Digestive physiology & feeding

of livestock

D R T E R S I A N E E D H A M
N E E D H A M @ F T Z . C Z U . C Z
Who are you?
• Tersia Needham, Ph.D.
• Animal Scientist

• Contact details:
• FTA Pavilion Room 336

• needham@ftz.czu.cz
Introduction
• Objective: feed → animal product

• Challenges in the tropics:

• Low efficiency
• Low quality → high biological value (ruminants)
• Use of marginal land
• Optimize local resources

• Factors to consider:
• Choice of livestock
• Soil & forage quality → seasonality
• Management (complementary with crops to ↑ total
productivity)
Digestive Physiology
• Different species are adapted to different environments:
• Different feeding habits

• Digestive tracts

• Nutritional requirements

• Choice of animal for a particular environment & how its fed:

• Digestive physiology!

• Three basic types of digestive systems:

• Monogastric

• Ruminant

• Hindgut fermenters
 1. Mouth

2. Stomach
• Simple or chambered

The Digestive 3. Small intestine

Tract • Duodenum, jejunum & ileum

4. Large intestine
• Cecum, colon & rectum
 • Chewing of consumed feed:
• Different dentition for different species

• Papillae & tongue direct food

• Mechanical digestion

• Chemical digestion:

The Mouth • Mixing with saliva = enzyme alpha-amalyse

• Rumination process
• Repeated mechanical & chemical digestion
• pH buffering
• Salvia is rich in bicarbonate, phosphate &
ions
 • Chemical & mechanical reduction of feed
particles
• Chyme = “juiced” feed particles

• Glands in the mucosa layer secretes

The (simple) gastric juices

stomach • Peristaltic movements move particles to

the front & back

• Passes through the pyloric sphincter into

the duodenum
 • Further mixing of chyme with digestion juices
• Secretions from pancreas, duodenal juice, succus
entericus and bile

• Absorption through microvilli

• Carbohydrates & fat mainly digested +

The Small absorbed here

Intestine • Exception! Cellulose, hemicellulose & lignified

plant tissue

• When digestion mass reaches the colon most

of the hydrolysed feed particles have been
absorbed
 • Fiber digestion by microorganisms in the
cecum
• Bacteria are proteolytic

• Enlarged cecum

The Large • Improve fiber digestion through microbial

digestion
Intestine • Efficiency depends on the species

• Mass peristaltic activity through

movement of thick muscle wall
• Occurs 3-4 times a day
• Important role in excretion
 The Ruminant Digestive Tract
1. Rumen:
• Primary site of fermentation
• Size of rumen varies (age & size)
• 4 to 10 L sheep and 100 to 300 L cattle

• Adult rumen = 80% of total stomach volume

2. Reticulum

3. Omasum:
• Absorbs volatile fatty acids

4. Abomasum: “true stomach”

But first, the Mouth
 1. Rumen
• Stratified epithelium = tight mass of papillae
• Development as active microbe population accumulates

• Protein, fat & carbohydrates modified by

microbes
• Fermentation of carbohydrates = CO2 & methane
• Gas escapes through eructation or else bloat!

• Carbohydrate rich rations = accumulation of

lactic acid in rumen
• Increase propionate acid & decrease in rumen pH =
acidosis!!!!

• Protein digestion
• Protected vs unprotected
• Microbial protein & use of urea
Roles of microbes in the rumen
• Digestion of cellulose

• Synthesis of ammonia and amino-acids

• Synthesis of water-soluble vitamins B

• Protein, fat and carbohydrates modified in the rumen

• Carbohydrates – hydrolysed to dextrines, sugars & volatile fatty
acids
• Acetic acid, proprionate, butyric acid

• PROBLEM!!! Carbohydrate rich rations fed

• Cause an accumulation of lactic acid in rumen
• Increases propionate acid = decrease in rumen pH
• Acidosis!!!!
Overview of protein digestion in ruminants
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 Rumination

• After grazing, ruminant will lie down or stand to ruminate

• 7 - 8 hours per day

• Material exchanged between rumen and reticulum

• Strong contractions from the reticulum:

• Liquid material pushed against esophagus opening
• Material goes into the mouth via vacuum produced
• Rough particles get chewed again 40 to 60 times
• Mixing with saliva again
But what about the young
ruminant?
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Development of ruminant digestive system

• Newborn animal: rumen non-functional

• Colostrum after birth, then suckling or feeding using milk or substitutes

• After birth rumen-reticulum is half the size of the abomasum

• First few weeks, digestion occurs mainly in the stomach and duodenum
• Milk is the only food

• Passes from the esophageal groove (stretches from the cardia to reticulo-omasal
opening) to the abomasum

• Ingestion of material important for establishment of microbial population

• Good quality roughage
• Concentrate feed = creep feed
Esophageal Groove Formation

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A33EWIrQhM0
 2. Recticulum
• Optimal conditions
• Anaerobic conditions
• Temperature 38 to 42 ºC
• pH of 6.5 (saliva)

• Millions of micro-organisms
• Necessary nutrients not found in plants provided
by the saliva

• Controls fine particle movement into omasum

• Removes waste products

Omasum, Abomasum &
Intestines
• Omasum absorbs volatile fatty acids & ammonia

• Abomasum = “gastric compartment”:

• Equivalent of monogastric stomach
• Acids & enzymes
• Digests rumen microbes

• Small intestine = digestion & absorption

• Large intestine:
• Fermentation
• Water absorption
 Anatomy of pig’s digestive system

• Good sense of taste = palatability of feed!!!

• Simple stomach

• Enlarged cecum
• Undigested protein broken into skatole, indole,
phenol, fatty acids, H2S and amino acids
• Less digestion of cellulose & structural carbohydrates
compared to horse
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Piglets
• Small stomach
• Frequent sucking (12 – 14/day)

• Digestive capacity increases with age

• Large intestine matures slower - digest fibrous feeds better in direct relation to its age

• Immune system
• Colostrum (sharp decline of gamaglobulines 10 – 12 hours after birth)

• Formation of antibodies after 3 weeks

• Thermoregulation
• Piglet at birth insufficiently developed, physical thermoregulation from 3rd week
Development of digestive system in piglets
 Chicken’s digestive tract

• Beak & claws = partial reduction of feed

• Crop

• Proventriculus

• Gizzard

• Small intestine

• Caeca & large intestine

• Cloaca
 • Enlarged cecum
• Blind pouch branching off from small intestine
• Microbial digestion of fibre into volatile fatty acids

• First time = formation of caecotrophes

Digestive • Eaten again….yeah…

Physiology of
• Usually in the morning, depending on feeding

• Second time = formation of pellet

Rabbits • Expelled & not eaten
So, what does this all mean?
• Different animals have different feed requirements because of their differing digestive
physiology:
• Chemical composition

• Processing

• Form

• Amount

• How do we know what they require?

• Feeding manuals

• Digestibility studies

• Carcass composition studies

What is food / feed?
Animal Nutrition
• Food:
• Material that digests after voluntarily intake, which is then absorbed & utilized within the
body

• Nutrients:
• Components capable of being utilized by the animal

• Diets of farm animals consists mainly of plants & plant products

• Roughage vs concentrates

• Water functions as a solvent

 Water Proteins

Organic
material Carbohydrates

Feed
Lipids

Nucleic acids

Organic acids
Dry matter

Vitamins

Inorganic
Minerals
material

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How do we determine this?

• Proximate analysis:
• 6 fractions
• Moisture, ash, crude protein, ether extract, crude fiber,
nitrogen-free extract
• Most extensive information on food composition

• Near infrared spectroscopy

• Different wavelengths of infrared rays sent through feed
samples

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Proximate analysis of feed

• Moisture:

• Loss in weight after drying a known weight of food to constant weight at 100 °C = DM content

• Ash

• Ignition of known weight of food at 550 °C until all carbon has been removed = Mineral content

• Lipid extract:

• Continuous extraction & evap = Fat content

• Crude protein: various methods to determine N content

• Nitrogen value x 6.25 = approximate protein value (NOT TRUE PROTEIN)

• Crude fiber:

• Boiling acid & alkali of defined concentration = Organic residue (carbohydrates)

• Neutral detergent fibre (NDF) = lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose (plant cell wall material)

• Acid-detergent fibre (ADF) = crude lignin, cellulose, silica = direct correlation with digestibility of food
 • Vital!!!

• Free water, metabolic water & feed water

• Water requirement varies

• Age, species & breeds
• Bos taurus vs Bos indicus
• Buffalo & pigs intolerant

Water • Season
• Production
• Activity

• Generally not an issue in humid tropics, but DM

intake rather an issue

• Dry tropics: mineral content can be an issue in

some seasons
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 Dry matter

• Forage material: main DM = carbohydrates (energy)

• Cellulose, hemicellulose & pectin
• Composition varies between species

• Oilseeds: main DM component = protein & lipids

• Animal material = low carb but high protein & lipid

 Proteins
• Found in all living cells → cell activity, structure, enzyme functioning

• Crude protein refers to the nitrogenous compounds in feed:

• Average nitrogen content of a protein averages 16%, CP is calculated as (N x 6.25)

• Plant feeds:
• Protein is concentrated in active growing portions (leaves & seeds)

• Essential vs non-essential AAs (important in monogastrics!)

• Animal source generally better balanced

• Use of by-pass protein & urea in ruminants

 Carbohydrates
Major source of energy in the animal body (diets: 70-80% carbohydrates)

• Essential components:
• Components of milk as lactose

• Maintain the glucose level of plasma & stored as glycogen in muscles

• Excess is converted into fat and stored

• Ability of animals to digest fiber (roughages) depend on microbes & anatomy

• Energy substrate for microbes

• Important fiber for ruminants (buffalo, sheep & goats > cattle)
 Lipids
• Includes true fats, lipoids and sterols
• Energy source & storage:
• Produces more heat than carbohydrates (HEAT STRESS)

• Binder in animal feeds & can use for ruminant protection (STORAGE):
• Unsaturated fatty acids – liquid at room temperatures
• Saturated fatty acids – solid at room temperatures

• Essential fatty acids = Linoleic (oilseeds) and a-Linolenic (linseed):

• Mammals cannot synthesize these

• Dietary composition important for monogastrics!!

• Hormones (repro), fat-sol vitamins, energy storage
 • Chemical elements other than C, O, and
N are called minerals
• Major element (< 100mg/kg) & trace
elements (< 50mg/kg)
• Fluctuation in mineral content of plant
(specie, stage, soil, climate)

Minerals
• Animal sources: fishmeal & skimmed
milk
• Alternative
administration/supplementation
• Functions: physiological, structural,
regulatory & catalytic
• Toxicity = illness or death IMPORTANT
 Vitamins
• Organic nutrient needed in small amounts for normal growth & maintenance

• Ruminants can synthesize water soluble vitamins & vit K (microbes)

• Water-soluble vitamins also produced in horses but not monogastrics

• Fat-soluble vitamins must be supplied to both ruminants & monogastric

• Higher diet inclusion levels than required

• Variable vitamin content & availability in food
• Loss of vitamin potency in storage
• Health status & extra requirements due to stress
• Enhancement of animal product (Vitamin D: eggshell strength; Vitamin E: prolong meat shelf life)
 Feeding livestock in
the tropics
• Requirements readily available for commercial livestock:
NRC (1981)

• Problems:
• Not same breed
• Feeding ruminants
• High fiber & low protein + energy
• High heat increment (increase supplementary protein)

• Strategies to improve protein:energy

• Provide nutrients for microbes

• Urea-molasses blocks + high fibre roughage
• Green forage: minerals

• By-pass protein = tree forages

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 Cereals are omitted as they are
needed for human nutrition

Forage-feeding
in Developing
Very important to ensure
hygiene & no fermentation
(prevent mold/toxins)
Areas
If interested, see FAO document
for long list of suitable species &
rates of feeding
 • Roughages

• Forage (hay, standing hay & dried) usually not very good

• Straws (rice, maize, sorghum, millet) & haulm (groundnut, sesame &
cotton) also not good

• Silages: nutritional value varies but always lower than initial → good
for storage

Available
• Concentrates

• Energy-rich (maize, rice, sorghum, millet) = med CP & low CF;

feedstuffs in •
unbalanced minerals

Protein-rich (legumes, oil cakes meal) = 15-45% CP & quality

tropics •
depends on processing

Animal origin = bone, blood and meat meal…other by-products

(seafood & milk) but not freely available STORAGE!!!

• Legumes, roots & fruits

• Fresh forages, browse, roots, tubers & fruits (40 – 90 % water)

• Legumes: high CP, min & vits (browse > forage digestibility)

• Roots: cassava, yams, sweet potato, taro, arrowroots = high energy

but low CP
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 • Purpose: increase availability of nutrients, improve
storage & ease of provision

• Time-consuming & further input

• Physical:
• Milling
• Cereal grains % coarse protein meals = incr digestibility

Feeding:
• Too fine = poor palatability

• Soaking

preparation
• Difficult for automatic feeders
• Decrease dustiness & supply water

• Cooking
• Milk & animal by-products
• Roots = starch availability

• Pelleting, crushing, flaking, extrusion….

• Chemical

• Biological (fermentation)

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Reading material & sources
• Textbook: Part I, Chapter 3

• https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_
General_Biology_(Boundless)/34%3A_Animal_Nutrition_and_the_Digestive_System/3
4.1%3A_Digestive_Systems/34.1D%3A_Vertebrate_Digestive_Systems

• http://www.fao.org/3/V9327E/V9327E00.htm#TOC

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UTl8GfRSwP8

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zRDXtO2OZZs

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n3BW6m1HyII
Refresh your terminology
The stomach
The small intestine
The large intestine
The stomach