Power Electronics

Power electronics is best defined as the application of solid-state electronics for the control and
conversion of electric power.
Prior to the 1950s, power control has been by the use of several machine stages and dissipative
resistors; this led to high system cost, low speed and very poor efficiency. The evolution of power
semiconductor devices (PSDs), in the late 1950s, made electric power control cheaper, more efficient
and effective.
Power semiconductor devices constitute the heart of modem power electronic control and conversion
apparatus. They are used in power electronic control to convert power from ac-to-dc (rectifier), dc-to-
dc (chopper), dc-to-ac (inverter), and ac-to-ac at the same frequency (ac controller) or different
frequencies (cycloconverter).

The three main categories of power semiconductor devices are:

a. Power diodes: These are unidirectional uncontrolled switches.
b. Thyristors: These are unidirectional controlled switches, and are also known as Silicon
controlled rectifiers (SCRs).
c. Power transistors.
Power diodes
These are unidirectional uncontrolled switches for power rectification. They are very useful in
applications such as battery charging, electroplating, anodizing, welding, power supplies (dc and ac),
variable frequency drives as well as the feedback and freewheeling functions of converters and
snubbers. A typical power diode has P-I-N structure, that is, it is a P-N junction (anode-cathode
junction) with a near intrinsic semiconductor layer (n--layer) in the middle to sustain reverse voltage.
Figure 1 shows the symbol and structure of a power diode.

A C A C
p+ n- n+

Figure 1: The symbol and structure of a power diode.

They are of three types which are:

i. General-purpose or low-speed diodes
ii. High-speed diodes
iii. Schottky diodes
A diode conducts when the potential at the anode terminal is higher than that at the cathode terminal.
If on the other hand the cathode voltage becomes higher than the anode voltage, then the diode is said
to be in its blocking mode. Power diodes are silicon rectifiers that can operate at high junction
temperatures.
Thyristors
Thyristors, or silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs) have been the workhorses for industrial power
conversion and control. The term "thyristor" came from its gas tube equivalent, thyratron. The
thyristor has a four layer p–n–p–n structure with three terminals, anode (A), cathode (C), and gate
(G), as shown in Figure 2. The thyristor is in a conduction mode when the anode is at a higher
potential than the cathode and a small current is passed through the gate to the cathode terminal. Once
in the conduction mode, the forward voltage drop is very small, typically between 0.5V to 2V, and the
thyristor continues conducting unless it is turned off by making the cathode potential to be equal or
higher than that of the anode. This means that the gate circuit has no control over the thyristor when
the device is in the conduction mode.

A C A C
p+ n- p+ n+

G
Figure 2: The symbol and structure of a thyristor.

Methods that may be used to switch-off the thyristor include:

i. Reduction in the forward anode current.
ii. Reversal of the polarity of the anode voltage.
iii. Supply of a reverse (negative) current to the gate.
A thyristor that is switched off in the anode circuit is known as a semiconductor-controlled rectifier;
on the other hand, a thyristor that is switched off by supplying a reverse current to the gate circuit is
known as a gate turn-off (GTO) thyristor. Thyristors can be classified as the standard or slow phase-
control-type and fast-switching type.
Power transistors
A transistor is a three-layer p-n-p or n-p-n semiconductor device with three terminals and two
junctions. This type of transistor is known as a bipolar junction transistor (BJT). The three terminals
of the device are called the collector (C), the base (B), and the emitter (E). The collector and emitter
terminals are connected to the main power circuit, and the base terminal is connected to a control
signal. It is a self-controlled device since the collector current is under the control of the base current.
If the base current is zero, the transistor is in its off state and behaves as an open switch (cannot
conduct). Conversely, if the base current is sufficient to drive the transistor into saturation, then the
transistor is in its on state and conducts. In other words, the base current that determines the
conduction state of the device.
The high voltage and current ratings of power transistors makes it difficult to create a p-n-p or n-p-n
structure with a thin base. Therefore, the n +-p-n−-n+ structure is used for power bipolar transistors. The
lightly doped n− layer is the high-resistance region of the collector. The structure and symbol of a
power bipolar transistor are shown in figure 3.

E C
B n+ p n- n+

E
B
Figure 3: The symbol and structure of power bipolar transistor (power BJT).

Power transistors switch on and off much faster than thyristors, hence they can be used in high
frequency (≥50 kHz) applications. These devices are, however, very delicate, and often fail under
certain high-voltage and high-current conditions. They should therefore be operated within specified
limits, known as the safe operating area (SOA). The SOA is partitioned into four regions defined by
the following limits:
▪ Peak current limit
▪ Power dissipation limit
▪ Secondary breakdown limit
▪ Peak voltage limit
A pictorial classification of PSDs is shown in figure 4.

PSDs

Power Diodes Thyristors Power Transistors

Low-speed RCT BJT
High speed TRIAC MOSFET
Schottky GTO IGBT
GATT SIT
SITH
MCT
LASCR
Figure 4: Pictorial classification of PSDs

All these devices are power semiconductor switches which can only be operated in two modes when
connected in a power circuit. The two modes are the ON-mode and OFF-mode.
ON-mode: In this mode, the device forward conducting voltage drop is negligible; however, the
device rated current must not be exceeded.
OFF-mode: In this mode, the device conducting current is zero, whereas the voltage has a value equal
to or less than the breakdown voltage.
DC to DC Converters
These are used for power supplies to electronic and communication gadgets, industrial AC and DC
motors and/or devices as well as for battery charging. The functional block diagram is shown below.

is
+ +
vs (Unregulated dc input) DC to DC Converter (Regulated dc output) vo
- -
Figure 5: Functional block diagram of DC to DC Converter

The unregulated dc input voltage is conditioned by the converter to produce regulated and/or variable
dc output voltage. The converter is capable of a step-up or -down (boost or buck) action. This
unregulated input can be any of the following sources:
DC generator, Solar array as well as Rectified and filtered AC source.
The three types of DC to DC converters are:
i. The buck converters: In this type, the converter output voltage must be less than the input
voltage. There are three types of buck converters, viz:
a. One quadrant
b. Two quadrants
c. Four quadrants
ii. The boost converters: In this type, the converter output voltage must be greater than or
equal to the input voltage.
iii. The boost/buck converters: In this type, the converter output voltage can be either equal to,
less or greater than the input voltage.
Parameters of DC–DC Converters
The output voltage and the input current should ideally be a pure dc; though the output voltage and
the input current of a practical dc–dc converter contain harmonics or ripples. The converter draws
current from the dc source only when the load is connected to the source.
The dc output power is

Pdc =I a V a .................................................................................
(1)
where Va and Ia are the average load voltage and load current.
The ac output power is

Pac =I o V o ...................................................................................
(2)
where Vo and Io are the rms load voltage and load current.
The converter efficiency (not the power efficiency) is

P dc
ηc =
P ac ......................................................................................
(3)
The rms ripple content of the output voltage is
V r = V 2−V
√ o a2 .......................................................................
(4)
The rms ripple content of the input current is

I r = I 2 −I
√ i s2 .........................................................................
(5)
where Ii and Is are the rms and average values of the dc supply current respectively.
The ripple factor of the output voltage is

Vr
RF o =
Va .....................................................................................
(6)
The ripple factor of the input current is

Ir
RFs =
Is ......................................................................................
(7)
The power efficiency, which is the ratio of the output power to the input power, will depend on the
switching losses, which in turn depend on the switching frequency of the converter. The switching
frequency fs should be high to reduce the values and sizes of capacitances and inductances. The
designer has to compromise on these conflicting requirements.
Operational principle of a Buck Converter
Considering Figure 6a. When switch SW, known as the chopper, is closed (i.e. on) for a time t1, the
input voltage Vs appears across the load R. If the switch remains off for a time t2, the voltage across
the load becomes zero for the time t2, as shown in figure 6b.
The switch SW can be any of the following:
1. Power bipolar junction transistor (BJT),
2. Power metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET),
3. Gate-turn-off thyristor (GTO), or
4. Insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT).

io
+ Sw +
vs vo R
- -
Figure 6a: A schematic of a buck converter.

Vo

Vs t2
t1
t
0
T
io

Vs t1 t2
R
t
0 KT T
Figure 6b: A schematic of a buck converter.

The practical devices have a finite voltage drop ranging from 0.5 to 2 V, and for the sake of simplicity
we shall neglect the voltage drops of these power semiconductor devices.
The average output voltage is given by
t1
1 t1
V a= ∫ v o dt= V s =ft 1 V =KV s
T0 T ..................................
(8)
and the average load current,
 Va KV s
I a= =
R R .......................................................................
(9)
where T is the chopping period,
t1
k = T is the duty cycle,
f is the chopping frequency.

The rms value of output voltage is found from

KT
V o=

(10)
1
√(
∫ v dt =√ K V s
T 0 o2 ) ...........................................

Assuming a lossless converter, the input power to the converter is the same as the output power and is
given by

KT KT v V2
1 1 o2
Pi= ∫ v o i dt= ∫ dt=K s
T 0 T 0 R R ........................
(11)
The effective input resistance seen by the source is

Vs Vs R
R i= = =
Ia KV s / R K ...............................................
(12)
This shows that the converter makes the input resistance Ri as a variable resistance of R/k. The duty
cycle k can be varied from 0 to 1 by varying t1, T, or f. while the output voltage Vo can be varied from
0 to Vs by controlling k, hence power flow can be easily controlled.
The converter can be operated in two frequency modes, viz:
Constant-frequency operation: In this mode, the converter, or switching frequency f is kept constant
and the on-time t1 is varied. The width of the pulse is varied as well, hence making this type of
control to be known as pulse-width-modulation (PWM) control.
Variable-frequency operation: In this mode, the chopping, or switching, frequency f is varied. Either
on-time t1 or off-time t2 is kept constant. This is called frequency modulation. The frequency has to
be varied over a wide range to obtain the full output voltage range. This type of control would
generate harmonics at unpredictable frequencies, hence the need for filter design; designing such
filters would be difficult because of the unpredictable frequencies.

Test
1. Assume the dc converter in Figure 6a to have a resistive load of R = 10Ω and an input voltage
of Vs = 220 V. When the converter switch remains on, its voltage drop is vch = 2 V and the
chopping frequency is f = 1 kHz. If the duty cycle is 50%, determine (a) the average output
voltage Va, (b) the rms output voltage Vo, (c) the converter efficiency, (d) the effective input
resistance Ri of the converter, (e) the ripple factor of the output voltage RFo.

2. “POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES!” What do you understand by the name?

3. Write a small history on the development/evolution of PSDs.

4. Enumerate and explain the 3 main categories of PSDs.

5. What do you understand by the term safe operating area (SOA)?

Good Luck!!!