Solar Thermal

Solar Thermal Energy
Outline
 Introduction to Heat Transfer
 Source of Solar Energy
 Applications of Solar Energy
 Introduction to Photovoltaic
 Solar Thermal Energy Systems
 Restrictions in Using Solar Energy
 Examples
Introduction to Heat Transfer
 Heat Transfer in a Solar Collector
 Heat Transfer Modes
 Conduction
 Convection
 Radiation
Heat Transfer Processes in a Solar Collector
qconv,air
qemit
qsun
absorbing film qconv,mediu Medium flow
m
qcond,insulator
Insulator
qcond,panel Panel（metal）
Heat transfer modes
Three heat transfer modes in a solar collector:
 Radiation
➢ 𝑞𝑠𝑢𝑛: solar irradiation
➢ 𝑞𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡: emitted radiant energy from the panel
 Convection
➢ 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣,𝑎𝑖𝑟: heat loss due to wind
➢ 𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣,𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 : heat transfer to the flow medium
throughout tube wall
 Conduction
➢ 𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑,𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑙 : heat transfer inside the metal panel
➢ 𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑,𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟: heat loss to the insulator from the panel
Conduction
Definition:
The transfer of energy from the more energetic to the less energetic
particles (atoms or molecules ) of a substance due to interactions
between the particles without bulk motion.
⇀
𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = ⇀
𝑞"𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 ∙ 𝐴
heat flux area

gradient
Fourier’s Law:⇀
𝑞"𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = −𝑘𝛻𝑇
thermal conductivity
Convection
Definition:
Heat transfer between a fluid in motion and a boundary
surface
Knowledge of convective heat transfer needs to know both fluid mechanics and
heat transfer
Convection
Newton’s cooling/heating law:
𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝑞"𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 × 𝐴 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞)
ℎ : convective heat transfer coefficient
ℎ = ℎ(𝑅𝑒, 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)

(Thermal) Radiation
Definition:
Energy is emitted by matter via electromagnetic waves with the
wavelengths ranging between the long-wave fringe ultraviolet
(UV, ≈10-1μm) and far infrared (IR, ≈103μm).
Stefan-Boltzmann Law: for a blackbody (ideal case)

𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑞"𝑟𝑎𝑑 × 𝐴 = (𝜎𝑇4)𝐴
T:absolute temperature
Stefan-Boltzmann constant
For real case:
𝑞" 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝜀𝜎𝑇4 ,0<𝜀 ≤1
emissivity
Example: Glass (transparent material)
Emission (E=𝜀𝜎𝑇4)
Reflection (G𝜌 ) Irradiation (G)
Absorption (G𝛼)
Transmission (G𝜏)
G = G𝜌 + G 𝛼 + G 𝜏
transmitivity
G 𝜌 G𝛼 G𝜏
or 1 = G + G + G =𝜌+𝛼+𝜏
reflectivity absorptivity
Emissivity
Defined as the ratio of the radiant energy rate emitting from a
blackbody under identical condition
a) Monochromatic (or spectral) , directional emissivity
emitted
𝐼 𝜆,𝑒 (𝜆,𝜃,𝜙,𝑇)
𝜀𝜆,𝜃 𝜆, 𝜃, 𝜙, 𝑇 =
𝐼 𝜆,𝑏 (𝜆,𝑇)
intensity
blackbody
0 ≤ 𝜙 < 2𝜋
𝜋
0≤𝜃≤
2
Spherical coordinate
Emissivity
b) Monochromatic, hemispherical emissivity
𝜋 𝜋
2𝜋 2 2𝜋 2
‫׬‬0 ‫׬‬0 𝐼 𝜆,𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙 ‫׬‬
0 ‫׬‬0 𝜀 𝜆,𝜃 𝐼 𝜆,𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙
𝜀 𝜆, 𝑇 = 𝜋 =
2𝜋 2 𝐸 𝜆,𝑏 (𝜆,𝑇)
‫׬‬0 ‫׬‬0 𝐼 𝜆,𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙
1 2𝜋 𝜋 = 𝜋𝐼𝜆,𝑏(T)
= 𝜋 ‫׬‬0 ‫׬‬0 𝜀𝜆,𝜃(𝜆, 𝜃, 𝜙, 𝑇) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
2
𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙
c) Total , hemispherical
∞
emissivity
‫׬‬0 𝜀𝜆 𝜆, 𝑇 𝐸 𝜆, 𝑇 𝑑𝜆 ∞
1
𝜀 𝑇 = ∞ 𝜆, = 4
න 𝜀𝜆(𝜆, 𝑇)𝐸 𝜆 , 𝜆, 𝑇 𝑑𝜆
‫׬‬0 𝐸𝜆 , 𝜆, 𝑇 𝑑𝜆 𝜎𝑇 0
Absorptivity
Definition:
A function of the radiant energy incident on a body
that is absorbed by the body
a) Monochromatic, directional absorptivity, 𝛼𝜆,𝜃(𝜆, 𝜃, 𝜙)
b) Monochromatic, hemispherical absorptivity, 𝛼𝜆(𝜆)
c) Total, hemispherical absorptivity, 𝛼

For a solar panel (opaque material, 𝜏𝜆 = 𝜏 = 0)
⟹ 1 = 𝛼𝜆 + 𝜌 𝜆 , 1 = 𝛼 + 𝜌
𝐼𝑠𝑢𝑛
𝑞𝑠𝑢𝑛 = 𝐴 𝑝 𝛼 𝑝 𝐼 𝑠𝑢𝑛
𝑞 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡
4 𝑞𝑠𝑢𝑛
𝑞𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡 = 𝐴 𝑝 𝜀 𝑝 𝜎𝑇
Looking for high 𝜶𝒑 while small 𝜺𝒑

A desired property for a good solar absorptance
1.0 𝛼𝜆 > 0.9
visible light : 0.4-0.7μm
𝛼𝜆 < 0.1
0
0.1 3
𝜆(𝜇𝑚)
As Kirchhoff’s law for a diffuse (i.e., independent of direction)

surface
𝜀𝜆 = 𝛼𝜆
Source of Solar Energy
 The Sun
 Between the Sun and the Earth
 Position of the Sun
 Solar constant
 Solar radiation and intensity
The Sun
 A sphere of intensely hot gaseous matter
Consist of H, He, O, C, Ne, Fe…

Surface temperature: 5,800K
Core temperature:13,600,000K
Between the Sun and the Earth
Average distance:149.5 million km

(1 astronomical unit,AU)
equinox
solstice solstice
Elliptic Orbit
equinox
Between the Sun and the Earth
Position of the Sun (view from Earth)
Apparent placement of the Sun in the northern hemisphere

Position of the Sun (view from Earth)
Azimuth angle of the sun:

Often defined as the angle from due north in a clockwise direction. (sometimes from south)
Zenith angle of the sun:

Defined as the angle measured from vertical downward.
Solar Constant
 Amount of incoming solar radiation per unit area

incident on a plane perpendicular to the rays.
 At a distance of one 1AU from the sun (roughly the
mean distance from the Sun to the Earth).

 Includes a range of wavelength (not just the visible
light).
Solar Constant
Entry point into atmosphere
Intensity ~ 1350W/m2
Solar Radiation Spectrum
Solar Radiation Budget (to Earth)
Factors affect the Solar intensity
 Latitude
 Altitude
 Atmospheric transparency
 Solar zenith angle

Applications of Solar Energy
 Reserves of energy on Earth
 Solar energy distribution
 Advantages of using solar energy
 Types of applications
Reserves of Energy on Earth
Remaining Available Period

Reserves (year)
Coal 660.8 Gton 43
Oil 152 Gton 210
Gas 160755 Gm3 67
Uranium 1.57 Mton 42

Solar Energy Distribution
Annual global mean downward solar radiation distribution at the surface

Advantages of using Solar Energy
Application of Solar Energy
 No pollution
 Inexhaustible
 Contribution to energy supply and CO2 reduction
 The annual collector yield of the world was 396 TWh
(1,425.6 PJ). This corresponds to savings of an oil
equivalent of 42.6 million tons and an annual avoidance of
135.5 million tons of CO2.
Weiss, Werner, and Spork-Dur, Monika Solar Heat Worldwide–Global Market Development and Trends
in 2018. International Energy Agency,2019.
 Energy production prediction

Types of Applications
 Photovoltaic (PV)
 Solar cell
 Solar thermal energy

 Solar water heater
 Solar thermal power
 Solar cooling
 Solar thermal ventilation

Introduction to Photovoltaic
 What is photovoltaic
 Solar cell
What is Photovoltaic
Photovoltaic
 A method of generating electrical power by converting solar

radiation into direct current electricity through some materials
(such as semiconductors) that exhibit the photovoltaic effect.
Solar Cell
Photovoltaic
 Sun light of certain wavelengths is

able to ionize the atoms in the
silicon
 The internal field produced by the
junction separates some of the
positive charges ("holes") from the
negative charges (electrons).
 If a circuit is made, power can be
produced from the cells under
illumination, since the free
electrons have to pass through the
junction to recombine with the
positive holes.
Solar Thermal Energy Systems
 How to use solar thermal energy
 Types of solar collectors
 Solar water heater
 Solar thermal power
 Solar thermal cooling
How to Use Solar Thermal Energy
Working fluid
Solar Radiation Solar Thermal Energy
Solar collector
thermal energy
working fluid
Types of Solar Collectors
 Collectors and working temperature
Low temperature
Medium
temperature
High temperature
Flat-plate collector
 Use both beam and diffuse solar radiation, do not

require tracking of the sun, and are low-maintenance,
inexpensive and mechanically simple.
 Glazed collector  Unglazed collector

 Main losses of a basic flat-plate collector during

angular operation
Weiss, Werner, and Matthias Rommel. Process Heat Collectors. Vol. 33, 2008.
Evacuated tube collector
 A collector consists of a row of parallel glass tubes.

 A vacuum inside every single tube extremely reduces
conduction losses and eliminates convection losses.
Evacuated tube collector
 Heat pipe  Sydney tube

Collector efficiency
http://polarsolar.com/blog/?p=171
Parabolic trough collector
 Consist of parallel rows of

mirrors (reflectors) curved in
one dimension to focus the
sun’s rays.
 All parabolic trough plants

currently in commercial
operation rely on synthetic oil
as the fluid that transfers heat
from collector pipes to heat
exchangers.
Linear Fresnel reflector
 Approximate the parabolic

trough systems but by using
long rows of flat or slightly
curved mirrors to reflect the
sun’s rays onto a downward-
facing linear, fixed receiver.
 Simple design of flexibly bent
mirrors and fixed receivers
requires lower investment costs
and facilitates direct steam
generation.
Parabolic dish reflector
 Concentrate the sun’s rays at a

focal point propped above the
centre of the dish. The entire
apparatus tracks the sun, with
the dish and receiver moving
in tandem.
 Most dishes have an
independent engine/generator
(such as a Stirling machine or
a micro-turbine) at the focal
point.
Heliostat field collector
 A heliostat is a device that

includes a plane mirror
which turns so as to keep
reflecting sunlight toward a
predetermined target.
 Heliostat field use hundreds

or thousands of small
reflectors to concentrate the
sun’s rays on a central
receiver placed atop a fixed
tower.
Solar Water Heater
 Most popular and well developed application of solar

thermal energy so far
 Low temperature applications
(Mainly using flat plate collector or evacuate tube collector)
Solar Water Heater
Direct (open loop) Indirect (close loop)
User
User
Passive
(Thermosyphon)
User User
Active
Heat
exchanger
Solar Water Heater
 Installation direction
 For northern hemisphere → Facing south
 For southern hemisphere → Facing north
 Installation tilt angle

 The angle of the collector
is roughly equal to the
local latitude
Solar Water Heater
 Annual heat collection vs. direction/tilt angle (in

north hemisphere)
Annual heat collection(%)

Annual heat collection(%)
Increasing collection area

Increasing collection area
L=local latitude
Direction shifted from south (angle)
Tilt angle of the collector

Solar Water Heater
 Residential hot water system

 Hot water production
 House warming
“Solar Thermal Action Plan for Europe”, ESTIF, 2007
 Large-scale system
 Dormitory hot water
 Swimming pool
 Industrial process heating

Solar Water Heater
 Industrial process heating

 In EU, 2/3 of the industrial energy demand consists of heat
rather than electrical energy.
 About 50% of the industrial heat demand is located at
temperatures up to 250°C.
Solar Water Heater
 Market potential of industrial process heating

Solar Thermal Power
 Conversion of sunlight into electricity

 Direct means : photovoltaics (PV),
 Indirect means : concentrated solar power (CSP).
Solar thermal power
 High temperature applications

(by means of sun-tracking, concentrated solar collectors)
Solar Thermal Power
 Electrical power is generated when the concentrated

light is converted to heat and, then, drives a heat
engine (usually a steam turbine) which is connected
to an electrical power generator.
Solar Thermal Power
 Types of solar thermal power plant
Technology roadmap concentrating solar power, IEA, 2010.

Solar Thermal Power
 Combination of storage and hybridisation in a solar

thermal plant
Solar Thermal Power
PS10 and PS20 solar power tower (HFC)

(Seville, Spain). 2007 and 2009
Solar Thermal Power
Kimberlina solar thermal energy plant (LFR)

(Bakersfield, CA), 2008.
Solar Thermal Power
Calasparra solar power plant (LFR)

(Murcia, Spain) 2009.
Solar Thermal Power
Puertollano solar power station (PTC)

(Ciudad real, Spain), 2009
Andasol solar power station (PTC)

(Granada, Spain), 2009
Solar (Thermal) Cooling
 Active cooling
 Use PV panel to generate electricity for driving a
conventional air conditioner
 Use solar thermal collectors to provide thermal energy for
driving a thermally driven chiller Solar thermal cooling
 Passive cooling
 Solar thermal ventilation
Solar Thermal Cooling
International Journal of Refrigeration 3I(2008) 3-1 5

 Solar cooling benefits from a better time match

between supply and demand of cooling load
1 "Renewable Energy Essentials: Solar Heating and Cooling," International Energy Agency, 2009.
2 B.W. Koldehoff and D. Görisried, "Solar Thermal & Solar Cooling in Germany," Management.
 Active cooling
 Use solar thermal collectors to provide thermal energy for
driving thermally driven chillers.
Heat source Cooling tower
Cooling distribution
Chiller
 Basic type of solar thermal chiller

 Absorption cooling－LiBr+H2O
Closed cycle
 Adsorption cooling－silica gel+H2O
 DEC, Desiccant Evaporative Cooling Open cycle
Conventional compression cooling Adsorption/absorption cooling
QL QL
Qg
high pressure vapor high pressure vapor
condenser condenser
We
We
desorption
compressor expansion expansion
valve (switch) valve
absorption
evaporator Qa
evaporator
QC
low pressure vapor
QC low pressure vapor
COPelect=QC/We COPthermal=QC/Qg
COPelect=QC/We
COPthermal of different type of chiller
Henning, H. “Solar assisted air conditioning of buildings – an overview.” Applied Thermal Engineering 27, no. 10 (July 2007): 1734-1749.
"Solar Assisted Cooling – State of the Art –,“ESTIF, 2006.

A. Napolitano, "Review on existing solar assisted heating and cooling installations," 28.04.2010 – Workshop Århus, Denmark ABSORPTION, 2010.
D. Mugnier, "Refrigeration Workshop Market analysis Market actors Systems costs Politics : incentives & lobbying Conclusion Introduction,"
28.04.2010 – Workshop Århus, Denmark ABSORPTION, 2010.
D. Mugnier, "Refrigeration Workshop Market analysis Market actors Systems costs Politics : incentives & lobbying Conclusion Introduction,"
28.04.2010 – Workshop Århus, Denmark ABSORPTION, 2010.
 Passive Cooling (solar ventilation, solar chimney)

 A way of improving the natural ventilation of buildings
by using convection of air heated by passive solar
energy.
 Direct gain warms air inside the chimney causing it to
rise out the top and drawing air in from the bottom.
Solar desalination/distillation
 Solar humidification-dehumidification (HDH)
 HDH is based on evaporation of brackish water and consecutive
condensation of the generated humid air, mostly at ambient pressure.
 The simplest configuration: the solar still.
 In sophisticated systems, waste heat is minimized by collecting the heat
from the condensing water vapor and pre-heating the incoming water
source.
Solar ThermalApplications
Facade integration (roof)
Conventional installation way of solar thermal
Conventional installation way of Solar Thermal
Damage due to typhoon invasion
Damage due to typhoon invasion
Roof integrated flat-plate collectors on
house in Denmark (Source: VELUX)
Facade integration (balcony)
Contribution of solar thermal to EU heat
demand by sector
Reduction of -40%
Summary, Executive, Werner Weiss, and Peter Biermayr. Potential of Solar Thermal in Europe - Executive Summary, 2009.
Restrictions in Using Solar Energy
 Geographical aspects
 Financial aspects
Geographical Aspects
 Low energy density

 Solar radiation has a low energy density relative to other
common energy sources
 Unstable energy supply

 Solar Energy supply is restricted by time and
geographical location
 Easily influenced by weather condition
Financial Aspects
 Higher cost compared with traditional energy

 The capital cost in utilization of solar energy is generally
higher than that of traditional ones, especially for PV.
 Solar water heater

 Most economically competitive technology by now
 The need of SWH is inversely proportional to local
insolation
Examples
Example 1
 A family with 5 members plans to install a solar water heater
which is mainly used for bath. The hot-water temperature
required for bath is 50 ℃, while the annual average
temperature of cold water is 23 ℃. Assuming that each person
needs 60 liters of hot water for taking bath a day. How much
heat should be provided by the solar water heater to satisfy the
family’s demand for bath?
(Note: water specific heat Cp is assumed to be 1 kcal/kg-℃, water density is 1 kg / l. )

Answer 1
Q = M  C p  T
Q = Heat Demand
M = Hot Water Quantity
C p = specific heat capacity of water
ΔT = temperature difference between hot and cold water
 
 (50C − 23C )
l kcal
Q = 60 5 person1
 person  day  kg C
 kg  kcal
= 60 5 person1  (50C − 23C )
 person  day  kg C
kcal
= 8100
day
Example 2
 A solar water heater is equipped with an effective collect area
of 1m2, and the daily cumulative insolation onto the collector
is 4 kWh/m2-day in February.
If the average efficiency of the solar water heater is 0.5, how
many kilo-calories (kcal) of heat can be collected by this solar
water heater during a day?
(Note: 1cal = 4.186J = 4.186 W × s).

Answer 2
Qc = H  A
Qc = Heat provided from collector
H = Daily accumulative insolation
A = Effectivecollector area
η = Efficiency of solar water heater
kWh
Qc = 4 1m 2
 0.5
m  day
2
kJ 1
 3600s kcal
kWh kJ
=2 =2 s = 7200 = 7200 4.186
day day day day
kcal
=1720
day
Example 3
 The minimum heat demand is 8100 kcal/day, and there is a
certain solar panel which can offer a heat supply of 1720
kcal/m2 in a day. With the absence of auxiliary heating device,
calculate the required installation area of the solar panel.
 If the effective arer of this solar panel is 0.8 m2 /piece, how
many pieces of solar panel should be installed to collect this
heat demand?
Answer 3
Q = Demand Heat
Q
A= Qc = Heat provided from collector per m 2
Qc A = Effectivecollector area
8100 kcal day

A= = 4.764m2
1720 kcal
m 2  day
4.764m2
2
 5.955  6 pieces
0.8m
Example 4
 From UBAYA weather station data, the average daily
accumulative insolation in Surabaya is 314 ly/day in June
2013 (i.e., langley / day).
For a solar collector that faces south with a area of 2 m2 and
tilt angle of 0 degree, what is the daily accumulative insolation
onto the collector surface? (in kWh and kcal, respectively)
(Note: ly = Langley = cal/cm2).
Answer 4
ly cal
314  2 m2 = 314 2  2m2
day cm  day
4.186 kW  1 hr
4.186W  s kWh
= 314  2 m 2
= 314 1000 3600
 2 m 2
= 7.302
1 m2  day 1 m2  day day
10000 10000

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Solar Thermal Energy

heat flux area

𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝑞"𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 × 𝐴 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞)

ℎ : convective heat transfer coefficient

ℎ = ℎ(𝑅𝑒, 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)

Stefan-Boltzmann Law: for a blackbody (ideal case)

a) Monochromatic, directional absorptivity, 𝛼𝜆,𝜃(𝜆, 𝜃, 𝜙)

b) Monochromatic, hemispherical absorptivity, 𝛼𝜆(𝜆)

c) Total, hemispherical absorptivity, 𝛼

Looking for high 𝜶𝒑 while small 𝜺𝒑

1.0 𝛼𝜆 > 0.9

visible light : 0.4-0.7μm

As Kirchhoff’s law for a diffuse (i.e., independent of direction)

 A sphere of intensely hot gaseous matter

Consist of H, He, O, C, Ne, Fe…

Average distance:149.5 million km

Apparent placement of the Sun in the northern hemisphere

Azimuth angle of the sun:

Zenith angle of the sun:

 Amount of incoming solar radiation per unit area

mean distance from the Sun to the Earth).

 Solar zenith angle

Remaining Available Period

Coal 660.8 Gton 43

Oil 152 Gton 210

Gas 160755 Gm3 67

Uranium 1.57 Mton 42

Annual global mean downward solar radiation distribution at the surface

 Energy production prediction

 Solar thermal energy

 Solar thermal ventilation

 A method of generating electrical power by converting solar

 Sun light of certain wavelengths is

 Collectors and working temperature

 Use both beam and diffuse solar radiation, do not

 Glazed collector  Unglazed collector

 Main losses of a basic flat-plate collector during

 A collector consists of a row of parallel glass tubes.

 Heat pipe  Sydney tube

 Consist of parallel rows of

 All parabolic trough plants

 Approximate the parabolic

 Concentrate the sun’s rays at a

 A heliostat is a device that

 Heliostat field use hundreds

 Most popular and well developed application of solar

Direct (open loop) Indirect (close loop)

 Installation tilt angle

 Annual heat collection vs. direction/tilt angle (in

Annual heat collection(%)

Increasing collection area

Direction shifted from south (angle)

Tilt angle of the collector

 Residential hot water system

“Solar Thermal Action Plan for Europe”, ESTIF, 2007

 Industrial process heating

 Industrial process heating

 Market potential of industrial process heating

 Conversion of sunlight into electricity

Solar thermal power

 High temperature applications

 Electrical power is generated when the concentrated

 Types of solar thermal power plant

Technology roadmap concentrating solar power, IEA, 2010.