Writing Lecture Notes

Lecture Note Number 1

Results and Discussions

 Developing an outline is an important step in preparing the presentation of the analysis of

findings.
 Major ideas become clear as you search for a logical structure and layout of the data.
 An outline also provides a guide for headings to use throughout the chapter.
 Chapter Four begins with an introductory section (without a heading), which restates the
purpose of the study and identifies what is to come in the chapter.
 Chapter Four of a research study is written in the past tense since data have been gathered
and analysed.
 Note that after the proposal section (Chapters One, Two and Three) has been approved
and the research carried out, the first three chapters are re-written in past tense.

The following is an example of how the introduction of Chapter Four might be written:
“The purpose of this study was to determine if there was a statistically significant difference
in measures of self-esteem between elementary school students to whom specific values
were formally taught as part of the curriculum, and those who did not receive such
instruction. A review of the theories of self-esteem identified self-esteem to be a dynamic
inter-relationship of feelings of competence and worthiness. The chapter begins with a
summary of the purpose of the study and a description of the methodology. It then examines
the results of data collection and provides analysis in light of the two research questions
and the five hypotheses. The story is told about how the sample population was chosen how
data for the variables was reported, and continues by presenting results and analysis of
multiple regression models”.

Headings Common To Both Qualitative And Quantitative Studies

 The first heading in Chapter Four for both qualitative and quantitative studies should be
Background and Setting.

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 Each chapter of a research study contributes to the whole, but at the same time each
chapter should stand on its own. Therefore, a brief description of the background and
setting of the study should also be included in Chapter Four.

The following is an example of how the background and setting of a study might be
reported:
“The participants in this qualitative study were teachers in a school district that has two
supervision programs: a non-evaluative developmental supervision model and an evaluative
performance appraisal model. Once every five years, the principal and teacher meet to
agree on completing one of the two programs. Developmental supervision is generally
chosen if the teacher does not require, or has not requested, a performance appraisal. The
developmental supervision program is intended to facilitate ongoing teacher development.
Teachers or principals may initiate this supervisory process. They meet early in the fall for
an orientation at which time a plan is jointly developed to personalize the process. Teachers
identify an area where growth is required, and together, the teacher and principal
determine goals. Options for data collection include the portfolio project. With this option,
teachers proceed to collect data, and monthly conferences are planned for reflection and
interaction. This supervisory program recognizes teachers’ professionalism, nurtures
critical and creative thinking, and encourages professional reading. The completed project
is submitted to the superintendent. The participants in this study chose the portfolio project
for their developmental supervision. They heard about this option at a fall staff meeting and
those interested in the portfolio option attended a small group information session.
Participants asked clarifying questions and listened to testimonials from teachers at their
school who spoke about their experience, shared their completed portfolio projects, and
offered to provide support”.

Sample Quantitative Headings

Background and Setting
Variables and Measures of Variables
Statistical Procedures
Discussion of Results
Summary

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Chapter Summary
 The summary for Chapter Four should provide a brief review of your results and analysis
using the headings as a guide to say what you have said.
 The introductory part of each chapter tells what you are going to say; the body of the
chapter says what you want to say; and the summary of the chapter says briefly what you
have said.
Language for Expressing Figures and Charts
Climb
Decline
Decrease
Double Decreased steadily
Drop Exactly the same
Escalate Fell slightly
Dramatically
Fall Half as much
Exactly
Fluctuate Increased
Gradually
Go down gradually
Little
Go up More than trebled
Peak
Half Much more
Quickly
Increase Reached a peak
Rapidly
Maintain Remained stable
Sharply
More Rose dramatically
Slightly
One tenth Sharp fall
Slowly
Quarter Slightly more
Stable
Reach Stayed the same
Steadily
Remain Twice as many
Rise Varied
Stay the same Very little
Treble
Twice
Vary

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Single Line Graphs
How to start
"The graph describes/shows/reveals … (what, who, when, where). It can be clearly seen
that … (describe main trends here).

Sample:
The graph shows percentages of unemployed
women at 8 ages. It can be clearly seen that the
ages 18 and 45 have the highest unemployment
rate. According to the graph, among the ages 18,
20, 25, 30 and 35, the youngest women have the
highest unemployment percentage (15%). 20 year-
old women have much lower unemployment
figures (about 10%), and percentages drop even
lower (to 5 percent) for those aged 25 and 35.
There is a slight increase for those aged 30, where the unemployment rate reaches 6 percent.
The peak value is recorded amongst 45 year-old women, and all the remaining ages have
much lower figures: 8% at age 55 and 9% at age 65.
To sum up, the figures for most ages are relatively uniform and change from 5 to 9 %, with
rare exceptions such as the ages 18 and 45.

Double Line Graph

How to start
"The graph compares … (what, who, when, where). It can be clearly seen that … (describe
main trends of 2 graphs here).

How to compare trends

In the body of the report start your first paragraph by describing the first graph.
In the next paragraph, if the 2 graphs are similar, write "Similarly," and describe the other
graph. If the 2 graphs are different, write "In contrast," and describe the other graph.

Sample:
The graph compares amounts of money spent
online on clothes in the USA and Japan starting
from 1999 and until 2003. It is clear that although
at first Japanese buyers were spending much
more money than Americans did; as the years
went by the spending habits of the 2 countries
became almost identical. In 1999 Japan was
spending on clothes almost twice as much as the
USA (10 versus 5 million dollars). In the following year the expenditure on clothes in both
Japan and USA grew even further to 12 and 10 million dollars respectively. The only year
when expenses plunged in both countries was 2001, when the USA spent only 8 and Japan
reached its lowest point at 7 million. The two following years, 2002 and 2003 showed a
rapid increase in sales of clothes in both countries. In 2002 the USA spent about 19 million
dollars and Japan's numbers were very close (18 million). Online clothes sales became even
more popular in 2003, pushing the figures higher to its peak of 20 million dollars in both
Japan and the USA.

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