7 - Integration Techniques

Engineering Mathematics I
B.Eng(Hons) in Aerospace Engineering

B.Eng(Hons) in Mechanical Engineering
Integration Techniques
Basic Integration Formulas

Basic Integration Formulas
We have expanded this list slightly by using the method of

substitution.
WORKED EXAMPLES
1 𝑥
[𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛 + 𝐶]
𝑎 𝑎
𝑥5 𝑥3
[𝐴𝑛𝑠: − 10 + 25𝑥 + 𝐶]
5 3
𝑥−3
[𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 + 𝐶]
2
WORKED EXAMPLES
3 𝑥+1
[𝐴𝑛𝑠: − 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛 + 𝐶]
4 2
The issue in integration is to recognize what pieces are

present in a given integral and to see how you might
rewrite the integral in a more familiar form.
Every differentiation rule gives rise to a corresponding

integration rule.
So, for the product rule:
This rule is called integration by parts.

INTEGRATION BY PARTS
Using the notation u = f (x) and v = g(x),
To apply integration by parts, you need to make a

judicious choice of u and dv so that the integral on the
right-hand side is one that you know how to evaluate.
WORKED EXAMPLES
[𝐴𝑛𝑠: −𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝐶]
[𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑥𝑙𝑛𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶]
[𝐴𝑛𝑠: −𝑥 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝐶]

WORKED EXAMPLES
1 2𝑥 2 2𝑥
[𝐴𝑛𝑠: − 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝐶]
5 5
Reduction Formulas
For any positive integer n, the integral
will require integration by parts.

At this point, it should be no surprise that we take
Formulas of this type are called reduction formulas (n has

been reduced by 1).
WORKED EXAMPLES
[𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑥 4 𝑒 𝑥 − 4𝑥 3 𝑒 𝑥 + 12𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − 24𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 24𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶]

Definite Integrals
WORKED EXAMPLES
15
[𝐴𝑛𝑠: 4𝑙𝑛2 − ]
16
Integrals Involving Powers of Trigonometric Functions

Evaluating an integral whose integrand contains powers of
one or more trigonometric functions often involves making
a clever substitution.
Consider integrals of the form
where m and n are positive integers.

Consider integrals of the form
where m and n are positive integers.
Case 1: m or n Is an Odd Positive Integer

If m is odd, first isolate one factor of sin x. (You’ll need this
for du.) Then, replace any factors of sin2 x with 1 − cos2 x
and make the substitution u = cos x. Likewise, if n is odd,
first isolate one factor of cos x. (You’ll need this for du.)
Then, replace any factors of cos2 x with 1 − sin2 x and make
the substitution u = sin x.
WORKED EXAMPLES
1
[𝐴𝑛𝑠: − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝑥 + 𝐶]
5
1 1
[𝐴𝑛𝑠: − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 7 𝑥 + 𝐶]
5 7
2 3 4 7 2 11
[𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑥 + 𝐶]
3 7 11
Case 2: m and n Are Both Even Positive Integers

In this case, we can use the half-angle formulas for sine and
cosine to reduce the powers in the integrand.
WORKED EXAMPLES
1 1
[𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + 𝐶]
2 4
3 1 1
[𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥 + 𝐶]
8 4 32
m and n are integers
Case 1: m Is an Odd Positive Integer

First, isolate one factor of sec x tan x. (You’ll need this for
du.)
Then, replace any factors of tan2 x with sec2 x − 1 and

make the substitution u = sec x.
WORKED EXAMPLES
1 1
[𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝑥 + 𝐶]
5
5 3
Case 2: n Is an Even Positive Integer

First, isolate one factor of sec2 x. (You’ll need this for du.)
Then, replace any remaining factors of sec2 x with

1 + tan2 x and make the substitution u = tan x.
WORKED EXAMPLES
1 1
[𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛5 𝑥 + 𝐶]
3
3 5
Case 3: m Is an Even Positive Integer and n Is an Odd

Positive Integer
Replace any factors of tan2 x with sec2 x − 1 and then use
the reduction formula to evaluate integrals of the form.
This complicated case will be covered briefly in the

exercises.
WORKED EXAMPLES
[𝐴𝑛𝑠: ln |𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥| + 𝐶]

If an integral contains a term of the form
for some a > 0, you can often evaluate the integral by

making a substitution involving a trigonometric function -
trigonometric substitution.
First, suppose that an integrand contains a term of the

form , for some a > 0.
Letting x = a sin θ, where −π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π/2, we can eliminate
the square root, as follows:
since for −π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π/2, cos θ ≥ 0.

Terms of the form can also be simplified using
the substitution x = a cos θ, using a different restriction for
θ.
WORKED EXAMPLES
1 4 − 𝑥2
[𝐴𝑛𝑠: − + 𝐶]
4 𝑥
Next, suppose that an integrand contains a term of the

Taking x = a tan θ, where −π/2 < θ < π/2, we eliminate the

square root, as follows:
since for −π/2 < θ < π/2, sec θ > 0.

WORKED EXAMPLES
𝑥 2 𝑥
[𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑙𝑛 1+ + + 𝐶]
3 3
Finally, suppose that an integrand contains a term of the

Taking x = a sec θ, where , we eliminate

the square root, as follows:
WORKED EXAMPLES
𝑥
[𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑥 2 − 25 − 5𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐 + 𝐶]
5
Summary
Partial Fraction Decomposition

Note that
Then,
The second integrand is called a partial fractions

decomposition of the first integrand.
More generally, if the three factors a1x + b1, a2x + b2 and

a3x + b3 are all distinct (i.e., none is a constant multiple of
another), then we can write
for some choice of constants A and B to be determined.

Notice that if you wanted to integrate this expression, the
partial fractions on the right-hand side are very easy to
integrate.
WORKED EXAMPLES
1 1
[𝐴𝑛𝑠: ln 𝑥 − 1 − ln 𝑥 + 2 + 𝐶]
3 3
Whenever a rational expression has a denominator that

factors into n distinct linear factors, and if the degree of
P(x) < n and the factors (ai x + bi ), for i = 1, 2, . . . , n are all
distinct, then we can write
for some constants c1, c2, . . . , cn.

WORKED EXAMPLES
[𝐴𝑛𝑠: 2 ln 𝑥 − 3 ln 𝑥 − 1 + 4ln |𝑥 + 1| + 𝐶]
If the numerator of a rational expression has the same or

higher degree than the denominator, you must first
perform a long division and follow this with a partial
fractions decomposition of the remaining (proper)
fraction.
WORKED EXAMPLES
3 1
[𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑥 2 + ln 𝑥 − 4 − ln 𝑥 + 2 + 𝐶]
2 2
If the denominator of a rational expression contains

repeated linear factors, the decomposition looks like the
following.
If the degree of P(x) is less than n, then we can
write
WORKED EXAMPLES
9
[𝐴𝑛𝑠: 6 ln 𝑥 − ln 𝑥 + 1 − + 𝐶]
𝑥+1
If the degree of P(x) is less than 2n (the degree of the

denominator) and all of the factors in the denominator
are distinct, then we can write
WORKED EXAMPLES
Use a partial fractions decomposition to find an
antiderivative of:
[𝐴𝑛𝑠: 2 ln 𝑥 − 5𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝐶]
3 2
7 𝑥+1
[𝐴𝑛𝑠: 2 ln 𝑥 + 2 + ln 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 5 − 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛 + 𝐶]
2 2 2
Note that partial fractions decompositions involving

irreducible quadratic terms often lead to expressions that
require further manipulations (such as completing the
square) before we can find an antiderivative.
Improper Integrals
Try to see what is wrong with the following erroneous
calculation.
Recall from Topic 6, that we define the definite integral by
where ci is taken to be any point in the subinterval

[xi−1, xi ], for i = 1, 2, . . . , n and where the limit must be the
same for any choice of these ci ’s.
So, if f (x) → ∞ [or f(x) → −∞] at some point in [a, b], then
the limit defining is meaningless. We call such
an integral an improper integral.
Consider
This is not a proper definite

integral, as the integrand is
undefined at x = 1.
But, assuming the area is
finite, notice that for 0 < R <
1, we can approximate it by
The table suggests that, as R

gets closer to 1 from the left,
the integral approaches 2.
Since we know how to compute
for any 0 < R < 1, we can compute the limiting value

exactly.
We generalize this technique in the following definition.

If f is continuous on the interval [a, b) and | f (x)| → ∞ as

x → b−, we define the improper integral of f on [a, b] by
Similarly, if f is continuous on (a, b] and | f (x)| → ∞ as

x → a+, we define the improper integral
In either case, if the limit exists (and equals some value

L), we say that the improper integral converges (to L).
If the limit does not exist, we say that the improper

integral diverges.
WORKED EXAMPLES
[𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠]
[𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠]
From the values shown in the table, it appears

that the integral is approaching 2 as R → 0+.
Suppose that f is continuous on the interval [a, b], except

at some c ∈ (a, b), and | f (x)| → ∞ as x → c. Again, the
integral is improper and we write
If both and converge (to L1 and L2,

respectively), we say that the improper integral
converges, also (to L1 + L2). If either of the
improper integrals or diverges, then
we say that the improper integral diverges,
also.
WORKED EXAMPLES
Another type of improper integral that is frequently

encountered in applications is one where one or both of
the limits of integration is infinite.
If f is continuous on the interval [a,∞), we define the
improper integral to be
Similarly, if f is continuous on (−∞, a], we define

In either case, if the limit exists (and equals some value

L), we say that the improper integral converges (to L).
If the limit does not exist, we say that the improper

integral diverges.
WORKED EXAMPLES
This example is a special case of
corresponding to p = 1/2.
This integral converges when p > 1 and diverges for p ≤ 1.

WORKED EXAMPLES
If f is continuous on (−∞,∞), we write
for any constant a, where converges if and

only if both and converge.
If either one diverges, the original improper integral also

diverges.
WORKED EXAMPLES
Do not write
It’s certainly tempting to write this, especially since this

will often give a correct answer, with about half of the
work.
Unfortunately, this will often give incorrect answers, too,
as the limit on the right-hand side frequently exists for
divergent integrals.
WORKED EXAMPLES
Given two functions f and g that are continuous on the

interval [a,∞), suppose that
0 ≤ f (x) ≤ g(x), for all x ≥ a.
If (the larger area)
converges, then this says that
there is a finite area under the
curve y = g(x) on the interval
[a,∞) .
Since y = f (x) lies below y = g(x), there can be only a

finite area under the curve
y = f (x), as well. Thus,
converges also.
On the other hand, if (the smaller area)

diverges, so must .
This comparison of improper

integrals based on the relative
size of their integrands is
called a comparison test.
Comparison Test Theorem

Suppose that f and g are continuous on [a,∞) and
0 ≤ f (x) ≤ g(x), for all x ∈ [a,∞).
The idea of the Comparison Test is to compare a given

improper integral to another improper integral whose
convergence or divergence is already known (or can be
more easily determined).
WORKED EXAMPLES
We do not know an antiderivative

for
and so, there is no way to compute \

the improper integral directly.
However, notice that for x ≥ 0,

It’s an easy to show that
converges (to 1).

From Comparison Test Theorem, it follows that
converges too.
Using Reiman sums, the integral

seems to approach 0.8063956.
WORKED EXAMPLES
We do not know an antiderivative for the integrand .

However, observe that for
∞ −𝑥 2 1 −𝑥 2 ∞ −𝑥 2
‫׬‬0 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬0 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 + ‫׬‬1 𝑒 𝑑𝑥
WORKED EXAMPLES
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7 - Integration Techniques

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7 - Integration Techniques

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Engineering Mathematics I

B.Eng(Hons) in Aerospace Engineering

Basic Integration Formulas

Basic Integration Formulas

We have expanded this list slightly by using the method of

The issue in integration is to recognize what pieces are

Every differentiation rule gives rise to a corresponding

So, for the product rule:

This rule is called integration by parts.

To apply integration by parts, you need to make a

[𝐴𝑛𝑠: −𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝐶]

[𝐴𝑛𝑠: −𝑥 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝐶]

will require integration by parts.

Formulas of this type are called reduction formulas (n has

[𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑥 4 𝑒 𝑥 − 4𝑥 3 𝑒 𝑥 + 12𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − 24𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 24𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶]

Integrals Involving Powers of Trigonometric Functions

where m and n are positive integers.

Consider integrals of the form

where m and n are positive integers.

Case 1: m or n Is an Odd Positive Integer

Case 2: m and n Are Both Even Positive Integers

m and n are integers

Case 1: m Is an Odd Positive Integer

Then, replace any factors of tan2 x with sec2 x − 1 and

m and n are integers

Case 2: n Is an Even Positive Integer

Then, replace any remaining factors of sec2 x with

m and n are integers

Case 3: m Is an Even Positive Integer and n Is an Odd

This complicated case will be covered briefly in the

[𝐴𝑛𝑠: ln |𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥| + 𝐶]

If an integral contains a term of the form

for some a > 0, you can often evaluate the integral by

First, suppose that an integrand contains a term of the

since for −π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π/2, cos θ ≥ 0.

Next, suppose that an integrand contains a term of the

Taking x = a tan θ, where −π/2 < θ < π/2, we eliminate the

since for −π/2 < θ < π/2, sec θ > 0.

Finally, suppose that an integrand contains a term of the

Taking x = a sec θ, where , we eliminate

Partial Fraction Decomposition

The second integrand is called a partial fractions

More generally, if the three factors a1x + b1, a2x + b2 and

for some choice of constants A and B to be determined.

Whenever a rational expression has a denominator that

for some constants c1, c2, . . . , cn.

If the numerator of a rational expression has the same or

If the denominator of a rational expression contains

If the degree of P(x) is less than 2n (the degree of the

Note that partial fractions decompositions involving

Recall from Topic 6, that we define the definite integral by

where ci is taken to be any point in the subinterval

This is not a proper definite

The table suggests that, as R

Since we know how to compute

for any 0 < R < 1, we can compute the limiting value

We generalize this technique in the following definition.

If f is continuous on the interval [a, b) and | f (x)| → ∞ as

Similarly, if f is continuous on (a, b] and | f (x)| → ∞ as

In either case, if the limit exists (and equals some value

If the limit does not exist, we say that the improper

From the values shown in the table, it appears

Suppose that f is continuous on the interval [a, b], except

If both and converge (to L1 and L2,