Vectors - Chapter 2

December 30, 2011

1 What are vectors?

• Vectors have both magnitude and direction
• May be represented by a directed line segment %
• The magnitude of the vector is given by the length of the directed line segment
−→
• Denoted by an arrow above line segments e.g. OA or by a tilde (~) below the vector e.g. a
∼

• Marks may be lost for not denoting vectors, DO NOT forget that squiggly line
 
x
• May be represented by a matrix e.g.
y

1.0.1 Magnitude of Vector

−−→ −−→
The magnitude of vector AB is denoted by |AB|
−−→
2D Vectors |AB| = px2 + y 2
p
−−→
3D Vectors |AB| = x2 + y 2 + z 2

1.0.2 Addition of Vectors

Place vectors head to tail when adding

−−→ −→ −−→
It is worth noting AB = −OA + OB

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1.0.3 Scalar Multiplication (Multiplication by a number)
• Changes length (i.e. magnitude) of the vector

• If positive, vector is in same direction as the original

• If negative, vector is in opposite direction to the original

1.0.4 Zero Vector

• 0
∼

• Zero magnitude, no direction

• |0 | = 0
∼

1.0.5 Subtraction of Vectors

Reverse direction of the negative vector and add using vector addition

1.0.6 Polygons of Vectors

The vectors will bring you back to the starting point so they will add to 0
∼

1.0.7 Parallel Vectors

If two vectors are parallel then one can be expressed as a scale factor of the other.
i.e. If the vectors u and v are parallel then
∼ ∼
u = kv
∼ ∼
where k is a member of R\{0}

1.0.8 Position Vectors

−→
A vector from the origin to a point. e.g The position vector to point A is OA

1.0.9 Linear Dependance and Independence

A set of vectors are said to be linearly dependent if one can be expressed as a linear combination of the others,
that is the vectors a, b and c are linearly dependent if
∼ ∼
c = ma + nb
∼ ∼ ∼
Once this equation has been formed, equate the coecients of the vectors forming three simultaneous equations.
Using the rst two solve for m and n. Substitute the values of m and n into the third equation to check.
independent
A set of vectors is said to be linearly if they are not linearly dependent. To nd this, do the same
thing as above but when they solutions are substituted into the third equation, the LHS will not equal the RHS.
• Sets containing zero vectors are lineraly dependent
• Two vectors are linearly independent if if they are not scalar multiples of each other, that is u 6= kv
∼ ∼

• Parallel vectors are linearly dependent since they are scalar multiples of each other

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1.0.10 Vectors Expressed in Rectangular Components
• x-axis labelled with i
∼

• y-axis labelled with j

∼

• z-axis labelled with k

∼

When expressed in rectangular components, i, j and k are

∼ ∼ ∼
unit vectors in the direction of their respective
axis.
Rectangular vectors are expressed as the sums of unit vectors, e.g. i + 2j + 4k
∼ ∼ ∼
−→ −→
If OA = x i + y j + zk then |OA| = x2 + y 2 + z 2 i.e. square root of the square of the coecients of the
p
∼ ∼ ∼
components

1.0.11 Unit Vectors

Have a magnitude of 1, denoted with a hat (^)
a
a unit vector â = ∼
|a |
∼ ∼

1.0.12 Addition and Subtraction of Rectangular Vectors

• a + b add coecients of i , j and k components
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼

• a − b minus coecients of i , j and k components

∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼

1.0.13 Angles with Axis (Normally measured anti-clockwise)

if a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k then the angle made with the respective axis are
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼

x-axis cosα = |a
a1
|
∼
y-axis cosβ = |a |
a2
∼
z-axis cosγ = |a
a3
|
∼

Or for 2D, θ = tan−1 ( xy )

For 2D-vectors DRAW THE SITUATION OUT, then look at what quadrant the vector is in and add 90 o

or 180o accordingly

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1.0.14 Equating Coecients
If two vectors are known to be equal/equivalent, then the coecients of the components of the vectors must be the
same. That is we can equate the coecients
e.g. if (2 + n) i + (3 + m)j + 2k = 5 i + j + 2k , nd the values of n and m.
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
2+n=5
∴n=3
3+m=1
∴ m = −2

1.0.15 Scalar (or dot) Product of Vectors

Product of two vectors
a .b = |a ||b | cos θ
∼∼ ∼ ∼

1.0.16 Properties of the Dot Product

• If a = 0 or b = 0 then a .b = 0
∼ ∼ ∼∼
p 2
• a .a = (a1 ∗ a1 ) + (a2 ∗ a2 ) + (a3 ∗ a3 ) = a21 + a22 + a23 = |a |2
∼∼ ∼

i.e. a .a = |a |2
non-zero vectors and a.b = 0 then a and b are perpendicular
∼∼ ∼
If a and b are
∼ ∼ ∼∼ ∼ ∼

If a .b = |a ||b | then a and b are parallel and in the same direction as each other
If a .b = −|a ||b | then a and b are parallel and in the opposite direction to each other
∼∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼

∼∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
Note: This can be seen to be because when θ = 0, cos(θ) = 1, so a .b = |a ||b | ∗ (1) = |a ||b |
∼∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
Also when θ = 90o , cos(θ) = 0, so a .b = |a ||b | ∗ (0) = 0
∼∼ ∼ ∼

1.0.17 Scalar Product in Rectangular form ( i , j and k form) ∼ ∼ ∼

If a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k and b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
Then to nd the dot product, multiply the i , j and k coecients and add together
∼ ∼ ∼

a .b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3
∼∼

1.0.18 Angle Bewteen Two Vectors

Vectors need to be tail to tail

The angle between vectors a and b

∼ ∼
a. b
∼ ∼ a1 b1 +a2 b2 +a3 b3
cos(θ) = |a || b | = |a || b |
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
−→ −−→
e.g. Find the angle between OA and OB
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 −→ −−→
θ = ∠AOB so−− tail
→− −to tail the vectors are AO and OB
→
i.e. cos(θ) = −−→ −−→
AO.OB
|AO||OB|

1.0.19 Vector Resolutes (of a in the direction of b )

∼ ∼

A vector is split up into two other vectors, one parallel to the second vector and another perpendicular to that
vector.

  
a. b a. b b b
Parallel Component (parallel to b ) = ∼ ∼
b= ∼ ∼
| b |2 b= a. b | ∼ ∼
= (a .b̂) b̂
∼ b.b
∼ ∼∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ |∼ |b|
∼ ∼ ∼
The simpler two to use are
a. b
Parallel Component (parallel to b ) = ∼ ∼
b.b b = (a .b̂) b̂
∼ ∼ ∼∼ ∼ ∼

Perpendicular Component (perpendicular to b ) = a − Parallel Component

∼ ∼
a. b
Perpendicular Component (perpendicular to b ) = a − ∼b .∼b
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼

1.0.20 Proofs
To prove that quadralaterals are dierent shapes, a certain number of conditions needs to be proved

Rectangles
Required to prove
• One set of parallel vectors are equal
• One angle is perpendicular (90o )

−→ −−→ −→ −−→
i.e. Prove OA = CB and OA ⊥ OB (using the dot product)

Parallelograms
Required to prove
• Parallel vectors are equal

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 −→ −−→ −−→ −−→
i.e. Prove OA = CB or OC = AB

Rhombus
Required to prove
• Parallel vectors are equal

• A set of non-parallel vectors have the same magnitude

−→ −−→ −→ −−→
i.e. Prove OA = CB and |OA| = |OC|

Square
Required to prove
• One set of parallel vectors are equal

• One set of non-parallel vectors have the same magnitude

• One angle is perpendicular

−→ −−→ −→ −−→ −→ −−→

i.e. Prove OA = CB , |OA| = |OC| and OA ⊥ OC (using the dot product)

Trapezium
Required to prove
• Two opposite sides are parallel

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 −→ −−→
i.e. Prove OA = kCB

Bisecting Lines
If one line bisects another, it goes through the mid point of the other line.
If two lines bisect each other, they both go through the midpoint of the other line.
To prove two lines bisect each other
• Dene M as the midpoint of one line
• Prove that M is also the midpoint of the other line by proving that the vectors on either side of M are equal.

Perpendicular Lines
Whenever two lines are needed to be proved to be perpendicular, show that the dot product of the two vectors
equals 0

Cosine Rule Proof (c 2

)
= a2 + b2 − 2ab cos(θ)

−→ −−→
Let OA = a , OB = b and ∠AOB = θ
∼ ∼
−−→ −→ −−→
AB = −OA + OB
= b−a
∼ ∼
−−→
|AB| = |b − a |
∼ ∼
−−→ −−→
AB.AB = (b − a ).(b − a )
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
= b .b − a .b − a .b + a .a
∼∼ ∼∼ ∼∼ ∼∼
= |b |2 − 2a .b + |a |2
∼ ∼∼ ∼
−−→ −−→
AB.AB = |b |2 + |a |2 − 2|a ||b | cos(θ) as a .b = |a ||b | cos(θ)
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼∼ ∼ ∼
−−→ 2
∴ |AB| = |a | + |b | − 2|a ||b | cos(θ), as required
2 2
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼