Hydrology: Introduction To The Subject Lecture No. 1

HYDROLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO THE SUBJECT

LECTURE NO. 1
HYDROLOGY
- SCIENCE OF WATER
- SCIENCE THAT DEALS
WITH THE OCCURRENCE,
CIRCULATION AND
DISTRIBUTION OF WATER
OF THE EARTH’S
ATMOSPHERE.
ANNUAL REVIEW
CLASSIFICATION OF HYDROLOGY
1. SCIENTIFIC HYDROLOGY
- STUDY WHICH IS CONCERNED CHIEFLY WITH
ACADEMIC ASPECTS
2. ENGINEERING OR APPLIED HYDROLOGY
- A STUDY CONCERNED WITH ENGINEERING
APPLICATIONS
ENGINEERING OR APPLIED HYDROLOGY
1. ESTIMATION OF WATER RESOURCES
2. STUDY OF PROCESSES SUCH AS PRECIPITATION,
RUNOFF, EVAPOTRANSPIRATION AND THEIR INTERACTION
3. STUDY OF PROBLEMS SUCH AS FLOODS AND
DROUGHTS, AND STRATEGIES TO COMBAT THEM
HYDROLOGIC
CYCLE
WATER VAPOUR
MOVES UPWARDS AND
FORMS CLOUDS DUE
TO HEAT ENERGY
ANNUAL REVIEW
HYDROLOGIC
CYCLE
PART OF THE
PRECIPITATION MAY
EVAPORATE BACK TO
THE ATMOSPHERE
WHILE FALLING
ANNUAL REVIEW
HYDROLOGIC
CYCLE
PRECIPITATION MAY BE
INTERCEPTED BY
VEGETATION,
STRUCTURES AND
OTHER SURFACE
ANNUAL REVIEW
HYDROLOGIC
CYCLE
WATER THAT REACHES

THE GROUND ENTERS
THE EARTH’S SURFACE
THROUGH
INFILTRATION
ANNUAL REVIEW
HYDROLOGIC
CYCLE
VEGETATION SEND A
PORTION OF THE WATER
FROM UNDER THE
GROUND SURFACE BACK
TO THE ATMOSPHERE
THROUGH THE PROCESS
OF TRANSPIRATION
ANNUAL REVIEW
HYDROLOGIC
CYCLE
THE PORTION OF THE
PRECIPITATION WHICH
BY A VARIETY OF PATHS
ABOVE AND BELOW THE
SURFACE OF THE EARTH
REACHES THE STREAM
CHANNEL IS CALLED
RUNOFF
ANNUAL REVIEW
HYDROLOGIC
CYCLE
ONCE IT ENTERS A
STREAM CHANNEL,
RUNOFF BECOMES
STREAM FLOW
ANNUAL REVIEW
ASPECTS OF HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
1. TRANSPORTATION OF WATER
2. TEMPORARY STORAGE
3. CHANGE OF STATE
MAIN COMPONENTS OF HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
TRANSPORTATION STORAGE COMPONENTS

COMPONENTS
- PRECIPITATION - STORAGE ON LAND
- EVAPORATION SURFACE
- TRANSPIRATION - SOIL MOISTURE STORAGE
- INFILTRATION - GROUNDWATER STORAGE
- RUNOFF
CATCHMENT AREA
- AREA OF LAND DRAINING
INTO A STREAM OR WATER
COURSE AT A GIVEN
LOCATION
- ALSO CALLED AS
DRAINAGE AREA OR
DRAINAGE BASIN
DIVIDE
A CATCHMENT AREA IS SEPARATED FROM ITS
NEIGHBOURING AREAS BY A RIDGE CALLED DIVIDE.
WATER BUDGET EQUATION
MASS INFLOW – MASS OUTFLOW = CHANGE IN MASS STORAGE

IF THE DENSITY OF THE INFLOW, OUTFLOW AND STORAGE VOLUMES ARE THE
SAME,
Vi – Vo = ΔS EQ.1
Vi – INFLOW VOLUME OF WATER INTO THE PROBLEM AREA DURING THE TIME PERIOD
Vo – OUTFLOW VOLUME OF WATER FROM THE PROBLEM AREA DURING THE TIME PERIOD
ΔS – CHANGE IN THE STORAGE OF THE WATER VOLUME OVER AND UNDER THE GIVEN AREA
DURING THE GIVEN PERIOD
WATER BUDGET EQUATION
P – R – G – E – T = ΔS EQ.2
P – PRECIPITATION
R – SURFACE RUNOFF
G - NET GROUNDWATER FLOW OUT OF THE CATCHMENT
E – EVAPORATION
T – TRANSPIRATION
ΔS – CHANGE IN STORAGE
STORAGE
S = SS + SSM + SG EQ.3
SS – SURFACE WATER STORAGE

SSM – WATER IN STORAGE AS SOIL MOISTURE
SG – WATER IN STORAGE AS GROUND WATER
ΔS = Δ SS + Δ SSM + Δ SG EQ.4
RAINFALL-RUNOFF RELATIONSHIP
R=P-L EQ.5
R – RUNOFF VOLUME
P – PRECIPITATION/RAINFALL VOLUME
L – LOSSES – WATER NOT AVAILABLE TO RUNOFF DUE TO
INFILTRATION, EVAPORATION, TRANSPIRATION, AND SURFACE
STORAGE
EXAMPLE NO. 1
A LAKE HAD A WATER SURFACE ELEVATION OF 103.200m ABOVE DATUM AT THE
BEGINNING OF A CERTAIN MONTH. IN THAT MONTH THE LAKE RECEIVED AN
AVERAGE INFLOW OF 6.0m3/s FROM SURFACE RUNOFF SOURCES. IN THE SAME
PERIOD, THE OUTFLOW FROM THE LAKE HAD AN AVERAGE VALUE OF 6.5m3/s.
FURTHER, IN THAT MONTH, THE LAKE RECEIVED RAINFALL OF 145mm AND THE
EVAPORATION FROM THE LAKE SURFACE WAS ESTIMATED AS 6.10cm. WRITE THE
WATER BUDGET EQUATION FOR THE LAKE SURFACE AREA CAN BE TAKEN AS 5000
ha. ASSUME THAT THERE IS NO CONTRIBUTION TO OR FROM THE GROUNDWATER
STORAGE.
A LAKE HAD A WATER SURFACE ELEVATION OF 103.200m ABOVE DATUM AT THE BEGINNING OF A CERTAIN MONTH. IN THAT MONTH THE LAKE RECEIVED AN
AVERAGE INFLOW OF 6.0m3/s FROM SURFACE RUNOFF SOURCES. IN THE SAME PERIOD, THE OUTFLOW FROM THE LAKE HAD AN AVERAGE VALUE OF 6.5m3/s.
FURTHER, IN THAT MONTH, THE LAKE RECEIVED RAINFALL OF 145mm AND THE EVAPORATION FROM THE LAKE SURFACE WAS ESTIMATED AS 6.10cm. WRITE
THE WATER BUDGET EQUATION FOR THE LAKE SURFACE AREA CAN BE TAKEN AS 5000 ha. ASSUME THAT THERE IS NO CONTRIBUTION TO OR FROM THE
GROUNDWATER STORAGE.
SOLUTION:
INPUT VOLUME – OUPUT VOLUME = CHANGE IN STORAGE OF THE LAKE
(ĪΔt + PA) – (ŌΔt + EA) = ΔS
INFLOW INPUT OUTFLOW OUTFLOW
VOLUME DUE TO DUE TO
VOLUME
PRECIPITATION EVAPORATION
Δt = 1 month = 30 days x 24 hours x 60 mins x 60s = 2,592,000 secs

Inflow Volume = ĪΔt = 6.0m3/s x 2592000 s = 15,552,000 m3
Outflow Volume = ŌΔt = 6.5m3/s x 2592000 s = 16,848,000m3
SOLUTION:
1𝑚 10000 𝑚2
Input due to precipitation = P A =145 mm x 5000 ha x 1000𝑚𝑚
𝑥
1 ℎ𝑎
= 7,250,000 m3
Output due to 1𝑚 10000 𝑚2
= E A =6.10 cm x 5000 ha x 100𝑐𝑚 𝑥 1 ℎ𝑎
evaporation
= 3,050,000 m3
ΔS = (ĪΔt + PA) – (ŌΔt + EA)
ΔS = (15,552,000+7,250,000)-(16,848,000+3,050,000)
ΔS = 2,904,000 m3
SOLUTION:
ΔS = 2,904,000 m3
∆𝑆 2,904,000 𝑚3 = 0.058 𝑚
Change in Elevation: Δz = =
𝐴 10,000 𝑚2
5000 ℎ𝑎 𝑥
1 ℎ𝑎
New water surface elevation at the end of the month:

=103.200m + 0.058m
= 103.258 m above datum
EXAMPLE NO. 2
A SMALL CATCHMENT OF AREA 150ha RECEIVED A RAINFALL OF 10.5cm IN
90mins DUE TO A STORM. AT THE OUTLET OF THE CATCHMENT, THE STREAM
DRAINING THE CATCHMENT WAS DRY BEFORE THE STORM AND EXPERIENCED A
RUNOFF LASTING FOR 10 hours WITH AN AVERAGE DISCHARGE OF 1.5m3/s . THE
STREAM WAS AGAIN DRY AFTER THE RUNOFF EVENT.
A) WHAT IS THE AMOUNT OF WATER WHICH WAS NOT AVAILABLE TO RUNOFF
DUE TO COMBINED EFFECT OF INFILTRATION, EVAPORATION. AND
TRANSPIRATION?
B) WHAT IS THE RATIO OF RUNOFF TO PRECIPITATION?
A SMALL CATCHMENT OF AREA 150ha RECEIVED A RAINFALL OF 10.5cm IN 90mins DUE TO A STORM. AT THE OUTLET OF THE CATCHMENT, THE STREAM
DRAINING THE CATCHMENT WAS DRY BEFORE THE STORM AND EXPERIENCED A RUNOFF LASTING FOR 10 hours WITH AN AVERAGE DISCHARGE OF 1.5m3/s .
THE STREAM WAS AGAIN DRY AFTER THE RUNOFF EVENT.
A) WHAT IS THE AMOUNT OF WATER WHICH WAS NOT AVAILABLE TO RUNOFF DUE TO COMBINED EFFECT OF INFILTRATION, EVAPORATION. AND
TRANSPIRATION?
SOLUTION:
Runoff = Precipitation – Losses Note: 90 mins = 1.5 hrs = time duration of rainfall
Δt = 10 hours 10 hrs – 1.5 hrs = 8.5 hrs = no rainfall occur
P = Input due to precipitation in 10 hours

1𝑚 10,000𝑚2
= 10.5cm x 150 ha x 𝑥 = 157,500 m3
100 𝑐𝑚 1 ℎ𝑎
R = Runoff Volume = Outflow volume of catchment outlet in 10 hrs
= 1.5m3/s x 10 hrs x 60mins/hr x 60secs/min
= 54,000 m3
L = 157,500 – 54,000 = 103,500 m3
A SMALL CATCHMENT OF AREA 150ha RECEIVED A RAINFALL OF 10.5cm IN 90mins DUE TO A STORM. AT THE OUTLET OF THE CATCHMENT, THE STREAM
DRAINING THE CATCHMENT WAS DRY BEFORE THE STORM AND EXPERIENCED A RUNOFF LASTING FOR 10 hours WITH AN AVERAGE DISCHARGE OF 1.5m3/s .
THE STREAM WAS AGAIN DRY AFTER THE RUNOFF EVENT.
A) WHAT IS THE AMOUNT OF WATER WHICH WAS NOT AVAILABLE TO RUNOFF DUE TO COMBINED EFFECT OF INFILTRATION, EVAPORATION. AND
TRANSPIRATION?
SOLUTION:
RATIO = RUNOFF / PRECIPITATION
Runoff = 54,000 m3
Precipitation= 157,500 m3
Ratio =
54,000
= 0.34 RUNOFF
157,500 COEFFICIENT
WORLD WATER BALANCE
1386M km3 ~ TOTAL QUANTITY
OF WATER
96.5% - OCEAN WATER (SALINE)
1% LAND WATER IS ALSO SALINE
35.0 M km3 – FRESH WATER
10.6M km3 – liquid & fresh
24.4M km3 – ice
WORLD WATER BALANCE
505,000km3/year – Evaporation
from Ocean
72,000km3/year – Evaporation from
Land
47,000km3/year – Total Runoff
44,700km3/year– River to ocean
2,200km3/year– Groundwater to ocean
RESIDENCE TIME
- AVERAGE DURATION OF A PARTICLE OF WATER TO PASS THROUGH A

PHASE OF HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
Tr = V / Q EQ.6
V – VOLUME OF WATER IN THE PHASE

Q – AVERAGE FLOW RATE IN THAT PHASE
EXAMPLE NO. 3
BY ASSUMING THAT ALL THE SURFACE RUNOFF TO THE

OCEANS COMES FROM THE RIVERS, FIND THE RESIDENCE
TIME OF GLOBAL RIVERS. USE TABLE 1.1 AND TABLE 1.2.
BY ASSUMING THAT ALL THE SURFACE RUNOFF TO THE OCEANS COMES FROM THE RIVERS, FIND THE RESIDENCE TIME OF GLOBAL RIVERS. USE TABLE 1.1 AND
TABLE 1.2.
SOLUTION:
BY ASSUMING THAT ALL THE SURFACE RUNOFF TO THE OCEANS COMES FROM THE RIVERS, FIND THE RESIDENCE TIME OF GLOBAL RIVERS. USE TABLE 1.1 AND
TABLE 1.2.
SOLUTION:
Tr = V / Q
V = Volume of Water = 0.00212 M km3
Q = Average Flow Rate = 44700 km3/year
Tr = 2120 / 44700 = 0.0474 year = 17.3 days
APPLICATIONS IN ENGINEERING
1) Irrigation
2) Water Supply
3) Flood Control
4) Water Power
5) Navigation
FACTORS CONSIDERED FOR PROPER ASSESSMENT OF
HYDROLOGICAL INVESTIGATION
1) The capacity storage structures

2) The magnitude of flood flows
3) Minimum of flow and quantity of flow available at
various seasons.
4) Interaction of flood wave and hydraulic structures
TYPICAL FAILURES OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
1) Overtopping and
consequent failure of an
earthen dam due to
inadequate spillway
activity
2) Failure of bridges
and culverts due to
excess flood flow
3) Inability of a large
reservoir to fill up with
water due to
overestimation of
stream flow
SOURCES OF DATA
1. WEATHER
RECORDS –
TEMPERATURE,
HUMIDITY, AND
WIND VELOCITY
SOURCES OF DATA
2. PRECIPITATION
DATA
SOURCES OF DATA
3. STREAM FLOW
RECORDS
SOURCES OF DATA
4. EVAPORATION AND
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
DATA
SOURCES OF DATA
5. INFILTRATION
CHARACTERISTIC
SOURCES OF DATA
6. SOILS OF
THE AREA
SOURCES OF DATA
7. LAND USE AND
LAND COVER
SOURCES OF DATA
8. GROUNDWATER
CHARACTERISTICS
SOURCES OF DATA
9. PHYSICAL AND
GEOLOGICAL
CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE AREA
SOURCES OF DATA
10. WATER QUALITY DATA
HYDROLOGY
LECTURE NO. 2
PRECIPITATION
PRECIPITATION
- DENOTES ALL FORMS
OF WATER THAT REACH
THE EARTH FROM THE
ATMOSPHERE
THE USUAL FORMS OF PRECIPITATION ARE:
RAINFALL SNOWFALL HAIL SLEET

THE USUAL FORMS OF PRECIPITATION ARE:
DRIZZLE GLAZE
FORMS OF PRECIPITATION
RAINFALL
- PRECIPITATIONS IN THE
FORM OF WATER DROPS
OF SIZES LARGER THAN
0.5mm.
RAINFALL
- MAXIMUM SIZE OF A
RAINDROP IS ABOUT
6mm
- ANY DROP LARGER IN
SIZE THAN THIS TENDS
TO BREAK UP INTO
DROPS OF SMALLER SIZE
TYPE AND INTENSITY OF RAINFALL
SNOW
- CONSISTS OF ICE
CRYSTAL WHICH
USUALLY COMBINE TO
FORM FLAKES
SNOW
- AVERAGE DENSITY IS
0.1g/cm3
DRIZZLE
- A FINE SPRINKLE OF
NUMEROUS WATER
DROPLETS OF SIZE LESS
THAN 0.5mm AND
INTENSITY LESS THAN
1mm/h
DRIZZLE
- IN THIS THE DROPS
ARE SO SMALL THAT
THEY APPEAR TO FLOAT
IN AIR
SLEET
- FROZEN RAINDROPS
OF TRANSPARENT
GRAINS WHICH FORM
WHEN RAIN FALLS
THROUGH AIR AT
SUBFREEZING
TEMPERATURE.
HAIL
- SHOWERY
PRECIPITATION IN THE
FORM OF IRREGULAR
PELLETS OR LUMPS OF
ICE OF SIZE MORE THAN
8mm.
WEATHER SYSTEMS FOR PRECIPITATION:
FRONT
- INTERFACE
BETWEEN TWO
DISTINCT AIR
MASSES.
CYCLONE
- LARGE LOW
PRESSURE REGION
WITH CIRCULAR WIND
MOTION
- MOVES IN A
COUNTER-CLOCKWISE
WIND CIRCUALATION
CYCLONE/HURRICANE/TYPHOON
CYCLONE
PACIFIC
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
OCEAN
INDIAN
OCEAN
ANTICYCLONE
- REGION OF HIGH
PRESSURE, USUALLY OF
LARGE AREA EXTENT.
- WEATHER IS USUALLY
CALM AT THE CENTER
- MOVES IN CLOCKWISE
WIND CIRCULATION
CONVECTIVE PRECIPITATION
- A PACKET OF AIR WHICH
IS WARMER THAN THE
SURROUNDING AIR DUE
TO LOCALISED HEATING
RISES BECAUSE OF ITS
LESSER DENSITY
OROGRAPHIC PRECIPITATION
- THE MOIST AIR MASSES
MAY GET LIFTED-UP TO
HIGHER ALTITUDES DUE TO
THE PRESENCE OF
MOUNTAIN BARRIERS AND
CONSEQUENTLY UNDERGO
COOLING, CONDENSATION,
AND PRECIPITATION.
MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION:
RAINFALL SNOWFALL
MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION: RAINFALL
RAINGAUGE
- CONSISTS OF A CYLINDRICAL-
VESSEL ASSEMBLY KEPT IN
THE OPEN TO COLLECT RAIN.
- CLASSIFIED IN TWO
CATEGORIES:
NONRECORDING
RAINGAUGES &
RECORDING RAIN GAUGES
NONRECORDING GAUGES
- IT GIVES ONLY TOTAL
RAINFALL OCCURRED DURING
PARTICULAR TIME PERIOD.
- COMMONLY USED IS
SYMON’S RAIN-GAUGE.
NONRECORDING GAUGES
- IT CONSISTS OF A CIRCULAR
COLLECTING AREA 127mm IN
DIAMETER CONNECTED TO A
FUNNEL
- THE FUNNEL DISCHARGES
THE RAINFALL INTO A
RECEIVING VESSEL
NONRECORDING GAUGES
- THE FUNNEL AND THE
RECEIVING VESSEL ARE
HOUSED IN A METALLIC
CONTAINER
RECORDING GAUGES
- IT GIVES HOURLY RAINFALL DATA.
- NECESSITY OF AN ATTENDANT DOES NOT ARISE
- INTENSITY OF RAINFALL AT ANYTIME AS WELL AS TOTAL RAINFALL
IS OBTAINED
- TIME INTERVALS ARE ALSO RECORDED

- 3 TYPES OF RECORDING RAIN GAUGES: WEIGHING BUCKET TYPE,
TIPPING BUCKET TYPE, FLOATING OR NATURAL SYPHON TYPE RAIN
GAUGE
WEIGHING BUCKET TYPE RAIN GAUGE
- MOST COMMON SELF-
RECORDING RAIN GAUGE.
- CONSISTS OF A RECEIVER
BUCKET SUPPORTED BY A
SPRING OR LEVER BALANCE
OR SOME OTHER WEIGHING
MECHANISM
- THE MOVEMENT OF THE
BUCKET DUE TO ITS
INCREASING WEIGHT IS
TRANSMITTED TO A PEN
WHICH TRACES RECORD OR
SOME MARKING ON A CLOCK
DRIVEN CHART.
- THE INSTRUMENT GIVES A
PLOT OF THE ACCUMULATED
RAINFALL VALUES AGAINST
THE ELAPSED TIME AND THE
CURVE SO FORMED IS CALLED
THE MASS CURVE.
TIPPING BUCKET TYPE RAIN GAUGE
- TIPPING BUCKET COMPLETES
AN ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
CAUSING THE MOVEMENT OF
PEN TO MARK ON CLOCK
DRIVEN RECEIVING DRUM
WHICH CARRIES A RECORDED
SHEET
TIPPING BUCKET TYPE RAIN GAUGE
- THESE ELECTRIC PULSES
GENERATED ARE RECORDED
AT THE CONTROL ROOM FAR
AWAY FROM THE RAIN GAUGE
STATION.
- THE INSTRUMENT IS FURTHER
SUITED FOR DIGITALIZING THE
OUTPUT SIGNAL
FLOATING / NATURAL SYPHON TYPE RAIN GAUGE
- SIMILAR TO WEIGHING
BUCKET RAIN GAUGE
- FUNNEL RECEIVES WATER
WHICH IS COLLECTED IN A
RECTANGULAR CONTAINER
- A FLOAT IS PROVIDED AT THE
BOTTOM OF THE CONTAINER,
AND THIS FLOAT RISES IN THE
CONTAINER
- ITS MOVEMENT BEING
RECORDED BY A PEN MOVING
ON A RECORDING DRUM
ACTUATED BY A CLOCK WORK
- WHEN WATER RISES,
SYPHONS RELEASES THE
WATER OUTWARD THROUGH
THE CONNECTING PIPE, THUS
ALL WATER IN BOX IS DRAINED
OUT.
- CURVE DRAWN USING THIS
DATA IS KNOWN AS A MASS
CURVE OF RAIN FALL
ADEQUACY OF RAIN GAUGE STATION
IF THERE ARE ALREADY SOME RAINGAUGE STATIONS IN A CATCHMENT, THE
OPTIMAL NUMBER OF STATIONS THAT SHOULD EXIST TO HAVE AN
ASSIGNED PERCENTAGE OF ERROR IN THE ESTIMATION OF MEAN RAINFALL
IS OBTAINED BY A STATISTICAL ANALYSIS AS:
𝑪𝒗 𝟐
N= ( )
𝜺
N = OPTIMAL NUMBER OF STATIONS

ε = ALLOWABLE DEGREE OF ERROR IN THE ESTIMATE OF MEAN RAINFALL (10%)
Cv = COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION OF THE RAINFALL VALUES AT THE EXISTING m STATIONS
(IN PERCENT)
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝝈𝒎−𝟏
𝑪𝒗 =
𝑷
σ𝒎
𝟏 (𝑷 𝒊 − 𝑷) 𝟐
𝝈𝒎−𝟏 =
𝒎−𝟏
𝝈𝒎−𝟏 = STANDARD DEVIATION

𝑷𝒊 = PRECIPITATION MAGNITUDE IN THE ith SECTION
𝑷 = MEAN PRECIPITATION
𝑷 = (෍ 𝑷𝒊 )/𝒎
𝟏
EXAMPLE:
A CATCHMENT HAS SIX RAINGAUGE STATIONS. IN A YEAR,
THE ANNUAL RAINFALL RECORDED BY THE GAUGES:
EXAMPLE:
A CATCHMENT HAS SIX RAINGAUGE STATIONS. IN A YEAR, THE ANNUAL RAINFALL RECORDED BY THE GAUGES:
PREPARATION OF DATA
NORMAL RAINFALL
- AVERAGE VALUE OF RAINFALL AT A PARTICULAR DATE,
MONTH OR YEAR OVER A SPECIFIED 30-YEAR PERIOD.
NORMAL ANNUAL PRECIPITATION
- AVERAGE ANNUAL PRECIPITATION AT A
STATIONBASED ON SPECIFIED 30-YEARS OF RECORD.
ESTIMATION OF MISSING DATA
IF THE NORMAL ANNUAL PRECIPITATIONS AT VARIOUS
STATIONS ARE WITHIN 10% OF THE NORMAL ANNUAL
PRECIPITATION AT STATION X,
1
𝑃𝑥 = (𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 + ⋯ + 𝑃𝑚 )
𝑀
ESTIMATION OF MISSING DATA
IF THE NORMAL PRECIPITATIONS VARY CONSIDERABLY,
THEN Px…
𝑁𝑥 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃3 𝑃𝑚
𝑃𝑥 = ( + + + ⋯+ )
𝑀 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑁3 𝑁𝑚
EXAMPLE
THE NORMAL ANNUAL RAINFALL AT STATIONS A, B, C,
AND D IN A BASIN ARE 80.79, 67.59, 76.28, AND 92.01
cm RESPECTIVELY. IN THE YEAR 1975, THE STATION D
WAS INOPERATIVE AND THE STATIONS A, B, AND C
RECORDED ANNUAL PRECIPITATIONS ARE 91.11, 72.23
AND 79.89cm RESPECTIVELY. ESTIMATE THE RAINFALL
AT STATION D IN THAT YEAR.
THE NORMAL ANNUAL RAINFALL AT STATIONS A, B, C, AND D IN A BASIN ARE 80.79, 67.59, 76.28, AND 92.01
cm RESPECTIVELY. IN THE YEAR 1975, THE STATION D WAS INOPERATIVE AND THE STATIONS A, B, AND C
RECORDED ANNUAL PRECIPITATIONS ARE 91.11, 72.23 AND 79.89cm RESPECTIVELY. ESTIMATE THE RAINFALL AT
STATION D IN THAT YEAR.
MASS CURVE OF RAINFALL
-PLOT OF THE
ACCUMULATED
PRECIPITATION AGAINST
TIME
- PLOTTED IN
CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER
- RECORDS OF FLOAT
TYPE AND WEIGHING
BUCKET TYPE GAUGES
MASS CURVE OF RAINFALL
- VERY USEFUL IN
EXTRACTING THE
INFORMATION ON THE
DURATION AND
MAGNITUDE OF STORM
HYETOGRAPH
- PLOT OF THE INTENSITY
OF RAINFALL AGAINST
THE TIME INTERVAL
- DERIVED FROM THE
MASS CURVE AND IS
USUALLY REPRESENTED
AS A BAR CHART
POINT RAINFALL
- ALSO KNOWN AS STATION RAINFALL
- RAINFALL DATA OF A STATION
- CAN BE PRESENTED AS DAILY, WEEKLY, MONTHLY,
SEASONAL, OR ANNUAL VALUES FOR VARIOUS PERIODS
MOVING AVERAGE
- ALSO KNOWN AS MOVING MEANS
- TECHNIQUE FOR SMOOTHENING OUT THE HIGH
FREQUENCY FLUCTUATIONS OF A TIME SERIES AND TO
ENABLE THE TREND, IF ANY, TO BE NOTICED
EXAMPLE
ANNUAL RAINFALL VALUES RECORDED AT STATION M FOR
THE PERIOD 1950 TO 1979 IS GIVEN IN THE TABLE.
IDENTIFY THOSE YEARS IN WHICH THE ANNUAL RAINFALL IS:
a) LESS THAN 20% OF THE MEAN

b) MORE THAN THE MEAN
c) PLOT THE THREE-YEAR MOVING MEAN OF THE ANNUAL
RAINFALL TIME SERIES.

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Hydrology: Introduction To The Subject Lecture No. 1

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HYDROLOGY

INTRODUCTION TO THE SUBJECT

WATER THAT REACHES

TRANSPORTATION STORAGE COMPONENTS

MASS INFLOW – MASS OUTFLOW = CHANGE IN MASS STORAGE

SS – SURFACE WATER STORAGE

Δt = 1 month = 30 days x 24 hours x 60 mins x 60s = 2,592,000 secs

New water surface elevation at the end of the month:

P = Input due to precipitation in 10 hours

- AVERAGE DURATION OF A PARTICLE OF WATER TO PASS THROUGH A

V – VOLUME OF WATER IN THE PHASE

BY ASSUMING THAT ALL THE SURFACE RUNOFF TO THE

1) The capacity storage structures

RAINFALL SNOWFALL HAIL SLEET

- TIME INTERVALS ARE ALSO RECORDED

N = OPTIMAL NUMBER OF STATIONS

𝝈𝒎−𝟏 = STANDARD DEVIATION

a) LESS THAN 20% OF THE MEAN

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