Lecture # 08

RENEWABLE ENERGY
TECHNOLOGY

Dr. Javed Akhter

Thermal Analysis of Solar Collectors

Basic Calculations

Dr. Javed Akhter

How to Use Solar Thermal Energy
Solar Thermal Energy

Working fluid
Solar Radiation Solar Thermal Energy
Solar collector

thermal energy

working fluid
Heat Transfer Processes in a Solar Collector

qconv,air
qemit
qsun
qconv,medium
absorbing film Medium flow

qcond,insulator
Insulator
qcond,panel Panel（metal）
Heat transfer modes

Three heat transfer modes occur in a solar collector:

 Radiation
➢ 𝑞𝑠𝑢𝑛 : solar irradiation
➢ 𝑞𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡 : emitted radiant energy from the panel
 Convection
➢ 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣,𝑎𝑖𝑟 : heat loss due to wind
➢ 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣,𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 : heat transfer to the flow medium
throughout tube wall
 Conduction
➢ 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑,𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑙 : heat transfer inside the metal panel
➢ 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑,𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 : heat loss to the insulator from the panel
Conduction

The transfer of energy from the more energetic to the less energetic
particles (atoms or molecules ) of a substance due to interactions
between the particles without bulk motion.

റ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 ∙ 𝐴റ
𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 𝑞"

heat flux area

gradient

Fourier’s Law: 𝑞"

റ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = −𝑘𝛻𝑇

thermal conductivity
Convection

Heat transfer between a fluid in motion and a boundary

surface

The convective heat transfer demands knowledge of both fluid mechanics and heat
transfer.
Convection

Newton’s law of cooling/heating:

𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝑞"𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 × 𝐴 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )

ℎ : convective heat transfer coefficient

ℎ = ℎ (𝑅𝑒, 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝑇𝑠 : Average temperature of the surface
𝑇∞ : Average temperature of the flowing fluid
(Thermal) Radiation

Energy emitted by matter via electromagnetic waves with

the wavelengths ranging between the long-wave fringe
ultraviolet (UV, ≈10-1μm) and far infrared (IR, ≈103μm).

Stefan-Boltzmann Law:
For a blackbody (ideal case)
𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑞"𝑟𝑎𝑑 × 𝐴 = (𝜎𝑇 4 )𝐴
T: absolute temperature
Stefan-Boltzmann constant
For real case:
𝑞"𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝜀𝜎𝑇 4 , 0 < 𝜀 ≤ 1
emissivity
Example: Glass (transparent material)

Emission (E=𝜀𝜎𝑇 4 )
Reflection (G𝜌 ) Irradiation (G)

Absorption (G𝛼 )

Transmission (G𝜏 )

G = G𝜌 + G𝛼 + G𝜏
transmitivity
G𝜌 G𝛼 G𝜏
or 1= + + =𝜌+𝛼+𝜏
G G G
reflectivity absorptivity
Absorptivity

A function of the radiant energy incident on a body, that is

absorbed by the body.

a) Monochromatic, directional absorptivity, 𝛼𝜆,𝜃 (𝜆, 𝜃, 𝜙)

b) Monochromatic, hemispherical absorptivity, 𝛼𝜆 (𝜆)

c) Total, hemispherical absorptivity, 𝛼

Emissivity

Ratio of the radiant energy rate emitting from a body to that of a

blackbody under identical conditions.
a) Monochromatic (or spectral), directional emissivity
emitted
𝐼𝜆,𝑒 (𝜆,𝜃,𝜙,𝑇)
𝜀𝜆,𝜃 𝜆, 𝜃, 𝜙, 𝑇 =
𝐼𝜆,𝑏 (𝜆,𝑇)

intensity blackbody

0 ≤ 𝜙 < 2𝜋
𝜋
0≤𝜃≤
2
Spherical coordinate
For a solar panel (opaque material, 𝜏𝜆 = 𝜏 = 0)
⟹ 1 = 𝛼𝜆 + 𝜌𝜆 , 1 = 𝛼 + 𝜌

𝑞𝑠𝑢𝑛 = 𝐴𝑝 𝛼𝑝 𝐼𝑠𝑢𝑛
𝐼𝑠𝑢𝑛
𝑞𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡 = 𝐴𝑝 𝜀𝑝 𝜎𝑇 4 𝑞𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡
𝑞𝑠𝑢𝑛

Looking for high 𝜶𝒑 while small 𝜺𝒑

 Solar thermal energy conversion

➢ With information on the magnitude and time distribution of the system loads and
the weather, it is possible to simultaneously solve the set of equations to estimate
the thermal performance of a solar process over any time period.

➢ These estimates (simulations) are usually done numerically and provide

information on the expected dynamic behavior of the system and long-term
integrated performance.

➢ The collector performance is a function of the temperature of the fluid entering

the collector. This temperature, neglecting (for the moment) heat losses from the
connecting pipes, is the same as the temperature in the exit portion of the storage
unit. The outlet temperature from the collector becomes the inlet temperature to
the storage unit.
 Solar thermal energy conversion

➢ In these equations, time is the independent variable and the solution is in the form
of temperature as a function of time.

➢ Meteorological data (radiation, temperature, and possibly other variables such as

wind speed and humidity) are forcing functions that are applied hourly (or at
other time steps) to obtain numerical solutions through time.

➢ Once the temperatures are known, energy rates can be determined.

➢ It is then possible to integrate the energy quantities over time to develop
information such as assess the annual thermal performance of a system.

➢ This simulation approach can be used to estimate, for any process application, the
amount of energy delivered from the solar collector to meet a load and the
amount of auxiliary energy required.
 Solar thermal energy conversion

Useful heat gain qu

= =
Incident radiation Ac I T

𝑞𝑢 = 𝐴𝑝 𝑆 − 𝑞𝑙

qu – rate of useful heat transferred to working fluid

S - absorbed radiation by absorber plate
Ap – area of the absorber plate
ql – rate of heat loss

IT = I b rb + I d rd + ( I b + I d )rr
α =Absorptivity (metal) -
S = I b rb ( )b + I d rd + ( I b + I d )r( ) d transmittivity (glass cover)
Estimation of losses

ql = U l Ap (TAve, plate − Tamb )

ql – rate of heat loss
Ul – overall loss coefficient (incorporating all losses ) (2 to 10 W/m2-K)
Tave,plate – Average temperature of absorber plate
Tamb – Ambient temperature
 Summary of losses

• Reflection from top cover

•Top surface
Incident radiation (15%)
•Bottom surface
•Absorption by top cover
• Emission from the absorber (5%)
After conversion
• Top loss (Conduction+Convection + Radiation)
25%
• Side loss (Conduction+Convection) +13%
• Bottom loss (Conductive) +2%
= 40%
Overall efficiency: ~ 40%
 COMPONENT MODELS

 In steady state the useful energy output of a collector of area A, is the

difference between the absorbed solar radiation and the thermal loss:

 The rate of useful gain from a flat-plate collector can be written as

where the + sign implies the presence of a controller and that only positive values
of the term in the brackets should be used.
 Useful energy collected and collector’s efficiency

 General formula:
 
qu = Ac Gt − U L (Tp − Ta ) = mc p To − Ti 

 by substituting inlet fluid temperature (Ti) for the average plate

temperature (Tp):
qu = Ac FR Gt ( ) − U L (Ti − Ta )

 Where FR is the heat removal factor

 Finally, the collector efficiency can be obtained by dividing qu by (Gt Ac).
Therefore:
𝑈𝐿 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎 )
𝜂 = 𝐹𝑅 𝜏𝛼 −
𝐺𝑡
 Overall heat loss coefficient

 The overall heat loss coefficient is a complicated function of the collector

construction and its operating conditions and it is given by the following
expression:
UL=Ut+Ub+Ue (for flat plate collector)
 i.e., it is the heat transfer resistance from the absorber plate to the ambient air.
 Importance of specific heat

The heat gain can also be determined by Name Specific heat / heat
using following general relation; capacity (kJ/kg-oC)
Fresh water 4.18
𝑄𝑢 Sea water 3.93
= 𝑚𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑓𝑜 Vegetable oil 1.67
Cp – heat capacity ((kJ/kg-oC)
− 𝑇𝑓𝑖 ) Milk 3.93
Amount of heat required to raise the Copper 0.39
temperature of a unit mass by a degree
centigrade. Aluminum 0.90
Air 1.01
Potatoes 3.43
 COMPONENT MODELS

 Operation of a forced-circulation collector will not be carried out

when Qu’ < 0 (or when Qu’< Qmin, where Qu’ is a minimum level of
energy gain to justify pumping the fluid through the system).
 In real systems, this is accomplished by comparing the temperature
of the fluid leaving the collector (i.e., in the top header) with the
temperature of the fluid in the exit portion of the storage tank and
running the pump only when the difference in temperatures is
positive and energy can be collected.
Concentration Ratio

 The concentration ratio (C) is defined as the ratio of the

aperture area to the receiver/absorber area, i.e.:
Aa
C=
Ar
 For flat-plate collectors with no reflectors, C=1.
 For concentrators C is always greater than 1. For a single axis
tracking collector the maximum possible concentration is given
by:
1 where θm is the half
C max = acceptance angle
sin( m )
limited by the size of
 and for two-axes tracking collector: the sun’s disk, small
1 scale errors and
C max = irregularities of the
sin 2 ( m )
reflector surface and
tracking errors.
 Maximum concentration

 For a perfect collector and tracking system, Cmax depends only on

the sun’s disk which has a width of 0.53° (32΄). Therefore:

 For single axis tracking:

Cmax = 1/sin(16΄) = 216

 For full tracking:

Cmax = 1/sin2(16΄) = 46,747
 Concentrating collectors

 The useful energy delivered from a concentrating collector is:

𝑞𝑢 = 𝐺𝑏 𝜂𝑜 𝐴𝑎 − 𝐴𝑟 𝑈𝐿 𝑇𝑟 − 𝑇𝑎

 Where no is the optical efficiency given by:

𝜂𝑜 = 𝜌𝜏𝛼𝛾 1 − 𝐴𝑓 tan( 𝜃) cos( 𝜃)

 And Af is the geometric factor given by:

2  Wa2 
A f = Wa h p + fWa 1 + 
 
2
3 48 f
 Concentrating collectors efficiency

 Similarly, as for the flat-plate collector the heat removal factor can
be used:

𝑞𝑢 = 𝐹𝑅 𝐺𝑏 𝜂𝑜 𝐴𝑎 − 𝐴𝑟 𝑈𝐿 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎

 And the collector efficiency can be obtained by dividing qu by

(GbAa):
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎 Note C in the
𝜂 = 𝐹𝑅 𝜂𝑜 − 𝑈𝐿 denominator
𝐺𝑏 𝐶

For CPC collectors:

 PERFORMANCE OF SOLAR COLLECTORS

 The thermal performance of the solar collector is also

determined by:
 Obtaining values of instantaneous efficiency for different
combinations of incident radiation, ambient temperature, and
inlet fluid temperature.
 Obtaining the transient thermal response characteristics of the
collector (time constant).
 Determining the incidence angle modifier.
THANKS