Metal Forming

Forging and Rolling

ME 206: Manufacturing Processes I

Prof. Rakesh G Mote
Office: S-38, 2nd Floor, ME Department, IIT Bombay
Lab.: Machine Tools Lab / Metrology Lab
rakesh.mote@iitb.ac.in
 Metal Forming

ME 206 Dr Rakesh G Mote rakesh.mote@iitb.ac.in 2

 Forging
• Forging is a basic process in which the workpiece is shaped by
compressive forces applied through various dies and tooling.
• Forging is traditionally a hotworking process, but many types of
forging are performed cold.

ME 206 Dr Rakesh G Mote rakesh.mote@iitb.ac.in 3

 Forging

Open die forging

Upsetting or upset forging

Closed die forging

Impression-die terminology

Impression die forging

ME 206 Dr Rakesh G Mote rakesh.mote@iitb.ac.in 4
Forging Characteristics

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 Forging Grain Flow
• The advantages of forging, compared to machining the part
completely, are higher production rates, conservation of metal,
greater strength, and favorable grain orientation of the metal that
results from forging.

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 Connecting Rod

Fullering

Edging

Flash required to ensure proper

filling of the die cavities

To distribute the material when

preshaping the blank for forging
ME 206 Dr Rakesh G Mote rakesh.mote@iitb.ac.in 7
 Forging Analysis
• Cold and hot upsetting
– Ideal work of deformation
– For cold upsetting: strain hardening effect dominates
– For hot upsetting: strain rate effect dominates
– Friction is accounted using multiplying factor ‘Q’

a is the stress required for deformation including friction

a = Q × t

The deforming force = Q × t × Am

Where,
t is uniaxial flow stress in the absence of friction
Am is the mean cross-sectional area of the deformed workpiece.

ME 206 Dr Rakesh G Mote rakesh.mote@iitb.ac.in 8

 Forging Analysis

Multiplying factors for forging as Multiplying factor for plane

a function of friction coefficient strain compression
and geometry

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 Example
A steel cylinder of height 12 cm & radius 3.5 cm is compressed to 2 cm.
A lubricating oil ensures  = 0.1.
Calculate the force necessary and stress on the platens.
𝜎𝑡 = 1300𝜖 0.3 MPa

The deforming force = Q × t × Am

d = 17.2 cm (volume constancy)
d/h = 8.57 and  = 0.1 Stress for deformation = Q × t = 2015 MPa
From the charts => Q = 1.3 The deforming force = 46500 kN

Hot upset at 1000C to height of 2 cm by a platen moving at 2 cm/s.

Graphite is used as the lubricant ( = 0.2) between platen and workpiece.

𝜎𝑡 = 170𝜖ሶ 0.1
d/h = 8.57 and  = 0.2
The deforming force = 7500 kN
From the charts => Q = 1.9

ME 206 Dr Rakesh G Mote rakesh.mote@iitb.ac.in 10

 Forging: Slab analysis
𝑝
𝜏

𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑥 + 𝑑𝜎𝑥

𝑑𝑥
𝜏
• Plane strain deformation, unit width 𝑝
along normal to plane and remains
constant ℎ𝑑𝜎𝑥 + 2𝜏𝑑𝑥 = 0
• Thickness is small compared to other
dimensions i.e. stress variation along Consider x and (–p) as
principal stresses and 𝜎𝑥 + 𝑝 = 2𝑘
the thickness is negligible
• Coefficient of friction is constant applying Mises criterion
• The entire workpiece is in plastic state 2𝜏
𝑑𝑝 = 𝑑𝑥
ℎ
ME 206 Dr Rakesh G Mote rakesh.mote@iitb.ac.in 12
 Forging: Slab analysis
Sliding region
From x = 0 to x = xs slab slides to allow
expansion, thus  = p
Sticking region
However, from x = xs to x = l, the pressure
increases such that frictional stress is
equal to shear yield strength  = k
2𝜏
For sliding region 𝐢. 𝐞. 𝟎 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝒙𝒔 Using  = p in 𝑑𝑝 = 𝑑𝑥
ℎ
𝑑𝑝 2𝜇 2𝜇
න = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ ln 𝑝 = 𝑥 + 𝐶1
𝑝 ℎ ℎ
At 𝑥 = 0, 𝜎𝑥 = 0 i.e. 𝑝 = 2𝑘 ⇒ 𝐶1 = ln 2𝑘
2𝜇𝑥
𝑝 = 2𝑘 exp 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥𝑠
ℎ
ℎ 1
Also, at 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑠 , 𝜏 = 𝜇𝑝𝑠 = 𝑘 ⇒ 𝑥𝑠 = ln
2𝜇 2𝜇
ME 206 Dr Rakesh G Mote rakesh.mote@iitb.ac.in 13
 Forging: Slab analysis
For sticking region 𝐢. 𝐞. 𝒙𝒔 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝒍
Using  = k in
2𝑘 2𝑘𝑥
2𝜏 න 𝑑𝑝 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 ⇒𝑝= + 𝐶2
𝑑𝑝 = 𝑑𝑥 ℎ ℎ
ℎ
𝑘 𝐾 2𝑘 ℎ 1
At 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑠 , 𝑝 = 𝑝𝑠 = ⇒ 𝐶2 = − ln
𝜇 𝜇 ℎ 2𝜇 2𝜇

𝑘 1
⇒ 𝐶2 = 1 − ln
𝜇 2𝜇

2𝑘𝑥 𝑘 1
𝑝= + 1 − ln 𝑥𝑠 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑙
ℎ 𝜇 2𝜇

𝑙 𝑥𝑠 𝑙
Total forging force 𝐹 = 𝑤 × 2 න 𝑝𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑤 න 𝑝1 𝑑𝑥 + න 𝑝2 𝑑𝑥
0 0 𝑥𝑠

ME 206 Dr Rakesh G Mote rakesh.mote@iitb.ac.in 14

 Friction Hill

If no sticking region If no sliding region

2l/h = 4
2l/h = 4

ME 206 Dr Rakesh G Mote rakesh.mote@iitb.ac.in 15

 Example
A strip of dimension 24x24x150 mm is forged to a final size of
6x96x150 mm
The coefficient of friction between the strip and the die is 0.25
What is average pressure and total forging force for 6mm thickness?
Average yield stress of the material in tension is 7 N/mm2
1 𝑙
Average pressure, pav = Total force / area = F / (2lw) = ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑥
𝑙 0

𝑝𝑎𝑣 ℎ 2𝜇𝑙 𝜇𝑙
= exp −1 ≈1+
2𝑘 2𝜇𝑙 ℎ ℎ

ME 206 Dr Rakesh G Mote rakesh.mote@iitb.ac.in 16

 Upset Forging or Heading
• Upsetting (also called upset forging) is a deformation operation in
which a cylindrical work part is increased in diameter and reduced
in length.

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 Heading

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 Forging Defects

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 Forging Defects

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 Economics of Forging
• The ratio of the cost of the die material to the total cost of forging
the part increases with the weight of forgings: The more expensive
the material, the higher the cost of the material relative to the total
cost.
For large quantities, forging is more economical

ME 206 Dr Rakesh G Mote rakesh.mote@iitb.ac.in 21

Flat and Shape Rolling

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Aluminium hot line for rolling direct cast ingots

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 Rolling Arrangements

Two-high Three-high Four-high

24
Rolling Arrangements

25
 Rolling Arrangements
• In a Sendzimir mill each work roll is
supported along its entire length by two
back-up rolls, which in turn are supported
by successive layers of larger intermediate
rolls.
• The advantage of this arrangement is that
the mill is very stiff and resists deflection,
allowing very flat, thin sheet to be
produced with minimum power
Sendzimir mill

A planetary mill

The overall reduction is the

summation of a series of small
reductions by each pair of rolls in
turn following each other in rapid
succession

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 Rolling Terminology

ℎ0 ℎ𝑓

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 Rolling Analysis

Lp

• The exit strip velocity, is greater than the entry velocity.

• The roll-strip projected contact length (Lp) is approximately 𝑅(ℎ0 − ℎ𝑓 )

for large roll radius (R >> t)

• The rolls rotate at a constant speed, it follows that there is only one point
along the angle of contact, where the roll and workpiece both move at the
same speed. This point is referred to as the neutral point.
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 Rolling Analysis

Lp

• On the entry side of the neutral point, the roll face speed is greater than the
speed of the strip and, similarly, on the exit side of the neutral point, the roll
face speed is slower than the strip speed.
• At all points, other than the neutral point, this difference in speed causes
frictional forces that act in the direction of the neutral point.
𝑉𝑟 − 𝑉0 𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑟
𝐵𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑑 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 =
𝑉𝑟 𝑉𝑟
ME 206 Dr Rakesh G Mote rakesh.mote@iitb.ac.in 29
 Rolling Analysis

Lp

For an unaided entry of the strip into the rolls 𝜇 ≥ tan𝛼

The maximum possible draft (∆ℎ)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (ℎ0 − ℎ𝑓 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇2 𝑅
In practice, the arc of contact is very small compared to the roll radius, thus
it can be assumed that the roll force, Fr, is perpendicular to the strip.
Fr = Lpwtm tm :Mean true stress
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 Rolling Analysis

Assuming Fr acts in the middle of the arc of contact;

Torque = Fr (L/2)

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 Example
• Locate a neutral point for a rolling operation wherein 75 mm
diameter rolls are used to reduce the thickness of 5 mm sheet to 3
mm. After reduction, the sheet exits at velocity of 2 m/s when rolls
have surface velocity of 1.5 m/s.

Velocity at the entrance = 1.2 m/s

At neutral point velocity of strip is velocity of the roll
h at NP = 4 mm
Thus using geometry
Theta = 6.62 deg and x = 8.64 mm from exit

ME 206 Dr Rakesh G Mote rakesh.mote@iitb.ac.in 32

 Example
A 300-mm-wide strip 25-mm thick is fed through a rolling mill with two
powered rolls each of radius 250 mm. The work thickness is to be reduced to
22 mm in one pass at a roll speed of 50 rev/min.
The work material has a flow curve defined by K = 275 MPa and n = 0.15, and
the coefficient of friction between the rolls and the work is assumed to be
0.12.
Determine if the friction is sufficient to permit the rolling operation to be
accomplished. If so, calculate the roll force, torque, and horsepower.
h0 = 25 mm, hf = 22 mm
Max draft = (0.15)2 x 250 = 3.6 mm > h0 – hf = 3 mm => Rolling is feasible!

L = (250 x (25 – 22))0.5 = 27.4 mm

True strain  = In(h0/hf) = 0.128
𝐾𝜖𝑛
Mean true stress during rolling = 𝜎𝑡𝑚 = = 175.7 Mpa
𝑛+1

The roll force Fr = Lwtm= 1444.8 kN

Torque = FrL/2 = 19.8 kNm
Power = 207 kW = 278 hp
ME 206 Dr Rakesh G Mote rakesh.mote@iitb.ac.in 33
 Rolling – Slab Analysis
• The arc of the contact is circular –
no elastic deformation of the roll.
• he coefficient of friction is
constant at all points on the arc of
contact
• Plain strain deformation: No
lateral spread
• Homogeneous deformation: Plane
vertical section remain plane
• he peripheral velocity of the rolls
is constant
• The elastic deformation of the
sheet is negligible in comparison
with the plastic deformation.

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 Rolling – Slab Analysis
Friction force:
𝜃 Entry zone
Exit zone

𝑑𝜃 𝜽

ℎ = ℎ𝑓 + 2𝑅 1 − cos 𝜃
Force balance along horizontal direction
𝜎𝑥 + 𝑑𝜎𝑥 ℎ + 𝑑ℎ ∓ 2𝜇𝑝 cos 𝜃 𝑅𝑑𝜃 = 𝜎𝑥 ℎ − 2𝑝 sin 𝜃 𝑅𝑑𝜃
𝑑 Note: First sign is for the entry zone
ℎ𝜎𝑥 = 2𝑝𝑅 ± 𝜇cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 and the second sign for the exit zone
𝑑𝜃
ME 206 Dr Rakesh G Mote rakesh.mote@iitb.ac.in 36
 Rolling – Slab Analysis
Under conditions of low friction and for small angles of contact (< 6)
𝑑
ℎ𝜎𝑥 = 2𝑝𝑅 ±𝜇 − 𝜃
𝜃 𝑑𝜃
Consider (x ) and (–p) as
principal stresses and 𝑝 + 𝜎𝑥 = 2𝑘
applying Mises criterion

𝑝 ℎ
By integrating, = 𝐶 exp ∓𝜇𝜆
2𝑘 𝑅
𝑅 𝑅
where, 𝜆 = 2 tan−1 𝜃
ℎ𝑓 ℎ𝑓

𝑅
At entry: 𝜃 = 𝛼, hence 𝜆 = 𝜆0 => 𝐶 = exp 𝜇𝜆0
ℎ0
𝑅
At exit: 𝜃 = 0, hence 𝜆 = 0 => 𝐶 =
ℎ𝑓
ME 206 Dr Rakesh G Mote rakesh.mote@iitb.ac.in 37
 Rolling – Slab Analysis
𝑝1 ℎ0
Roll entrance to neutral point: = exp 𝜇(𝜆0 − 𝜆)
2𝑘 ℎ𝑓
𝑝2 ℎ0
Neutral point to roll exit: = exp 𝜇𝜆
2𝑘 ℎ𝑓
𝑅 𝑅
where, 𝜆 = 2 tan−1 𝜃
ℎ𝑓 ℎ𝑓

ME 206 Dr Rakesh G Mote rakesh.mote@iitb.ac.in 38

 Rolling – Front and Back Tension
Consider xt (tension)
and (–p) as principal
stresses and Mises
criterion at boundaries
𝜎𝑥𝑡 + 𝑝 = 2𝑘
At entry: 𝜃 = 𝛼, 𝜎𝑥𝑡 = 𝜎𝑏 ; and at exit: 𝜃 = 0, 𝜎𝑥𝑡 = 𝜎𝑏
𝑝 ℎ
Using the pressure equation: = 𝐶 exp ∓𝜇𝜆
2𝑘 𝑅
Roll entrance to neutral point:
𝑝 ℎ0 𝜎𝑏
= 1− exp 𝜇(𝜆0 − 𝜆)
2𝑘 ℎ𝑓 2𝑘
Neutral point to roll exit:
𝑝 ℎ0 𝜎𝑓
= 1− exp 𝜇𝜆
2𝑘 ℎ𝑓 2𝑘
ME 206 Dr Rakesh G Mote rakesh.mote@iitb.ac.in 39
 Rolling – Average Pressures
• The friction effects are similar to those in plane-strain compression.
• For small contact area i.e. neglecting the curvature of roll contact
area:
ℎ𝑜 +ℎ𝑓
Using, ℎ =
2

𝑝𝑎𝑣 ℎ 𝜇𝐿
= exp −1
2𝑘 𝜇𝐿 ℎ

2 ℎ 𝜇𝐿
or 𝑝𝑎𝑣 = exp − 1 𝜎𝑌
3 𝜇𝐿 ℎ

If front tension (𝜎𝑓 ) or back tension (𝜎𝑏 ) is applied

ℎ2 𝜇𝐿
𝑝𝑎𝑣 = exp − 1 [𝜎𝑌 − 𝜎𝑏 + 𝜎𝑓 /2]
3 𝜇𝐿 ℎ
ME 206 Dr Rakesh G Mote rakesh.mote@iitb.ac.in 40
 Rolling – Roll Separating force
Vertical components of the pressure contributes to the rolling force or
roll separating forces as for small angles contribution of vertical
component of friction forces is neglected.

𝛼
𝐹 = න 𝑝𝑤𝑅 cos 𝜃𝑑𝜃
0

𝛼
𝐹 ≈ 𝑤𝑅 න 𝑝𝑑𝜃
0

𝜃𝑛 𝛼
𝐹 = 𝑤𝑅 න 𝑝2 𝑑𝜃 + න 𝑝1 𝑑𝜃
0 𝜃𝑛
To be solved numerically

ME 206 Dr Rakesh G Mote rakesh.mote@iitb.ac.in 41

 Rolling – Grain Structure
• Cold rolling is usually defined as processing at less than 0.3 of the
absolute melting temperature (or well below recrystallization
temperature)
• Good surface finish and dimensional control are achieved by cold
rolling
• Consequently, the final rolling pass for most quality critical
applications is cold.
• Since recrystallization does not occur during cold rolling, a strain
hardened microstructure consisting of plastically deformed grains
elongated in the rolling direction is produced.
• Even during cold rolling the friction inherent in the process can
cause substantial heating of the sheet, especially in tandem mill
arrangements. This heating may cause some dynamic recovery

ME 206 Dr Rakesh G Mote rakesh.mote@iitb.ac.in 42

 Rolling – Grain Structure

• Thick gauges, greater than about 6 mm, are generally hot rolled, which is
defined as rolling at a temperature greater than the recrystallization
temperature (0.5Tm to 0.75Tm )
• A recrystallized micro structure results from hot rolling is due to dynamic
recrystallization (recrystallization that occurs during the simultaneous
application of elevated temperature and deformation).

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 Rolling Defects
• Camber or Crown is used to correct the roll deflection

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 Rolling Defects
Thicker centre than the edges Thicker edges than the centre

Insufficient camber Over-camber

center
cracking edge cracking
warping centerline splitting

edge wrinkling wavy center

Wavy edges: Due to roll bending, the strip becomes thinner along its edges than
at its center.
The cracks : Due low material ductility at the rolling temperature. Because the
quality of the edges of the sheet is important in subsequent forming operations,
edge defects in rolled sheets may have to be removed by shearing and slitting
operations
Alligatoring: Caused by nonuniform bulk deformation of the billet during rolling or
by the presence of defects in the original cast material.
ME 206 Dr Rakesh G Mote rakesh.mote@iitb.ac.in 45
 Rolling Defects

Concave edges: light reduction on a thick slab

Barrelled edges: With heavy reduction, the centre tends to expand more laterally
than the surface
Alligatoring: Caused by nonuniform bulk deformation of the billet during rolling or
by the presence of defects in the original cast material.
ME 206 Dr Rakesh G Mote rakesh.mote@iitb.ac.in 46
 Thread Rolling
• Thread rolling is a cold-forming process by which straight or tapered
threads are formed on round rods or wire

Unlike machining, which cuts through the

grains of the metal, the rolling of threads
causes improved strength, because of cold
working and favorable grain flow

ME 206 Dr Rakesh G Mote rakesh.mote@iitb.ac.in 47

 Ring Rolling
• A ring-shaped blank is placed between
two rolls, one of which is driven while
the other idles. The thickness of the ring
is reduced by bringing the rolls closer
together as they rotate
• Ring rolling are body casings for rockets
and jet-engine, ball- and roller-bearing
races, flanges, and reinforcing rings for
pipes

ME 206 Dr Rakesh G Mote rakesh.mote@iitb.ac.in 48

 Summary
• Forging
– Open vs Closed die
– Plain strain deformation
– Slab method
• Sliding and sticking regions, Average pressures
– Friction hill
– Forging defects
• Cold shut, fold, cracks
• Rolling
– Rolling configurations
– Flat rolling analysis
• Draft, reduction, neutral point
– Slab method
– Rolling defects
• Alligatioring, edge/center cracks

ME 206 Dr Rakesh G Mote rakesh.mote@iitb.ac.in 49