She asked me what I was doing.
“When did they announce the test results?” She asked me when they had announced the test results.

YES/NO QUESTIONS

In the reported YES/NO questions, we use IF or WHETHER and the word order once again
changes from VERB → SUBJECT to SUBJECT → VERB:

Direct YES/NO question Reported YES/NO question

“Have you ever read any of Plato’s works?” She asked me if I had ever read any of Plato’s works.
“Is this your final decision?” She asked me if that was my final decision.