Basics of Genetics and

Reproduction

Silvie Neradilová
neradilova@ftz.czu.cz
Office: FTZ 338
 = an agricultural branch focused on
animal breeding and animal products
since the beginning of the domestication
 = technology of animal husbandry
 Basic biological discipline
 Zootechnics division: general
(descriptive) and special (practical)
 Taxonomy = a branch of science that encompasses the description,
identification and classification of organisms
 Species – basic zoological taxonomical unit
◦ A species refers to a group of living organisms that have similar
characteristics and breed to produce a fertile offspring.
 Breed – basic zootechnical taxonomical unit
◦ A breed is a specific group of domestic animals having homogeneous
appearance (phenotype), homogeneous behavior, and/or other
characteristics that distinguish it from other organisms of the same
species.
 Population – all the organisms of the same group or species, which live in a
particular geographical area, and have the capability of interbreeding
 Stud male – a male chosen for breeding
 Stud female – a female chosen for breeding
 Line – population of animals originating from a common ancestor
 Heifer – a young female cow before she has her first calf
 = the study of heredity and the variation of
inherited characteristics
◦ DNA
◦ Chromosome
◦ Gene
◦ Allele
◦ Locus
◦ Mutation
◦ Heredity
 Composes of two chains - double
helix – made of sugars (deoxyribose)
and phosphates (phosphodiester
bonds)
 Nucleotides – adenine, thymine,
guanine, cytosine
 Nucleotides make pairs – AT, CG;
hydrogen bonds
 Nuclear x mitochondrial DNA
 DNA concentrates into chromosomes during cell
division – visible by microscope
 Constriction point - the centromere - divides the
chromosome into two sections, or “arms.” The
location of the centromere on each chromosome
gives the chromosome its characteristic shape, and
can be used to help describe the location of
specific genes.
 human – 23 pairs
 dog – 39 pairs
 cow – 30 pairs
 plants - dozens of pairs
 = a unit of heredity which is transferred from a parent to
offspring and is held to determine some characteristic of
the offspring
 = basic physical and functional unit of heredity
 Some code proteins (1-2%) most of them don´t (98-99%
- regulation functions or no function at all)
 Humans – cca 25 000 genes
 Every person has two copies of each gene, one inherited
from each parent. Most genes are the same in all people,
but a small number of genes (less than 1% of the total)
are slightly different among people.
 = Gene variants
 Alleles are forms of the same gene with
small differences in their sequence of DNA
bases. These differences contribute to each
person’s unique physical features
 Dominant homozygote, recessive
homozygote, heterozygote
 Place on chromosome where the
gene/alelle/mutation… is
 Single nucleotide, insertion, deletion
 Mutation in coding part of DNA = protein is
not working properly/at all
 Mutation ensures genetic variability of each
individual but also causes degenetic diseases
 Always 50% of genetic information goes
from father and 50% from mother
 Animal breeding – systematic improvement of traits and
characteristics by changing their gene pool
◦ Realized in two basic steps:
 Selection of suitable males and females as parental
individuals
 Breeding Method – system of mating of the parental
individuals

 Legislation control of the animal breeding in the Czech

Republic: Plemenářský zákon – 154/2000 Sb. o šlechtění,
plemenitbě a evidenci hospodářských zvířat
 Choice of a suitable parents of the next
generation
 Change in gene frequency of the next
generation
 Division of selection:
◦ Natural – choice of individuals that cope the
best with the natural conditions they live in
◦ Artificial – made by breeder – choice based
on phenotype
◦ Positive – choice of the best
animals in the population in
the direction from the best to
the average
◦ Negative – exclusion of the
animals with the worst trait
development
◦ Preliminary – according to
the origin, exterior
◦ Main – according to the yield
(užitkovosti) of the individual
◦ Final – according to the yield
of their offspring – control of
heritability
 = systematic reproduction of animals in order to achieve a
maximal genetic gain of traits and characteristics
underlying use of the animals
 Decision based on breeding value and selection
 Breeding value (plemenná hodnota) = characterizes a
genetic quality of animals, deviation from an average

 Types of breeding systems:

 Straightbreeding (pure-breeding) – mating of individuals of
one breed
◦ Inbreeding (příbuzenská plemenitba), line-breeding
(liniová plemenitba)
 Cross-breeding – matings of individuals of different breeds
◦ Different aims – change of traits/genes; transition of one
breed to another; combination of different breeds to
create a new one
 = mating of closely related individuals
 Increased genetic „purity“ of the offspring
 Increases homozygosity of the population
 If too close or if the inbred matings last too long – lower
fitness of the population following inbred depression
(recessive genetic diseases occur)
 Examples:
◦ Arabian horse
 4 500 years ago
 Created using only 5 females
◦ Cheetah
 Extremely inbred population but still
viable
  = mating of related individuals; form of inbreeding
 Increased genetic „purity“ of the offspring
 Increases homozygosity of the line
 Some breeds bred as maternal and paternal lines
◦ Offspring better than parents = heterosis, hybrid vigor (heterózní
efekt)
 Example:
◦ Dogs: Cesky Fousek
 9 lines named according to the initial kennels
◦ Pigs: Chester White – maternal breed, Duroc – paternal breed
◦ Belgian Blue cattle (gene mutation maintained through linebreeding)
 Extreme musculature
 Complicated parturitions

Chester White Duroc

 „No reproduction, no production“
 Fertility – basic biological and yield character
◦ Presumption for milk production, meat production and production
of other animal products
◦ = ability of males and females produce healthy offspring in
optimal number in certain time
◦ Fertility of males – ability of production of high-quality ejaculate
and its insertion into the female reproduction tract
◦ Fertility of females – ability of regular reproduction – regular
reproduction cycle, ability of conception and delivery of healthy
and viable progeny
 Creation of a new organism – junction of two gametes: sperm and
oocyte  a zygote is created as a foundation of a new individual
 Puberty – period of time when the sexual maturity begins;
higher production of sexual hormones
 Peak of puberty:
◦ Males – beginning of spermatogenesis – production of sperm capable of
fertilization
◦ Females – first ovulation – releasing of an oocyte capable of being
fertilized
 Sexual maturity is influenced by: species, breed, genotype,
gender, nutrition, climatic conditions
 Sexual maturity ≠ physical maturity – breeding is not possible
 Risks in females: slowing down/interruption of growth, dystokia
(problematic parturition; ztížený porod), lower fitness and
viability of the progeny
Species Gender Sexual Breeding Breeding
maturity (mo.) maturity (mo.) maturity (kg)

Cattle male 6-8 12-14 -

female 6-8 15-20 400
Pig male 4-8 12 -
female 4-8 8-12 120
Sheep male 4-6 12-15 -
female 5-12 10-24 35-50
Goat male 6-8 12-15 -
female 6-8 12-15 35
Horse male 8-16 36-52 -
female 6-12 36-48 -
 Function of reproductive organs is creation of sperm cells
and additional parts of ejaculate and its delivery into the
reproduction tract of a female
 Reproduction organs: testicles, perididimys (nadvarle), vas
deferens (chámovod), additional reproductive glands, penis
 Sex hormone – testosterone – determination of
outer male expression and reproductive behavior
 Ejaculate – sperm, plasma from additional glands
 Proportion of the sperm part and plasma part
depends on a species
 Fertilization ability of a sperm: cattle 24-48
hours, sheep 24-48 hours, horse 144 hours,
poultry several weeks
 Capacitation – the sperm gets mature by getting
into the females reproduction tract
Rut, heat – outer expression of ovulation;
outer manifestation is restlessness of a
female until she is willing to accept a male;
genitals are full of blood, cervix is open,
mucus goes out of the female´s body, reflex
of immobility
 Oestrus rhythm depends on a species:
◦ Monoestric animals –1x year (wild animals, deer)
◦ Diestric –2x year (dog, cat)
◦ Polyestric – multiple times/year (mare, cow, sow, ewe,
goat) ; every 21 days
 Mare, goat, ewe – they tend to be seasonal with cycling
during spring and fall
 Sex hormone –
oestrogen – produced
by follicles and controls
reproduction cycle
 Oocyte – from ovaries
goes to uterus
 Fertilized oocyte
implants itself onto the
endometrium (walls of
uterus) and develops
into foetus
 Natural matings:
 free – females in the herd with one or more males; mating
happens when oestrus occurs
◦ Time of mating/conception is unknown, unknown date of
delivery, high fertility rate
◦ Used in primitive breeding conditions
 group (harem) – herd divided into smaller groups of females,
each group gets one male for one mating season
◦ It is necessary to watch fertility of the male
◦ Used in sheep and meat cattle
 „from hand“ – males and females bred separately and brought to
the place of mating „on hand“ – under breeders control
◦ Precise evidence, choice of specific parents
◦ Looking for females in heat in advance
◦ Video-horses; Video-alpacas
= a controlled way of reproduction consisting of taking
and examination of ejaculate, making of insemination
doses and their insertion into a female´s reproductive
organs
The most successful biotechnological method – only a
small amount of ejaculate is needed for a successful
conception
 Ejaculate diluted – multiple doses
 Lower need of stud males
 Significant is health and hygienic viewpoint
 Nowadays – insemination in all livestock species
(including bees !!!) – cattle 95%, pigs 75%
 1. obtaining and examination of ejaculate – simulation of
mating using an artificial vagina, lab examination
(concentration, movement, etc.) Horse
 2. processing and conservation of insemination doses
(ID) – dilution of ejaculate  division into ID 
cryoconservation – conservation in liquid nitrogen (-196
°C)
 3. insemination itself – insertion of ID into the
reproductive organs of a female – insemination pipette
Video-cow
 Reliable detection is one of the most important
things if you want to successfully breed a livestock
 Methods: searching for a typical behavior and
changes on reproduction organs – visual method –
in regular intervals
◦ Pedometers
◦ Dye
◦ Modern technologies – cameras
◦ Hormonal analyses
◦ Crystallisation of cervical mucus
◦ Oestrometer
◦ Sonograph
◦ Pressure detectors
◦ Using of assayers or androgenised females
 Gravidity – physiological state of females when one or
more embryos are developing in her uterus
 Begins with nidation/implementation of fertilized oocyte
and ends with delivery(parturition)
 Biotechnical methods – oestrus synchronization,
insemination, embryotransfer
 Length of gravidity depends on species and breed
 COW 285 days, PIG 115 days, SHEEP and GOAT 150
days, MARE 330 to 345 (333 days).
 Detection of pregnancy: we need to confirm pregnancy as
soon as possible
◦ Ultrasound, palpation per rectum, examination of belly; lab
methods – hormonal analyses, imunomethods, etc.
 Ontogeny (ontogeneze)
 Growth = changes of quantitative character –
multiplication and growth of cells, tissues and organs –
outer demonstration is increasing of weight, volume and
size of the animal
 Development = changes of qualitative character –
functional differentiation of cells, tissues and organs
 Development stages:
 Prenatal stage: before birth
◦ Embryo period – starts with embryo creation
and ends with creation of foetus
◦ Fetus period – starts with finishing of tissue and
organ differentiation and ends with delivery
 After -birth stage
◦ Begins with birth (hatching) of the animal and ends with
its death
◦ Division:
 1. milk-food period – colostrum and maternal milk
(substitute milk)
 2. period of weaning (odstav) and firm-food
 3. period of puberty
 4. period of breeding maturity
 5. period of body maturity
 6. period of old age and death